GOVERNMENT OF THE SOVIET UNION

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78-03362A000800140003-3
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 59
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: November 17, 1998
• Sequence Number: 3
• Content Type: SPEECH

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GOVERNMENT OF THE SOVIET UNION
In addition to the NIS, I recommend the following books. One of these
is the Government of 1112 Soviet Union, by Harper and Thompson, and the other
is Soviet 1221111a2? The Dilemma of Power, by Barrington Moore. Now there is
one other work which is well worth attention, and is perhaps the classic on
the subject of the Soviet Goverment today, and that is Political Power in
the DSSR, 1917-1947. The book is by Julian Towster. It's a very good work.
I think the best starter, in addition to the NIS, is undoubtedly Thompson's
a little less complex than Towster.
There are one or two fundamental points that I think night be emphasized
in the way of background to a discussion of the Soviet government, that
might be discussed at the outset. Some of them we mentioned the other day.
One of them certainly in a consideration of the origins of the Soviet
government, would be the ruthlessness of the Tartars - the ruthlessness of
the peoples that swept down upon the Russian plain in the 13th century, the
13th-14th centuries. An extremely barbaric and nomadic people, and there is
no doubt but what their ways of life, their ways of doing things, their
political and sociological processes, certainly had their effect upon later
governments - the Czarist, and in due time, the Bolshevik. Another is the
absolute autocracy of the Czars, a thought that we mentioned the other day.
There are rather marked similarities in many respects between the political
processes and approaches of the Bolshevik regime today and the techniques
employed by the Czars. There are very narked differences, of course, but
there are also similarities. The major similarity, of course, is the measure
of autocracy and absolutism, which, if anything, is of a higher order in the
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case of the Bolsheviks than it was under the Czars.
Another important influence, I think, rather related to the last, is
the pre?revolutionary experiences of the later leaders of the Bolshevik
Revolution of October 1917. Men such as Molotov, Vishinsky, Stalin, Lenin,
and so forth, were men who were used to being hunted. They were men who
were used to being regarded as being criminals, and they were used to exile,
to imprisonment, and so forth. And certainly these experiences, and the
experiences they had in this respect, with the Czarist secret polices with
the Okrana, certainly must have had effect on their later thinking and on
their interpretation of the correct political approach once they had secured
power for themselves. It is quite obvious in the devices they resorted to
then and in the devices that they have resorted to ever since that they
learned much from the Czarist autocracy and from the Okrana.
Another set of influences are what might be termed Marxist?revolutionary
influences. You will recall that Marx laid down the theoretical basis for
revolution. He analyzed the capitalist system, or he claimed to have done
so, and he drew certain conclusions, the most significant of which was that
it was doomed to failure, to progressive deterioration. He did not, however,
prescribe a governmental form. Someone had to do that, Someone had to decide
what the form of the revolutionary state was going to be. Now Marx spoke ?
yes, of a dictatorship of the proletariat and of a withering away of the state,
and so forth ? but he never did prescribe a governmental form. The man to
whom this job fell was the prime leader of the October Revolution, Lenin.
Actually, in due time, Lenin based the new governmental form on the Soviets,
councils that had commenced to arise in the Revolution of 1905. In the first
stages of his thinking on this subject as to future governmental form, Lenin
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substantial, that it was not adequate. But as time went on, as he saw the
strength of the new soviets, particularly, of course, the Petrograd and, later,
Moscow Soviets, he fell upon this system as a basis for the new government,
at least for the ostensible government.
Two comments with respect to the Marxist reference to the dictatorship of
the proletariat and to the withering away of the state. Certainly a dictator?
ship was established after the October Revolution and continues to be es?
tablished. There is no reason, whatsoever, for feeling that it is a dictator?
ship of the proletariat. At best it is the dictatorship of a party. Much
more realistically, it is the dictatorship of an oligarchy dominated by a
single man, and at worst, is a personAl, individual dictatorship, namely by
Stalin. Marx also spoke of the withering away of the state. Quite obviously
the state has not withered. As a matter of fact, it has prospered, it has
expanded, it has become increasingly bureaucratic. If we are to believe the
Soviet leaders themselves, it is evidently destined almost indefinitely to
continue in that direction, and not in the direction of which Marx spoke.
I want to refer now to the essential complexity of the Soviet government.
It is first of all very complex. It is the most complex, I think, by far, of
modern governments. It is even more complex than ours, and certainly ours
is sufficiently involved and complicated by this time. Why is it so complex?
Well, first of all, the governments of all large modern states are complex.
They have to bet particularly with the functions, formerly private, devolving
upon central governments, it has been necessary to have many elements of
rather considerable bureaucracy in order to administer the new state functions.
The Soviet Union, in addition, is a very large country today, perhaps 8,700,000
square miles, or thereabouts. It has an exeeedingly complex population makeup.
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We referred to the fact the other day that its population consists perhaps of
approximately sixty nations, sixty nationalities, and includes perhaps
170-200 ethnic or linguistic groups. It is very complex. The administration
of a territory so large and with such ethnic variety is obviously a great
task, under any circumstances and irrespective of the particular nature of
the central government. It is in addition, of course, and most significantly,
a police state,. and if you are going to regiment a people, if you are going
to control every facet of their lives, be it political, economic, sociab
what-have-you, you are going to have to have a lot of people in a vast
bureaucracy in order to carry out that task. And of particular importance,
with respect to this matter of the complexity of the government, you have
the fact that, ultimately, all economic control and direction emerges from
Moscow, from the central government. And the task of directing economic
development and organization, particularly under the accelerated program
the Soviets have adopted since 1928, this obviously requires a vast planning,
statistical, directing bureaucracy, and that is exactly the direction in
which it has veloped. And in this connection, there are some writers who
feel that we have in the case of the Soviet Union, in the case of the Soviet
state, something of a new entity in the history of society, of political
society. It is not a new entity, or a new phenomenon, in the sense the
Soviets would have us believe it is. It is no vast paradise, quite obviously.
It is not God's gift to mankind. But we do essentis11y have in the Soviet
state and in the Soviet government, what has been termed a social - economic -
political entity, to the extent that ultimately all social, economic, and
political life of the Soviet people is directed from the federal level, from
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Moscow. And we have something of a merging, under their approach, of social,
economic, and political affairs. To a certain extent they all become one and
the same. In that sense we do have a new animal, a new phenomenon. Perhaps,
also, the government is complex by design, perhaps for purposes of deception.
You have on the one hand, as we shall see or as you already know perhaps from
your reading, you have an ostensible government, soviet in form, based on
the Soviets, from the village to the Supreme Soviet Of the USSR. On the
other hand, in addition to this facade, which is of little significance, you
have the actual government, dominated by the Party, particularly by the top
echelons of the Party. Very likely the facade, the added complexity that
is represented by its existence, is to a certain extent for purposes of
deception, deception of the people themselves, the USSR, and perhaps also
for the deception of people abroad. In dealing with both their awn people
and the foreign populations, they can point to the facade, they can state the
constitution under which it operates and the provisions of that constitution
and they can claim that here is a democracy, here is a democratic governmental
procedure. On the other hand, they have in addition to all of this the reality
behind it, in the form of the real government of the Party. Of course the
Soviet leaders claim also, the Bolshevik leaders, that there is the purpose
of education in the maintenance of this facade, which they do not call it,
but they say that they must have the Soviet system and this elective system
of a sort in order to train the people in the processes of the new socialist
state, processes of this new form of state. Well, in the very long run
perhaps there is something to this, perhaps the people have been trained to
a certain extent in the new processes and in the nature of the new state.
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Nonetheless, they certainly have yet to be enabled to take a renlly effective:
part in the direction of the government and in the control of their own
destinies.
Central Executive Committee (No longer in existence)
1. Formed by the Congress of Soviets 7 November 1917
2. Was "All-Russian" until 1922 when it became "all-Union"
3. Originally conceived as a "Supreme organ of power" in the periods
between the meetings of the Congress of Soviets. Functionally- -
both a legislative and executive organ.
Functions
1. Foreigniiiffitit.s - Brest - Litowak 1918
2. Treaties
4. Membership greatly increased.
5. Main function: a high policy - propagating body - whose formal
powers have passed largely to its Presidium. C. E. C. was the
"Presidium" of the Soviet structure.
Political Background of The Republics
The first Soviet Constitution became effective 19 July 1918 and concerned
only one union republic - RSFSR - Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic
which comprised the Great Russian part of the former Czarist Empire - excluded:
Central Asia Ukraine
Belorussia Transcaucasia
Finland Poland
Baltic States
Under this Constitution:
1. AM-Russian Congress of Soviets became the supreme organ of
authority.
2. All-Russian Central Executive Committee (about 200 members)
became the supreme legislative administrative and controllive
organ.
3. Council of People's Commissars became the chief organ for the
direction of national affairs.
4. Organs of local authority, in descending order of power, were
known as the: Regional Soviets
Provincial Soviets
County Soviets
Rural District Soviets
Village Soviets
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Supreme Soviet
1. Elected by direct suffrage for a term of 4 years.
2. Council of the Union - 1 Deputy per 300,000
Council of Nationalities - 25 Deputies per Union Republic
11
T1
"
Autonomous Republic
5
tt
It
Autonomous Regions
1
TT
"
National area
A deputy is "a servant of the people, its messenger in the Supreme
Soviet" who must report back to his electors concerning his own and
the Soviet's work and who can be recalled by them at any time.
Deputy's Immunities; Immunity from arrest and prosecution; cannot
be held to legal responsibility without consent of the Supreme
Soviet - or during the interim between sessions of the latter -
of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. Free transportation over
nail and water routes.
In Supreme Soviet - reports and proposals are made by the S0/NARK(
(Soviet People's Commissars)
Council of People's Commissars in 1946 - called "Council of 14inisturs"
appointed by Supreme Soviet.
Now the initial indication as to exactly what the future nature of the
Soviet state in its political organization, or its political-territorial
organization would be, its initial indication was indicated in a document
that emerged on the 15th of November 1917, just after the Bolshevik Revolu-
tion, and which was entitled the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples
of Russia." Now this particular document pledged four things: It pledged
first of all the equality and sovereignty of the peoples of the new state.
Secondly, the abolition of all national-religious privileges and restrictions.
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Thirdly, the free development of all national minorities and ethnic groups.
and finally, the right of the various peoples to full self-determination,
even to the point of separation, or secession,i and the formation of inde-
pendent states. (Above repeated.) Quite obviously this was a commendable
program, it was a program that was designed to win the maximum, more or less
voluntary, participation of the exotic peoples, the non-Great Russian peoples,
to the new state. It was a program, of course, which took into account the
ethnit approach, the approach to ethnic problems, that had been character-
istic of the Czarist regime, in which the basic effort, particularly in the
late stages of Nicholas' rule, had been marked by a program of Russification,
as it was called, that is) an effort to force all of the non-Great Russian
peoples into something of a Russian pattern and to derogate ihd eliminate
their native cultures, the cultures of the Kazakhs, the Uzbeks, the Mongols,
and so forth, and to eliminate and play down their cultures and to impress
upon them the culture and the language of the Russian people, or the Great
Russian people. And the Bolsheviks, of course, realized that if they could
do a good job of persuading these people that they were for them, that they
would have a right to real independence, to free development along their
own lines, they realized that it would play a very important part in winning
their adherence to the new state, something they regarded as very essential.
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UNION REPUBLICS
1. RSFSR
2. Georgian SSR
3. Armenian
4. Azerbaijan
5. Karelo-Finnish
6. Estonia
7. Latvia
8. Lithuania
9, Moldavia
10. White Russian (Belorussian)
11. Ukraine
12. Uzbek
13. Tadzhik
14. Kazakh
15. Turkmen
16. Kirgiz
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U. S. S.. R.
Council
of
Ministers
SOVIET CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT
104,000,000 Voters
U. S. S. R,
Supreme Soviet
U. S. S. R. U. S. S. R.
Supreme Prosecutor
Court General
Soviet of the Union Soviet of Nationalities
Presidium
Communist Party
6,000,000 Communists
All?Union
Congress
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They had a limitation in mind, a very important one, they had this
limitation as they put out this declaration, that while these new republics
as they eventually called them, might be national in character, they must be
soviet in form, and socialist in content. They should assume a soviet form
of government and their government should be based on the theory of socialism
So it wasn't quite as magnanimous or idealistic as the lettering of the
declaration itself indicated. We should keep in mind, as we discuss the
development of the political territorial organization of the USSR, that
actually the Russians themselves, the Groat Russians, make up a majority of
the population. As of about 1947, the Great Russians numbered about 58%
of the Soviet population. The Ukrainians ran about 16%, the Belorussians
a little over 3%. Now these percentages are perhaps today not exact, but
pretty close to it. The Ukrainians and the Belorussians, the two Litt16
Russian peoples, rather closely akin to the Great Russians, made up 19%, so
that, ell in all, the major Slav groups, these three Slav groups, make up
about 78% of the population.
Now the first revolutionary state in Russia, after the October
Revolution, was the RSFSR, the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic.
This included primarily the Great Russians, plus a certain number of other
national groups over whom domain was effected rather early, certain groups
along the Volga and a few peoples in central Asia. Now these other peoples,
the exotic members of the new state, were given representation in what was
known as the Commissariat of Nationalities of the RSFSR, and, as a matter of
fact, it was Stalin's leadership within this Commissariat that very early won
him recognition within the Party as a leading, or the leading, Bolshevik
authority on nationality questions. Now Stalin himself is a Georgian. He is
from a little town not far from Tiflis, the present capital of the Republic
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co sequen ev,it9 famallar with some of the problems
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of the minority groups. Although, while he dealt rather cleverly, as time
went on, with the minority problem, such things as coercing the minority
peoples or encouraging them to stick to the new state, he was rather ruth-
less in dealing with his own people, the Georgians, for some reason. The
exact causes, I suppose, are a bit obscure.
The RSFSR, however, did not include the principal non-Great Russian
peoples, that is, the Ukrainians, the White Russians, the Georgians, the
Armenians. But as the Civil War, which ended in 1921, the war with the
White Russian forces, supported in some cases by foreign, Western powers
and Japan, began to die down, as the Bolsheviks effected their domain over
new areas and new groups, ranging out of the center and circling around
Leningrad ihd Moscow, as this was gradually effected and the Civil War came
to a close, these non -Great Russian peoples began to emerge as independent
Soviet Socialist Republics, independent SSR's. Now they didn't do it just
of their own accord. It was largely a matter of the Red Army conquering
those areas and the Party agents working within the areas to achieve control
over the governmental processes, and setting up the new Bolshevik Republics.
In 1922 another SFSR appeared, the Trans-Caucasian SFSR. This consisted
of the three Trans-Caucasian Republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan.
They combined together into this new SFSR, primarily for reasons of military
defense and economic stability. This occurred in 1922, a very trying period
at the close of the Civil War. Also, in the same year the first USSR appear-
ed in practice, if not on paper. In the same year that the TSFSR was formed,
the RSFSR, the TSFSR, the Ukrainian SFSR, and the White Russian SFSR joined
together to form the first USSR, or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,
although the first constitution of the USSR did not appear until 1924, the
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first Russian constitution having been that of 1918 which established only
the RSFSR. In 1924 the new and first Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
was established formally under the constitution. Now since then there has
been a series of additions. As new areas were effectively organized and as
the Parr agents achieved effective control over them, and as it was felt they
were prepared for Union Republic or Soviet Socialist Republic status, they
gradually emerged. Now this is the order in which this came about. In
1925 the Uzbeks and the Turkmen emerged as Republics. In 1929 the Tadziks.
In 1936 two major changes, the Kazaks and the Kirghiz joined, and also in
1936 the TSFSR split into its three original component parts, namely Georgia,
Armenia, and Azerbaijan. In 1940 came the last additions to the Union
Republic ranks. First of all, the Soviet Union absorbed the three Baltic
states, Estonia and Latvia, pretty much with the permission of the Germans
during those days of delicate negotiations along Russia's western frontier,
and also Lithuania without German compliance or permission. Estonia, Latvia,
and Lithuania were absorbed and established as Soviet Socialist Republics or
Union Republics. The United States has never recognized this absorption.
Also two areas that formerly had a subordinate status, known as autonomous
republics, or ASSR's, these two areas, Moldavia and the Karelo-Finnish area,
were elevated to Union Republic or Soviet Socialist Republic status. The
new Moldavian Republic included the previous Moldavian Autonomous Republic,
plus certain limited new areas that were taken from Rumania by Russia at this
time, and in addition the Karelo-Finnish Republic was formed along the Russian-
Finnish border.
On reason probably for the elevation of the Moldavian and Karelo-Finnish
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areas to top status was perhaps the realization by the Soviet leaders at this
time that the German attack was probably not too far off, and their desire for
morale purposes to elevate the status of these peoples, and that, perhaps, is
a particularly likely hunch in light of the fact that the Karelo-Finnish Re-
public is the only Republic of the sixteen which has a population of less than
a million. A million is normally the requirement, but its population was
only about 500,000 and it's probably a lot less than that now with the
passage of the war.
Well, so we come to the present political-territorial organization of the
USSR. We have on top of the heap the Union itself, the Union of Soviet
Sozialist Republics, which is theoretically a federal structure composed of
sixteen constituent Union Republics. It is vested with supreme power and
sovereignty; this is true largely in theory and in practice it is very
literally true. And it has its sixteen component parts, the sixteen Union
Republics - we shall run over them again. At the present time they run as
follows: Russian, Ukrainian, Byelorussian, Kazakh, Uzbek, Turkmen, Kirghiz,
Tadziks, Georgian, Armenian, Azerbaijan, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian,
Moldavian, and Karelo-Finnish Republics. Those are the sixteen.
Ea-42a these, and incidentally let me first of all give you the various,
terms by which these sixteen constituent parts may be referred to. First, the
official title is really Soviet Socialist Republic. It may be referred to as
Union Republics. The term Republic in all oases in this lecture is used very
loosely, but that is the official terminology so we use it. East of these
republics possesses a degree of autonomy by law, and they are named, each of
them, after the main ethnic group residing in them. There are certain con-
ditions for the creation of a Union Republic. First of all, the ethnic group
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after which they are named, the ethnic group which constitutes the core of the
population, must be at least one million in number. We spoke of the exception,
the Karelo -Finnish, with about 500,000. In addition, theoretically, to being
a million in number, the main ethnic group must also form a majority of the
population. And finally, the territory must border on a foreign state or
coastline. Some of the territory of a Union Republic must border on a
foreign state or coastline. Now, why? The official reason that was given
by Stalin in 1936 when the Stalin constitution. was evolved, was, as Stalin
put it, if you did not have this stipulation you might in due time have a
situation where a Union Republic would desire to secede from the USSR. If
it seceded, and it were entirely surrounded by remaining Soviet territory,
Stalin pointed out that under such circumstances it would be exceedingly
difficult for the Union Republic effectively to maintain its independence.
He then went on to2 comment that, of course, none of our Union Republics
would ever want to secede but, should they want to do so, they they should
have a right and an opportunity to maintain that independence. As a matter
of fact, every effort in the direction of nationalism on the part of any of
the subordinate peoples has always been ruthlessly and brutally crushed. That
is the practical record. It is not likely that any of them will be seceding
in any foreseeable future.
As for the governmental structure of the Union Republics, in brief, they
have their own constitution, each of them. It must, however, be approved by
the central government. They elect their own supreme soviet, supreme
legislature or council, which is, in the case of the Union Republics, a un-
icameral body. The two-body legislature is on the federal level. As of 1944,
they are empowered to conduct foreign relations and maintain their own armed
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forces, independently. They are empowered to do this, on paper. Practically,
this means exactly nothing. The only practical result has been the presence
of the Ukrainian Republic and the Byelorussian Republic in the United Nations.
This was the result of a compromise arrived at in San Francisco after the
Soviet had originally asked that each of the sixteen republics be admitted
as independent nations. I believe that the United States reply at the time
was "alright, we shall admit each of the 48 states as independent nations,
also," or something to that effect. This undoubtedly, I think is the prime
reason for the changing of the foreign affairs and armed forces ministries
from all?union to union republic status at this time, Russia's desire to
have at least some of the Republics admitted to the United Nations and,
presumably, two of the fundamental requirements for a claim to autonomy are
the right to conduct your own foreign relations independently and to maintain
your own armed forces. Well, the only significance has been an administrative
one in the presence of these two Republics in the United Nations. It ends right
there.
It is however, that enactment, or that chanp.e, on paper a very major one,
which is a classic example of the dynamism with which the Soviet leadership
operates. Within the peculiar nature of their political organization they can
issue such decrees, bringing about what appear to be major changes, without
any practical change. It is for an authoritarian leadership a highly practical
and efficacious organization. It enables them to make on paper for propaganda
purposes major changes which have, as far as the maintenance of their own
individual power is concerned, absolutely no significance.
The next subordinate unit that we come to is the autonomous republic. The
official title: Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. It may be referred to
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as an ASSR; it is commonly referred to as Autohomous Republic. I would like
to point out, since I have not done so previously', that each of these four
categories we are discus-dng here, these four subordinate categories, which
will be the Union Republic, the Autonomous Republic, the Autonomous Region,
and the National Area, each of these four subordinate categories are organized
on an ethnic basis. At the conclusion of the hour Ithall very briefly
mention some that are organized on an administrative basis. These four are
the major ones. These are the ones with particular significance because they
are organized on an ethnic basis, a nationality basis. The Autonomous
Republic is organized within a Union Republic where there exists a national
group which does not qualify as a Union Republic, that is, the principal
group that is in it, does not form a majority of the population, or perhaps
the total population of the area is less than a million, or perhaps the
area does not border on a foreign state or coastline. But in this case,
while the population does not qualify for union republic status, nonetheless,
they are a fairly rnuherous and cohesive people, cohesive population group,
and this autonomous republic status has been set up for them. They are not
to be found in all of the Union Republics, They have their own constitution
which must be approved by the Union Republic to which they are subordinate.
They elect their own supreme soviet, which is also unicameral. They have no
secession right and they may not maintain their own armed forces, and they
are not permitted to conduct foreign relations. This, in theory, differentiates
them from the Union Republic. In reality, it leaves them exactly on the same
level. They may be done away with and they have been liquidated on various
occasions, more or less for a cause. There are certain examples. In
September, 1941, the German legions were commencing to sweep through southern
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consisting largely of persons of Germanic origin. The Russians, despite their
propaganda to the rest of the world to the effect that the USSR was a
consolidated nation with one will and one purpose, and that there was no
disaffection within its ranks, was not too confident that the 570,000
occupants of this area, this autonomous republic, were loyal to the regime.
Consequently, with typical Bolshevik dynamism, they picked up this over
half a million people and shipped them out to the wastes of Siberia, to get
them out of the way of the oncoming Germans, feeling that when the Germans
arrived there might be a good bit of camaraderie between the two groups.
There are some other examples. The Crimean Tatars, remanants of the
Golden Horde of the Tatars of some centuries before, occupied the Crimean
area in southern Russia, and also a couple of other peoples, including the
Kalnyks, the Chechen?Ingushi, peoples of the area generally north of the
Cau,asus. They had their own autonomous republics in each case, and when
the aed Army began to counterattack commencing in 1943 and to sweep back
and liberate some areas ? they use the term "liberated" rather loosely,
also ? they found evidence of a considerable amount of collaboration between
some of these peoples and the Germans. The result was that these autonomous
republics were simply abolished, the area of them was absorbed into adjacent
political units, and so two millions of population in this case were
absorbed into adjacent units. These three autonomous republics just dis?
appeared. The autonomous republic has a rather limited economic competence
and in reality they are rather dependent on the central government and on the
union republic government of the union republic in which they find themselves.
There are altogether sixteen autonomous republics, the same number as the union
republics. This similarity is purely accidental. They= in population from
a hundred thousand to about 3,3000000, and there have been, at one time or
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another, 22 autonomous republics, but as we have indicated, from time to time
some of them have disappeared.
Now the next subordinate unit that we shall mention is the autonomous
region. The Russian word for region is oblast. You will see that term
used quite a bit. Personally, I prefer to stick to the English. The term
is sometimes given becuase of the fact that there is not an exact transla?
tion of the mord oblast into English. The autonomous region is below the
autonomous republic in its degree of independence and they are subordinate,
again, to the union republic, or in some cases to an administrative terri?
tory in a union republic. There are, altogether, nine autonomous regions, or
autonomous oblast a They, like the others, take their origin from the
existence of a national minority or tothnic group but in this case the
minority group is quite small. They, like the others, are named for the
major ethnic group within the area. They do not have a constitution and
they are regulated by statutes enacted by the union republic of which they
are a part. They do, however, elect their own local legislature, their own
local soviet. They run in popult-tion, that is, they did run in about 1946-47,
from about 40,000, to 270,000.
The final unit organized on an ethnic basis is the national area, or
national okrug. The Russian word for area is okrug. It is a governmental
subdivitgion for racial groups which are in a tribal state of development.
A great many of these peoples are Arctic dwellers or semi?Arctic dwellers.
Many of them are very basic peoples. An example is the Chukotsk Indians
who are foOnd on the Chukotsk Peninsula, in far northeastern Siberia.
They are way up beyond the Arctic Circle and they are a very fundamental
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people. Now, for example, at the time that the Soviet regime began to exert
its control over them they practiced euthanasia upon their old people. It
is an example of the really basic social customs to which they adhere,
completely out of keeping with Western approaches, of course and the
Bolsheviks abolished this.
You have to work rather gradually in developing such a people into this
new revolutionary state. You cannot take a Ohabtsk Indian and pour Marxist
dialectic dawn his throat. Its a very gradual process, the gradual bring-
ing them into the new framework. We can judge that it is probably a pretty
tough job, although in some eases the Soviet leadership seems to have done
a fairly good job in taking a previously pretty basic people and in the
educational field bringing them pretty well along.. Of course, all this
within the Marxist framework. The populations of the areas are quite small
and naturally their demographic population is small. They are scattered
populations. They have no constitution, these national areas; and they
are ruled in accordance with statutes of the union republic in which they
find themselves. They do, however, like the autonomous regions, have their
own governing bodies, their own local soviets.
On March 4, 1942, the Supreme Soviet convened, probably for one week.
1316(?) members, representing over 50 nationalities - about 1/4 of the
delegates were women. Function - merely to approve the budget. On 6
March, 1953, they met again - approved a stepped-up military appropriation
(for H-Bomb?).
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2onstitutional Structure of USSR
1. Highest authority in USSR under its constitution of 1936 is the
ligziga:tive branch - The SUPREME SOVIET - elected by universal, direct, equal,
and secret bnllot of all voters.
2. Normally elected for a term of 4 years - has 2 chambers.
Soviet of the Union
1. Corresponds to U. S. House of Representatives.
2. Delegates are elected from the Union as a whole - 1 delegate for
every 300,000 of population.
Soviet of Nationalities
1. Corresponds to U. S. Senate
2. Delegates are elected:
25 Deputies for each Union Republic -
11 Deputies for each Autonomous Republic
5 Deputies for each Autonomous Region
1 Deputy for each National Area
The two chambers have equal rights. A simple majority vote in each
passes the laws. Fsilure to agree calls for new elections. Supreme Soviet
must meet twice a year but may meet oftener in special sessions. From it
stem the executive and judiciary branches of the Government -(unlike the U. S.
system, where the Chief Executive is elected. by the people and makes
appointments which the Congress only confirms). It elects a PRESIDIUM OF
42 members, which is its working committee and which is avant:in session.
President of Presidium - Voroshilov
1. Titular head of State
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2. Ref-rred to as President of the Soviet Union
Acts of the Presidium are subject to confirmation by the Supreme
Soviet.
Who presides over Supreme Soviet sessions?
1. Members of the Presidium take turns. This is in line with Communist
theory of plural chairmanships.
2. Secretary of the body becoming the real power since he sets the
agenda, words the resolutions, keeps the minutes.
Council of Ministers (executive cabinet) is appointed by the Presidium.
During the war the PRESIDIUM appointed a "State Defense Committee" (War
Cabinet).
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SUPREME:
COURT
23-
CHAIRMAN
(Premier)
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
F?
r
i PRESIDIUM 1,
(42 members) t.
SUPREME SOVIET OF THE U. S. S. R.
ISOVIET OF THE UNION
(647 members)
THE ELECTORATE
STATE
DEFENSE
C0124ITTEE
SOVIET OF NATIONALITILS1
(713 members)
(93,639,458 voters in first federal election
under 1936 Constitution)
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Now
Presidium of SuDreme Soviet
1. Game into existence 17 January 1938.
2. Functions are those performed in other states by a president.
Stalin's definition of the Presidium - a "collective president."
3. No veto power. No right to dissolve the Soviet parliament - the
Supreme Soviet.
_4. Entirely subordinate and accountable to the Supreme Soviet.
Organizations (Ey article 48, Constitution of 1936)
1 Chairman
li Vide-Chairman
1 Secretary
24 Members
(to accord with the number of Republics at that time)
Total 37
Today -F5es1dium of U.S.S.R = 32 Chairman - Voroshilov
Vice-Chairmen are the Chairmen of the Presidia of the Supreme Soviets
of the Union Republics.
The Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, Voroshilov has
stood out in practice as the titular head of the Soviet state in its relations
with other states. For that reason he has generally been referred to outside
of the U.S.S.R. as the Soviet President.
Membership of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet:
1. Several members of the Politburo
2. Several from the highest command of the Red Army
Proceedings are not made public. We do not know the frequency of its
sessions, but it is referred to as a "daily working" organ. The chairman
secretary, and some members are always at the center, assuring a minimum
operating quorum.
Some of its more important duties:
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1. Convenes the sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R.
2. Issues decrees.
3. Interprets laws of the U.S.S.R. in force.
4. Dissolves the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R. and designates
new elections.
5. Annuls decisions and ordinances of the Council of Ministers
of the U.S.S.R. in case they do not conform to law.
6. Appoints and removes the higher commands of the armed forces.
7. Proclaims general or partial mobilization.
8. Ratifies and denounces international treaties.
9. In the period between sessions of the Supreme Soviet of U.S.S.R.,
proclaims a state of war in the event of armed attack on the
U.S.S.R,, or Whenever necessary to fulfill international
treaty obligations concerning mutual defense against egression.
10. ReceiVeti the oredentiala and letters of recall of diplomatic
representatives of foreign States accredited to it.
Operation of Presidium in practice.
1. Really exercising its prerogatives
2. Has convoked the regular and extraordinary sessions of the Supreme
Soviet.
3. Has set election days.
4. Has formed electoral areas.
5. Has been permitted wide latitude in dedree powers. Examples:
Working hours for workers and employees in time of war.
Tax on single men and single and childless citizens of U.S.S.R.
6. Most widely exercised prerogative of Presidium has been the award
of decorations.
New signs and symbols of distinction, most of which carry
also material rewards, are added constantly, and a special department of
Registry as the Secretariat of the Presidium keeps track of them. Occasional?
ly the Presidium issues decrees depriving individuals of their awards.
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7. The Presidium has declared martial law and subsequently decreed its
end - proclaimed mobilization of the armed forces - and ordered partial
demobilization on several occasions.
8. Has ratified international treaties - appointed and recalled
diplomatic representatives.
Now once having seated themselves, the Supreme Soviet - the Supreme
Soviet, incidentally, is selected for a 4,-year period - the two houses of
the Supreme Soviet having been seated, one of the first things they do
is elect three permanent commissions. Actually, there are four, but three
are significant. They elect a Legislative Bills Commission, a Budget Com-
mission, a Foreign Affairs Commission, and a Credentials Commission. And,
as i6 pretty much the case in our own Congress, the bulk of the actual work
takes place in these Commissions, rather than in plenary session of the two
houses. The customary procedure is for the Council of Ministers to submit
legislation to the Supreme Soviet. It is then discussed, the membership of
the Supreme Soviet can render a certain service to the Party leadership to
the extent they know how things are going back in the provinces. If a parti-
cular piece of legislation is not going over well, they can indicate it.
Perhaps the Party is glad to get the advice on it. They don't necessarily
follow it. And so the principal assistance can be in the way of comment
and advice on execution, rather than on the actual formulation and enact-
ment of legislation.
When a new Supreme Soviet has succeeded itself, another initial thing
they do is elect their Presidium, which is carefully determined ahead of
time, of course, by the Party, and they also elect the President of the
Presidio*. The present President is Nikolai Shvernik. He is an alternate
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A very distinctive feature in the procedure of the Supreme Soviet is
the custom of unanimity. All notes on all legislation, on, all matters, are
unanimous. Now, this has a lot in common with the traditional Russian pro-
cedure in the village mir, where customarily all votes finally were unanimous
after much discussion, everyone, seeing which the wind was blowing, voted
for or against the matter before the mir. Nonetheless, it has another
significance, also, I think. In the Supreme Soviet, as the Sashevik leaders
point out, it is all right to discuss the legislation, to discuss certain
facets of it, concerning the practical application of it and so forth, but
there is to be no question about the fundamental policy content of the legis-
lation, the heart of it, once it has come down from the Council of Ministers
to the Supreme Soviet., And why not? Well, as the Soviet leadership points
out, because of the fact that the men forming this legislation, are the
leaders of the Soviet State. They are the authorized interpreters of Marxist-
Leninist policy, and its Stalinist appliCation. That being the case, you can
discuss the practical application of the legislation, but you are not to
challenge the heart of it, because to do so would be to indicate that you
yourself are anti-Marxist, anti-Marxist-Leninist. And to do so would be, of
course, tantamount to suicide. Consequently, all votes are nnAnimous when
the final vote is taken.
Now, with respect to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR,
the organization that sits for 25/26ths of the year, whereas the collective
congress, the Soviet itself, sits for 1/26th, it is referred to as the
collective president and its present is the President of the USSR, that is
externally, outside, the USSR, he is. For years and years this position
was held by "Papa" Kalinin, who was a good showpiece, and who was given this
lob in which he couldn't do mach damege, in which he was resected and did
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the bidding of the real leadership. The Presidium is, of course, elected by
joint session of the two houses. It has duties which fall mainly into three
categories: Executive duties - it appoints officials, receives diplomats
and confers honorary titles. Secondly, judicial duties - according to the
constitution it gives interpretation of the laws in operation and adjusts
or modifies non-conforming orders and decisions of the Union Republic Councils
of Ministries. As a matter of fact, actually the concept of judicial review
within the judicial system does not exist in the USSR. There is no such
thing as declaring a piece of legislation unconstitutional. If it's un-
constitutional, that's just too bad. It still sticks. Nonetheless, insofar
as the laws are interpreted, and their practical application is delineated
and set forth, this operation fundamentally falls within the prerogative of
the Presidium.
In respect to legislative duties, which are the most significant, it
issues decrees which are automatically ratified on the floor of the Supreme
Soviet, when they reconvene. So what actrally happens is this: Perhaps the
Supreme Soviet is out of session for 25 weeks. In the meantime the Council
of Ministers has been sending legislation over the Presidium, saying "Please
rubber-stamp this." And they rubber-stamp it, and when the 1300 members of
the Supreme Soviet reconvene they proceed to rubber-stamp everything which
the Presidium was rubber-staznpedLL during their absence. In summary, the
Supreme Soviet has no power whatsoever - it is purely a facade whose task
is to give perfunctory and automatic approval to government and party decisions.
A few words on the Soviets at the lower levels. The lower Soviets are
unicameral. In the case of the Union Republic and Autonomous Republic
Soviets they are called Supreme Soviet, they are elected for four years,
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Below the level of the Autonomous Republic the soviets are celled
Soviet of Working Peoples (Toilers) Deputies. These are elected for 2 years
and in turn elect and Executive Committee -instead of a Presidium.
And now we come to a consideration of the Council of Ministers of the
USSR. The Council of Ministers is, we might say, the Cabinet of the country.
It is a tremendously important.body. From November 1917 to March 1946, what
is today known as the Council of Ministers was known as the Council of
Peoples' Commissars, or Sovnarkom. The title of the body was changed in
March 1946, for a reason on which we Can only speculate. Perhaps the desire
was to bring their terminology more in accord with Western usage, since the
USSR was then participating in the UN and had been brought into closer con,-
tact with the Western powers. The Council of Ministers is designated in
the Constitution of 1936 as "the highest executive and administrative organ
of the state power of the USSR." The Constitution states that the Council
of Ministers is appointed by a joint session of the Supreme Soviet; and
elsewhere in the Constitution the Council of Ministers is stated to be
"the Government."
In the Constitution there are certain powers/am:berated to the Council
of Ministers. In fact, as one might expect, these powers cover virtually
everything. They may be classified under the following categories:
general administrative power, power of economy, police power, foreign affairs
juriddiction, military authority, special power to attach extraordinary
units to the Council of Ministers, and a veto-power--that is, the right to
nullify actions of Union Republics' Councils of Ministers and to annul
orders and instructions of individual members of the Central Council of
Ministers.
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Let us take a look at this chart, which is entitled "Council of
Ministers of the USSR." We note that within the Council of Ministers there
Is a separate body known as the Bureau of the Council of Ministers. Some-
times it is called the "Inner Cabinet." This particular organ is overwhelm,-
ingly the most significant part of the Council of Ministers. It consists of
the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, who is presently Stalin, plus the
Deputy Chairman. It is the Bureau of the Council of Ministers which is the
real policy-mAking part of the Council of Ministers. One will note that
under the jurisdiction of the Inner Cabinet there are ten major administra-
tive sections, each of which is concerned with almdor phase of Soviet state
activity. In general, grouped under each of these administrative sections,
which comprise the central administrative apparatus, will be a number of
Ministries and other lesser but related bodies.
You will see that taken together these the sections cover all phases
of state activity in the USSR. Each of these sections is headed by a Deputy
Chairman of the Council of Ministers. The total membership of the Council
of Ministers consists of the Chairman plus the Deputy Chairmen, the Chairman
of the State Planning Committee, or GOSPLAN, as it is known in Russian, the
Chairman of the Committee for Art Affairs, and, finally, the Ministers
themselves. Altogether there are today in the neighborhood of 50 ordinary
ministers in the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers had 13
members at the time of its inception as the SOVNARKOM in 1918. BY 1947 it
had 60 members. The Soviet leadership explains this growth in membership
as the result of the growth in the economy and the rise in military needs.
One of the most striking things about the makeup of the Council of
Ministers is the overwhelmingly economic nature of its organization. Mr.
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Thompson, in his book on the Soviet Union, sminwrizes this situation as
enumeration of them today reads more like the roster of the National Associa-
tion of Manufacturers than any cabinet with which English-speaking peoples
are familiar." I think that fairly well summarizes the situation.
Now with respect to the system of organs of the Council of Ministers,
we will see from our chart that the system of organs includes the following
types: the ministry, the committee, the council, the main administrations
the commission, the administration, and finally there are a group of other
types less numerous for instance, the bureau, the agency, the academy
(of which an outstanding wtample is the Academy of Sciences of the USSR),
the representative, and finally the main state inspection. These are all
types of bodies which operate under the Council of Ministers, and which have
been attached to it under the special authority to so attach Which is granted
in the Constitution.
Council of Ministers
Formerly the SOVNARKOM (Russian for "Council of People's Commissars")
1. Came into existence 8 November 1917.
2. Originally formed 'for the
of the state."
Responsible and accountable to
Executive Committee.
Today, it is emphasized the Council of Ministers of the U.S.S.R. is
ad a legislative but an executive - administrative organ and hence strictly
subordinate to the legislative power, to the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R.
as the highest embodiment of the popular mill.
The present constitution (article 68) gives the functions of the Council
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the Congress of Soviets and the Central
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21 Ministers
1. Co-ordinates and directs the work of the allUhion and Union-republic
ministries of the U.S.S.R. and of other institutions under its administration.
2. Adopts measures to carry out the plan of the national economy, the
state budget, and the strengthening of the credit-monetary system.
3. Adopts measures to secure public order, defend the interests of the
state, and guard the rights of citizens.
4.
states.
5.
Exercises general supervision in the sphere of relations with foreign
Determines the yearly quotas of citizens subject to call for active
military service, directs the general organization and development of the
armed forces of the country.
6. Forms, in case of necessity, special committees and chief administra-
tions attached to the council of Ministers of matters of economic, cultural,
and defense organizations.
Operation of Council of Ministers in practice -
"It has been the most continously operating and the most potent organ
of the Soviet hierarchy in both the administrative and legislative fields."
And again lip
"The scope and volume of its enactments make it abundantly clear that
the Council of Ministers is the greatest producer of obligatory, state-
enforced, activity - guiding norms in the Soviet system."
What does the Council of Minsters do?
1. Enacts the numerous statutes, rules and regulations in regard to
industry, agriculture, transportation, education, etc.
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2. Approves the various operative plans for production, agricultural
work and crops, volume and movement of freight, construction, contracts
between the collective farms and the State.
3. Submits the draft of the enormous state budget of the USSR.
4. Proclaims public celebrations.
5. Sets rates of taxes, wage rates etc.
A considerable part of the Council of Ministers' decisions have to do
with the organization and activity of the administrative organs subordinate
to it.
Composition of Council of Ministers
1. Is formed by the Supreme -Soviet
2. Chairmen
Deputy chairmen
Chairman of State Planning Commission
Chairman of Committee on Arts
Ministers (heads of the Ministries of the U.S.S.R.)
Membership -
8 November 1917 - 13 members
1946 - 64 members
Term of Office,
A little longer than that of the forming body because it continues
until a newly elected Supreme Soviet confirms its composition. In the
intertmletween sessions of the Supreme Soviet, individual ministers are
appointed and replaced at the instance of the Chairman of the Council of
Ministers, by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.
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Pirstem gL Organs at ljast Council git Ministers
The Ministries (formerly the Commissariats)
1. By the summer of 1946 the central system of organs of the Council
of Ministers consisted of 55 ministries - leas than a dozen committees and
councils and about half a dozen chief administrations.
2. Two types of Ministries of the U.S.S.R. -
1. All-Union
2. Union republic
All-Union ministries direct the branches of state administration en-
trusted to them throughout the territory of the U.S.S.R.
Union-republic ministries of the U.S.S.R. do the same thing through
corresponding ministries of the Union-republic.
Examples of All-Union Ministries:
Foreign Trade
Railways
Communications (Post, Telegraph$ Telephones)
MaritimeTRansport
Coal Industry
Oil Industry
Ferrous Metallurgy
Non-Ferrous Metallurgy
Armaments
Food Reserves.
Union-republic ministries:
Armed Forces
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Food Industry
Fish Industry
Agriculture
Finance
Internal Affairs
The Committees, Councils, Chief Administrations
1. Committees on Arts, Radio, Physical Culture and Sports
2. Councils on Russian Orthodox Church, Collective Forms Affairs.
3, Chief Administrations of Civil Aviation, Forest Guarding and Forest
Planting, Geodetics and Cartography.
The State Planning CoMmission or GOSPLAN is a preparatory organ engaged
in continuous study of the conditions and perspectives of the national
economy and in working out the yearly and quarterly economic plans for the
Council of Ministers.
Sessions 91 Ihl Council 91:Ministers
1. Are held when at least half of the voting members are present.
2. Probably meet several times a week, though the exact frequency is
nowhere indicated.
3. Proceedings are secret- no minutes are published - but 'a major
part of the decisions became known through formal publication in the
"Collection of Decisions and Ordinances of the government.
Relation Standing of the Members of the Council of Ministers
Since the Council of Ministers is designated as the "government" of
the Soviet policy as a whole is that of the Chairman of the Council of
Ministers - earlier the SOVEARKOM - often referred to outside of the U.S.S.R.
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as the "Soviet Premier". The four incumbents of this office since the in-
ception of the Soviet regime have all been top Party men.
Lenin .4. 8 November 1917 to January 1924
Nykov - January 1924 to December 1930
Molotov - December 1930 to 6 May 1941
Stalin - 6 May 1941
Malenkov - March 1953
Next in importance are the deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers.
Dm Ministers:
The present official conception of a Minister is that he is a servant
of the Soviet people, a pupil of Lenin, and an assistant of Stalin, and
the "personal directOr " of the branch of state administration which he heads.
These "Ministers" are experts, fully acquainted with the affairs they
administer. Formally elected in a body by the Supreme Soviet and individually
appointed and replaced by the presidium of the Supreme Soviet, yet actually
selected and removed on decision of the Party, the members of the Council
of Ministers are in fact supersensitive to all angles and changes in high
policy.
Supreme Court
1. Elected for 4 years by the Supreme Soviet.
2. Lower courts have citizen judges chosen from panels, like the
American "grand jury."
This is the federal structure which is duplicated (except for a bi-
cameral feature) in all the 16 Union Republics and to a lesser extent
further down the line in the autonomous republics, territories, regions,
districts which have not yet qualified for membership as Union Republic.
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al System ,21: Courts
By the new constitution of the U.S.S.R., justice is represented by:
Supreme Court )
Special Courts )
of USSR
Supreme Courts of the Union and autonomous republics. Also - territorial
and regional courts.
Judicial proceedings are conducted in the language of the Union republic,
autonomous republic, or autonomous region.
Persons not knowing the language are guaranteed the right to acquaint
themselves with the relevant materials through an interpreter and to use
their own language in court.
Usually cases are heard in public and the accused is guaranteed the right
to be defended by counsel.
Judicial Review:
The decisions and verdicts of all the courts, except the Supreme Courts
of the USSR and the Union republics, can be appealed by the accused.
There are no courts in the Soviet judicial system given over exclusively
to appellate functions. The case goes up for review only to the next higher
court which is required to determine - on the basis of the record and materials
presented by the contestants whether the decision rendered by the lower court
is supported by the facts in the case and accords with the law.
The Peoules Courts form the broad base of the system of courts. They
are exclusively courts of original juriddiction and the bulk of the criminal
and civil oases pass through them. These people's courts are apportioned to
each district by the respective minister of Justice.
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Supreme Court of the U.S.S.R.
1. Highest judicial organ in the land.
2. Elected for term of 5 years.
3. Stpervises the judicial activity of the entire court system,reviews
decisions.
4. Chairman
Deputy chairman
66 other members
25 peoples assessors (all citizens who possess electoral rights are
entitled to be elected as judges or people's assessors)
5. Five divisions -
Criminal
Civil
Military
Railroad transport
Water transport
Basic conception of Supreme Court of U.S.S.R. -
An auxiliary andL12.t1 a superior or independent branch of the Government.
The Soviet court is a Class court, dedicated at its inception to the twin
purpose of suppressing the formerly dominant Classes and inculcating Socialist
principles and Labor discipline among the workers themselves.
Alec an attorney general called Procurator General. His office is
independent of the Supreme Court.
1. Not appointed by the Council of Ministers (14ears)
2. Has a higher term of appointment (7 years)
3. IS not an agent of the executive power, but occupies a position side
by side with it, with the special assignment of "guardian of legality". Super-
vises the carrying out of the laws.
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Powers gr.= Government
1. Unique
2. Only comparable governments arethose set up in Soviet satellite
countries.
Reasons for complete power of the Soviets:
1. Adoption of a socialist form of government with its extensive reliance
on the centralized planning of all aspects of the life and activity of the
people.
2. Determination of the Communist Party and its leaders to perpetrate
their power.
3. Program of the Communist Party which seek d ultimately to establish
a Communist society and to create a new type of "Soviet Men".
Scope of government's control is indicated by the fact that as early
as 1937, 90% of the productive resources of the USSR belonged directly to
the governmeht and 8.9% belonged to cooperative organizations closely con?
trolled by the government.
Originally Soviet Marxists expected the Soviet governmental apparatus to
"wither away" and disappear once the farmer "exploiting classes" had been
destroyed. Although the last such Class was supposedly removed around 1930,
with the liquidation of the KULAKS (prosperous peasants), the Communists
maintain that the remaining groups are united in friendly solidarity in
support of their regime. The governmental apparatus has, obviously, failed
to disappear. In fact, the Party line in recent years has been to call for
a strengthening of the governmental apparatus.
According to Stalin (1926) the mechanism of the government includes
primArily: Trade Unions, The Soviets, Cooperatives, Youth League, The Party
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Most important governing organs:
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1. The Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Communist FarP7
2. U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers.
Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet, which nominally controls the Council
of Ministers, is of less importance.
The Supreme Soviet, which since 1946 has met only since a year, lacks any
\
real significance.
The USSR Supreme Court - of importance in enforcing the will of the
government on the people - serves only as an instrument because the courts
?
have no independent authority and no power to declare laws unconstitutional.
Party in the Government
Politburo (Supreme po1icy6,making body in the Soviet Union)
Orgburo - Party control commission
Secretariat - very important
Secretariat -
Most important executive body in the Party - corresponds roughly to the
Bureau of the Council of Ministers. (This "Bureau" is the Chairman and Deputy
Chairman of the Council of Ministers.) It is significant that Stalin is the
head of both groups.
The Party and the Government
The unique feature of the operations of the Soviet Central Government is
the interaction between the organs of the Party Central Committee and those of
the Central Constitutional Government*
Soviet administrative philosophy may be characterized by three words: Policy;
personnel, control. First comes the determination of policy, then the
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assignment of persons to implement it, and finally the check on its fulfill?
ment.
Stalin in 1939:
"Party cadres are the command personnel of the Party and since our Party
is in power they are also organs, after the correct political line has been
determined and tested in practice, Party cadres become the decisive force in
Party and governmental leadership*"
Especially significart in Soviet government is the system of "interlocking
k,t4
Directorates" in staffing agencies and the drol subordination (i.e., to both
Party and supervisor governmental agencies) of the organs of the constitutional
administrative apparatus. Sometimes the Party even publishes important economic
directives in its own name ? for example, the 1947 Agricultural plan. More
often, the Council of Ministers is associated with the Party in issuing
important directives, such as the one terminating rationing in 1947.
The utilization of interlocking directorates is illustrated by the fact
that Stalin personally is head of the Politburo, the Secretariat, the Orgburo,
and the Council of Ministers. Similarly, almost all the other members of the
Politburo are also Deputy Chairmen of the Council of Ministers and thereby are
called upon to execute policies which they have formulated. This system of
interlocking directorates safeguards Party control against challenge,
economizes on personnel, and insures coordination between policymaking and
policy?implementing agencies.
Regional Government
1. Corresponds to the components on the central of All?Union level.
2. 'Party control is strong.
3. The First Secretary of the Party committee on each level is the most
powerful person in the area and is so recognized on all public occasions*
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The five basic levels below the Central Government:
1. Union Republic
2. Oblast (Region)
3. The Rural Raion (District) or The City
4. Village
5. Primary level consisting of the individual collective farm or factory.
"Kral" exists only in RSFSR or 6 "Kral." Territories
1 January 1948
Union Republics - 16
Oblaets (Region) 126
Rural Raions 4,248
Cities 1,397
Villages 74,855
Also rules by U.S.S.R.
1. Occupation Zones in Austria and Germany.
2. Porkkala Udd by Lease, from Finland
3. Port Arthur and Darien in Manchuria (Theoretically occupied by China
and the U.S.S.R.)
P(...22122,21 and Religions
177 minority groups, speaking 125 different languages and dialects, and
worshipping in 40 different religions.
Main ethnic groups number 10, which the Slays, consisting mainly of the
Great Russians, comprise approximately 3/4 of the entire population of the
U.S.S.R. and are predominantly members of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Next largest strain - Turco-Tartar people, Who are mixed descendants of
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MongolLin, Teutonic, and Turkish stock--their prevailing religion is Islam
although some of them have been connected to the Russian Orthodox Church.
People of the Japhetic ethnic strain are found chiefly in the Caucasus
region. They have varied religious faiths - Moslems, Armenian and Georgian
Orthodox.
Jewish people of Hebrew faith constitute an important group. Now, with
additions of arms and populations in Eastern Europe - the Jewish population of
USSR ranks second to that of the United States.
Mongols follow Buddhism in its modified form Lamaism.
Now, in addition to these four categories, which are organized on an
ethnic basis, there are also five units that are not organized on an ethnic
basis, that are organized purely for administrative purposes. The overlapping
of the two can be quite confusing if you let it be that way. I simply want
to mention them to you, and mention the difference between these and the
others, so you at least will have heard to them. There is also a similarity
in terminology in some cases. These are all organized for purely administra-
tive purposes. The others are organized on an ethnic basis. These are as
follows, in order of most important to most basics First of all, the tern-
tory, for which the Russian word is kgai; secondly, the region - again an
overlapping in terminology, the oblast in. Russian; thirdly, the area or okrug;
fourth, the district or raion; and finally, the village, the most basic unit.
The village or =12. The basic legislative unit within the country is the
sal-soviet, the village council. You will see that term from time to time.
Well, let's go on now to the first part of our discussion on the govern-
mental organization itself, the governmental orprization and processes.
Well, the Soviet structure, as we indicated before, is the ostensible source
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of the USSR in Moscow. This soviet organization, this hierarchy of legis?
latures, is the ostensible source of power in the Soviet Union. On paper
that is the source of power. That is the organ whereih resides ultimate
sovereignty. This is a far cry from the truth, as we shall see.
Now, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR consists of two houses. Oasis the
Soviet of the Union, the council of the Union, the other is the Soviet of
Nationalities. Between them they seat something over 1300 people. The Soviet
of the Union is elected on a basis of electoral districts, each of which
numbers about 300,000 people. The Soviet of Nationalities is elected on the
basis of the four ethnically organized subordinate units which we have just
mentioned, to the extent of 25 delegates for each Union Republic, 11 for
Autonomous Republic, 4 for Autonomous Region, and 1 for National Area. That
is indicated in your OIR booklet. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the most
important Soviet and the one to which we shall devote most attention, meets
tftioe a year and each session is about a week in duration, so the national
legislature is in session two weeks out of the fifty?two weeks of the year,
and While they are not in session their collective president, the Presidium,
which we shall discuss in a moment, presides ? some perhaps 36 or 37 people,
headed by a chairman who is generally referred to outside the USSR as the
President of the country. Headed by this chairman, these 37 men operate in
effect as the national legislature during fifty weeks of the year, so that
we can see that even on paper this thing is something other than democratic
in the Western sense. The national legislature sits for 1/26th of the year.
Military Administratio4
The U.S.S.R. is divided into 31 military districts for internal
military administration somewhat similar to U. S. Service Command, set
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A district may contain one or more union republics or it may be within
the boundaries of single union republic.
?Vramidal Arrangement 21,Soviet Structure,
1. Hierarchial Organization of the Soviets. Each Soviet has the same
hierarchial principle as the Party itself. At the base of pyramid are the
village and 2ity soviets--over which rise successively the administrative-
territorial tiers of the districts and areas, regions or territories and
autonomous republics - to the central, all-Union organ.
2. Electoral Rights,: All Soviets, from city and village upwards, are
elected in accordance with the formtla of universal, equal, direct, secret
suffrage. Only insane and persons convicted by a court of law whose sentence
include deprivation of their electoral rights are excluded.
All citizens who have reached the age of 32, irrespective of race,
nationality, sex, religion, educational and residential qualifications,
social origin, property status, or past activities.
Any person who has reached the age of 23 may be elected as a deputy.
Elections - to Supreme Soviet of USSR are held on a non-working day (6 a.m.
to 12 p.m.) - are set by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet - announced not
later than two months in advance of the appointed date.
Voters' Lists
Compiled by the executive committees of the city and village soviets.
Candidates
Are nominated according to electoral areas.
Electoral areas for elections to the Council of the Union are established
on the basis of 300,000 people to each area.
Electoral areas for elections to the Council of Nttionalities are set up
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25 areas in each Union republic
11 areas in each autonomous republic
5 areas in each autonomous region
1 area in each national area
In February 1946 - elections for Supreme Soviet - 1287 electoral areas
656 -Council of Union
631 -Council of
Nationalities
Also 26 special areas (armed forces abroad) added for the elections to each
chamber.
Territory of the cities and districts that enter into electoral areas
are divided into election precincts, common for elections to the Council
of the Union and the Council of Nationalities, where the ballots are cast
and the votes counted.
Supervision of Elections.
To conduct the elections
To keep the records
1. Central Election Commission (for the entire USSR)
2. Commissions for elections to the Council of Nationalities in the
Union and autonomous republics, autonomous regions, and national areas.
3. Area commissions, separate for elections to the Council of the
Union and for elections to the Council of Nationalities
4. Precinct elections commissions
Voting
1. Special rooms
2. Voter must leave on each ballot only one name - strikes out the
names of the other candidates.
3. Supervised.
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Candidates
1. Need not be party members but must be loyal
2. Candidates chosen to represent occupations
Voting is actually a plebiscite to ehow the universal confidence in
the Party ? a festive occasion. The outcome is a foregone conclusion.
For Supreme Soviet
1937 96.8% (91,000,000) of eligible voters actually voted.
1946 99.7% (101,000,000)
1937 1.4% (Council of the Unions)
2.2% (Council of Nationalities)
1946 0.8% (Council of the Union)
0.8% (Council of Nationalities)
Local Soviets (Constitution of 1936)
Six basic links
Soviets of: 1. Territories and regions
2. Autonomous regions
3. Areas
4. Districts
5, Cities
6. Villages
The Congress of Soviets
1. Composition of the Congress has risen tremendously in numbers.
2. At the same time ? the frequency of its convocation has fallen.
3, Up to the end of 1919 ? there were members of other socialist
parties present at the Congress ? hence, debates were often characterized
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by sharp and bitter clashes..
Now, the elections to the Supreme Soviet, as Well as to the subordinate
soviets, are, according to the constitution, according to law, universal,
direct, equal, and secret. The Elections are reasonably universal. Persons
demented and certain categories of political prisoners, who are denied civil
rights, are excluded; but it is in general quite universal. As a matter of
fact, Soviet leaders mnke sure that it is quite universal - the people are
almost literally herded to the pals. The voting takes place on trains,
boats, aircraft, as well as upon the land itself. The elections themselves
are essentially direct, but the important thing is that it is not the elec-
tions, even so far as the facade of the Soviet system is concerned, that are
decisive. It is really the nominations, the action of the regional and
central election commissions that are significant. The general procedure
for making nominations is as follows:
It is stipulated in the constitution that public organizations, commenc-
ing with the Communist Party and then on down to the trade unions, so-called,
to the collective farm units, to the city cooperatives, and so forth, all of
these public organizations, n33 dominated by the Communist Party, of course,
and led by it, may nominate people for the soviets and for the Supreme Soviet.
The customary procedure,: for instance, at the time of nominations for the
Supreme,Soviet is for a carefully selected person ahead of time, a Party
activist, or a party member, a strong Party supporter, would stand up in the
particular unit of the public organization, be it Party, trade union, or
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whathave-you, to stand up and first of all nominate Comrade Stalin. His
nomination was followed by speakers strongly praising Stalin, extolling his
works for the last four years, and they customarily today would end with
something to the effect of "Glory to our beloved leader and teacher, Joseph
Stalin." This was followed by a series of huzzahs and with thatover they
get down to the business at hand. Actually it was quite a privilege to have
Stalin represent your area. He generally choose to represent an area which
has done a particularly good job, an area that was stacked full of Stakhanovites,
that had record-breaking workers, or an area that had done a particularly good
job during the war of afterwards, or something of that sort.
Well, then various names are proposed. Usually, they have been pretty
well culled ahead of time. Don't think that usually just happens. These
names have been pretty well placed, I think you will find, by the Party,
although we don't know a lot about these electoral procedures, because the
information just hasn't been available. But in any case, the names having
been submitted, there will perhaps be several persons nominated for one job
for ohs position, say on the Supreme Soviet. Well, it is naturally essential,
of course, that only one name finAlly appear on the ticket. At least that
is the procedure. So the vaious names put forth go to the Regional Electoral
Commission. This commission is dominated by the Party, by Party members and
Party activists, and a name is selected, the most acceptable, the most feasible
name at the moment is selected.; If there is any further difficulty in select-
ing a name, it is to be settled by the Central Electoral Commission in Moscow.
similarly dominated. So, finally, they decide on obe name for one position
and this is the name that appears on the ballot. Now it is also stated that
the nominations are equAl and secret. Formerly they weren't. Formerly,
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peasants in the country. Today they are equal.
With respect to secrecy, we now come to this point. When the voter
arrives at the polling place on the national holiday which is set aside for
such occasions, and on which occasion there is great celebration, he is faced
with the choice of either putting an X in the box for the one candidate for
the one position or making the name out. He can do either one. In addition,
in many cases, there is both the secret polling booth and an open box. You
may take your choice. But also evidently very often there is a representative
of the MOB present at the polling place - one avoids this gentleman - and it
evidently is presumed that you may use the polling booth if you wish, but
that if you do so, then, evidently, you are trying to hide something, that
you may have marked out the candidate. And, of course, the list that appears
on the ballot is generally referred to as the list of "Party and non-Party
Bolsheviks," so everyone on the list is acceptable either as a Party member
or one who has been an activist or has been active in supporting the Party.
So you may use the booth, but perhaps you have to be rather careful about it.
On the other hand, you can also drop your ballot right in the box and show
by so doing to everyone present that you are an active supporter of the
regime and that you are proud to indicate your support for the slate.
As far as the membership of the Supreme Soviet goes, it is generally,
a very elite membership, a very sleet group. It consists typically of such
people as a premier ballerina, a captain of a championship soccer team, of
a distinguished composer such as Shostakovich, of an outstanding artist of
one sort of another, of perhaps an outstanding writer, an outstanding
factory worker, perhaps an outstanding collective farmer. So, al/ in all,
the 1300 people that finally end up on the Supreme Soviet are ready to
rubber-stamp everything that comes along. They are a very elite group.
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respect, not a particularly representative group.
After the 1936 Constitution was adopted, the first general election
was held. 91.1 million people voted - this was 96.8% of the eligible voters.
Of the tdal membership of the Supreme Soviet, 1,143 deputies - 76% of the
seats were held by members of the Communist Party.
Here is the great Soviet paradox. The Communist Party is the only or-
ganized party permitted by law. It absolutely controls the country's
constitutional structure and government personnel. The Party exercises as
a self-appointee, self-perpetuating trustee - the dictatorship of the toiling
people.
Stalin's Position
1. .A:deputy of the Supreme Soviet,
2. Amember of the Presidium since 1938.
3, Chairman of the SOVNARKOM of the USSR since 6 May 1941.
4. Commissar of War - 19 July 1941
5, Fall of 1941 - Supreme Commander in Chief of the Soviet Armies
6. 6 March 1943 - given title of "Marshal of the Soviet Union"
7. On 26 .104e 1945, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet created the
rank of Generalissimo of the Soviet Union as the highest military title in
the land, and the following day this title was bestowed on Stalin for his
leadership in the War. Simultaneously he was given four new awards: the
Order of Victory; the Hero of the Soviet Union; the Order of Lenin; Gold
Star Medal.
8. On 25 February, 1946, with the replacement of the Commissariats
of Defense and Navy by a Commissariat of the Armed Forces, uniting all the
land, air, and naval forces, Stalin was again named the People's Commissar
for the Armed Forces, and Supreme Commander in Chief of the
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the U.S.S.R. while he has since relinquished the last-named post, he
retains the chairmanship of the Council of Ministers.
Now in general it is the ministries which are of most fundamental
importance. There are three basic types of ministries in the USSR.
These are the All-Union Ministry, the Union Republic Ministry, and the
Republic type of ministry. The All-Union Ministry is found only in the
Central Council of Ministers in Moscow and in each of the 16 Union Republics'
Councils of Ministers. The ultimate authority still rests with the Central
Council of Ministers, but a considerable measure of authority is delegated
for administrative convenience to the Union Republics' Councils of Ministers.
The 41-Union type of ministry is concerned, in the economic field, primarily
with heavy industry. The Union Republic Ministries are primarily concerned
with light industry. Finally, the Republic type of ministry is found only
in the Council of Ministers at the Union Republic level, and these are
concerned with matters of local importance.
Present indication of PartOs role in Russia
Several measures were taken during and since the war to
(1) Further assert the Party's supremacy.
(2) Counteract any excessive sense of exclusiveness on the part of the
professional elite of the Army.
Steps taken:
(1) In the autumn of 1943 several civilian services were given the prestige
of rank and uniform
(a) Employees of the railroad network
(b) Procurators
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(d) Members of the Foreign Service.
(2) In addition to Stalin, a number of top Party Officials were endowed
with high military ranks.
IMANOV KEIRUSHCHEV
KAGANOVICK SHCHERBAKOV
MUNN of the Politburo - many close associates of Stalin in the Central
Committee were made generals.
(3) July 1945 -
Berle, member of Politburo and then head of NV]) (Ministry of Internal
Affairs), was made a marshal, while other ranks, orders and medals
were conferred on his aides in the Ministry.
(4) Most significant measure of all -
the singular emphasis given in the press and public statements since the
latter part of 1943 to
(a) The role of the Party in the war.
(b) Stalin as embodiment of the supreme military leadership. While
the military leaders who emerged during the war are praised as a
group - very raviy as individuals - StalinIs role in "discovering"
and directing them which is emphasized.
There are two ministries which are of particular importance to us as
intelligence people. One was the MVO, or Ministry of Internal Affairs; the
other is the MCB, or Ministry of State Security.
The MVO was essentially a police organization, although it had military
formations within its ranks. It had a number of jobs, which was as follows;
Perhaps its most important taiskvas the supervision of the vast slave labor
system of the USSR, a system which includes perhaps 10,000,000 inmates. The
MVO operated the slave labor camps and contracts out labor from these camps in
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some cases to various industrial enterprises. The MVD also had the task of
guarding the very extensive borders and coastlines of the USSR. The MVD
in some cases escorted important trains and truck convoys within the borders
of the USSR. The MVD had supervision of the so-called Militia, that is,
the city police. Finally, the Ministry of Internal Affairs had regular military
formations which would be used to combat hostile elements in the country and
to subdue major civil disturbances.
The MG/1, or Ministry of State Security, is the major intelligence
organization of the ussa. It is concerned with two types of intelligence:
internal intelligence and external intelligence. Internally, the MGB operates
the vast system of confidential informants which has been estimated to
include from 1 out of every 10 to 1 out of every 20 persons in the USSR--
confidential informants who regularly report to the MGB on the activities of
their friends and associates. The MGB also conducts intelligence operations
against other nations for the purpose of procuring foreign intelligence.
It is perhaps interesting to note that the task of a factory manager or
a mining supervisor in the USSR is not always an entirely pleasant one.
Such a director or supervisor is, for example, subject to the more or less
content supervision of as many as six checking agencies. He may be Checked
on at any time by the ministry under which he operates, secondly by the
ministry of Finance, by the State Planning Committee, by the Ministry of
State Security, by the local Communist Party organization, and firslly by
representatives of the Ministry of State Control, -which is the government
equivalent of the Party Control Commission, and which has substantial audit-
ing and investigative powers; so, as you will see the direction of an economic
enterprise can be a rather trying affair when the director is faced with such
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We may say a few words more about the State Planning Committee, or GOSPLAN.
This is a very important body. It is currently headed by Maxim Z.Saburov.
The State Planning Committee is a very important body in the USSR because the
Soviet economy is the most planned of economies, and it is the State Planning
Committee, or GOSPLAN' which is charged with the task of planning that economy.
The GOSPLAN employs an army of clerks, economists, and statisticians. Very
extensive surveys are constantly conducted on the status of the various phases
of the Soviet economy and on the basis of the statistics that emerge from these
surveys the 5?year plans, the annual plans within the 5?year plans, and the
quarterly plans within the annual plans are laid out by the GOSPLAN.
One should note the distinct difference in power and authority between the
members of the Inner Cabinet and the regular ministers or ordinary ministers
of the Council of Ninisters. The regular ministers head their particular
mm-
Istries because of their technical ability and experience, for the most part.
Their task is to run their tinistries in accord with the directives that they
receive from the Inner Cabinet, but the ordinary minister is not a policy?
maker in the real sense. The fundamental policy is laid down by the Inner
Cabinet.
The Chairman of the Council of Ministers is, outside the USSR, customarily
referred to as the Premier of the Soviet Union. The four incumbents of that
position have all been top Party men. The first Chairman of the SOVNARKOM
was, of course, Lenin. After Lenin's death, he was replaced by Alexei Rykov.
Rykov held the position until 1930, by which time he had come into Stalin's
disfavor and of course was later liquidated. Molotov, Stalin's friend and
confidant, to over in 1930 and held the position until 6 ilny 1941. On that
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date, for the first time, Stalin officially took over a governmental position
and became Chairman of the SOVNARKONL Up to that time, Stain had officially
stayed within the Party and out of the government.
In simmAry$ the Council of Ministers, within the framework of the
Soviet Government, is overwhelmingly the most important body; but in a
real sense its tremendous authority emerges primarily from the fact of the
virtual identity of the Inner Cabinet with the Politburo.
In conclusion, what does one find with respect to the nature of the
Soviet Government? One finds that it is probably the most totalitarian
government ever established. The Bolsheviks have managed to achieve a
degree of centralization and central control which outdoes even the govdrnr.
ment of Nazi Germany and the centralized control and power seems to continue
to expand. With respect to the real seat of power in the Soviet Union,
where does it rest? In a general sense, it rests within the Party; more
specifically, within the top councils of the Party, that is, in the Central
Committee, Presidiurg the Secretariat, Nhch more specifically, it rests
within the Presidiurrytthich has long since become overwhelmingly the most
important single element of the Party, as the policy-.making body. Finally,
within the Party it is Stalin, who is overwhelmingly the most significant.
One finds under him a monolithic and tightly controlled Party apparatus.
With respect to the future of the Soviet Government, what is the outlook?
Is it withering away? Obviously not. It is continuing to expand and
becoming more and more centralized. Will it wither away, as Nitrx said?
The outlook is not very
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encouraging, if we are tO judge by the record to date. The Soviet leader?
ship has explained that the Soviet government cannot begin to wither away
so long as the capitalist encirclement continues, and. it would appear that
the Soviet definition of "Capitalist encirclement" is the continued
existence of a single free nation.
In actual practice, supreme political power and control ithin the
USSR is nested in the Politburo of the Central Committee of CPSU.
A Union Republic (SSR) must border on a foreign state or on a coastline.
Economic planning in the USSR is the immediate responsibility of the
GOSPLAN or State Planning .Committee.
The most significant factor making for Communist Party control of the
Soviet Government is the duplication of party and governmental personnel
at all echelons.
The abbreviation for the Ministry of State Security is M. G. B.
The fundamental law of the USSR is the "Stalin" Constitution of 1936.
The Organ charged with the operation of labor camps in the USSR is
the Ministry of Internal Affairs.
In June 1940, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania were made an integral part
of the USSR'
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OKKANA: - 1917. A Czarist weapon. Active in 1905. Functioned
under the law as special political police in cases
involving "exceptional measures".
CHEKA; 1917 - 1922. A Bolshevik weapon. "Extraordinary Commissions
to combat Counter-ReVolution, Sabotage and Speculation."
OGPU: 1922 - 1934. Political Police. "United Department of
Political Police."
NKVD 1934 - 1947.
"Peoples Commissariat of Internal Affairs"'
MVD 1947 - 195? "Ministry of Internal Affairs"
MGB 1947 - 195? "Ministry of State Security"
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