(Sanitized)

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78-01092A000100060020-2
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 51
• Document Creation Date: December 15, 2016
• Document Release Date: November 3, 2003
• Sequence Number: 20
• Publication Date: August 12, 1974
• Content Type: MF

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Attachment:
OSI-RP/73-5 July 1973
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Soviet Computer Software
Secret
OSI-RP/73-5
July 1973
C ? 28
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RESEARCH PAPER
SOVIET COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Project Officer
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OSI-RP/73-5
July 1973
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
DIRECTORATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE
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This research paper discusses Soviet efforts to develop
computer software, especially in the areas of computer
languages, compilers, translators, and operating systems.
(Detailed inrormation in these areas is available upon
request in three additional appendices.) The report also
inalyzes Soviet capabilities to use computer languages in
specific types of applications.
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The advent of the computer called for many innovations,
not the least of which was the need for man to learn to
communicate with the machine. This required that man be
conversant with machine language--a language in which number
sequences represent data and signify manipulations to be
performed.
A programming language allows the computer user to
communicate what he wants the machine to do and how he wants
the results displayed. A compiler or translator for a
programming language then converts these semiconversational
statements into the more complex language of the machine for
execution. An operating system allocates the various
resources of the computer to allow for their most efficient
use and for accurate transferral of results to the
appropriate output devices.
Certain terms used throughout the report are defined*
below.
*See American National Standard: Vocabulary for Information
drocessinq, ANSI X3.12-1970, published by the American
National Standards Institute, Inc. New York, and CDP Review
Manual: A Data Processing Handbook, edited by Roger A.
MacGowan and Reid Henderson, Auerbach Publishers, Inc., USA,
1972.
Software is a set of computer programs,
procedures, and possibly associated documentation
concerned with the operation of a data processing
system (e.g., compilers, library routines, manuals,
flow charts).
Hardware means physical equipment (e.g.,
mechanical, magnetic, electrical, or electronic
devices)--as opposed to the computer program or method
of use.
Frograma;ing_lauguage is a set of representations,
formats, and rules used to communicate the procedure
for problem solution. Specifically, it is a language
used to prepare computer programs. There are several
types of programming languages:
Machine_language consists of a series of
numbers which are accepted by a computer and cause
a specific operation to take place. These
numbers, when expressed in binary form, have a
pattern that represents the pattern of the
electronic signals actually used in the computer
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circuits. Machine language programs are unique to
a specific computer model and require specialized
knowledge on the part of the user.
:ymboiic language (also referred to as an
assembly language) utilizes alphabetical,
numerical, and special characters to identify and
to name data and instruction locations (mnemonic
addresses). symbolic languages arj machine
dependent and must be converted to machine
Languages before they can be used on a computer.
This is accomplished by an assembler. Although
programs written in symbolic language are unique
to a given model of computer, they bear a closer
resemblance to the natural language of the user
than do machine languages.
tigher_lev_el language (also referred to as a
compiler language) is designed for the convenient
expression of procedures used in the solution of a
wide class of problems. Even though higher level
ianquages are artificial, their syntax and grammar
are similar to those of a natural lanquage. In
addition, such languages are said to be machine
independent since they can be translated into many
different machine languages. As with assembly
Languages, programs written in higher level
Languages (source programs) must be translated
into machine languages (object programs) before
they can be executed on a computer. A single
higher level language statement may correspond to
a sequence or machine language statements. Higher
Level languages are important because they offer a
convenient means of stating a problem and solution
procedure without requiring specialized knowledge
of the computer to be used. In most cases higher
L veil languages have been developed to incorporate
features that make them particularly suited to a
particular class of problems.
In order to automate the conversion of programs
written it one type of language into another, there is
a need for certain types of programs that are
inuepenuent of any specific problem-solving
application. The tour most important types or
conversion programs, usually considered to be a part of
a computer system's software, are:
Assembler, a computer program that prepares a
machine language program from a symbolic language
program by substituting absolute operation codes for
symbolic operation codes and absolute or relocatable
Addresses for symbolic addresses.
C2mpil.er, a computer program that prepares a
machine language program from a computer program
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Page vii
written in another programming language by making use
of the overall logic structure of the latter, or
generating more than one machine instruction for each
symbolic statement, or both, and by performing the
function of an assembler.
Interpreter, a computer program that translates
and executes each source language statement before
translating and executing the next one.
Translator, a computer program that transforms
statements from one language to another without
significantly changing the meaning.
Because computers usually consist of a number of
functional devices, there is a need for certain
specialized types of programs that manage the system
and make it perform in the desired fashion regardless
of the programs being run.
An operating system is that computer software
which controls the execution of computer programs. An
operating system may provide scheduling, debugging,
input/output control, accounting, compilation, storage
assignment, data management, and related services.
Obviously, the more complex the computer system, the
greater the need for an operating system and the more
difficult the job of developing a suitable operating
system.
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Paze
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i i i
TECHNICAL FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Languages and Compilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Numerical Scientific Languages . . . . . . . 5
Data processing languages. . . . . . . . . . 7
String and list processing languages . . . . 9
Multipurpose languages . . . . . . . . . . . 10
System design languages. . . . . . . . . . . 11
Miscellaneous languages. . . . . . . . . . . 15
Applications potential of languages. . . . . 16
Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Batched processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Multiprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Time-sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
S/360 type systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
User groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
TECHNICAL APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
UNCLASSIFIED REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Following page
1. Attributes of Soviet computer languages. . . . . . 16
2. Applications potential of Soviet languages . . . . 16
3. Minimum language attributes desirable for
certain applications ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
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Fol lows ni taaEe
Rated potential use of Soviet computer languages
for various applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
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To assess Soviet capabilities to provide for the
software needs of the USSR, particularly for military and
other advanced computer systems.
1. Soviet capabilities to provide for the software
needs of complex military systems are only marginal.
Specifically, the Soviets have adequate capabilities to
provide software for guidance systems, but they have only
limited software capabilities for supporting tactics or
Logistics systems. They now are incapable of supporting the
software needs of a complex command and control system
composed of networks of computers operating online,
particularly in a time-sharing mode. Software for Soviet
military systems is probably no further advanced than that
of the civilian sector, with most military computer programs
written in machine or assembly language. Military interests
nave been identified with work on multipurpose languages,
;omputer-aided-desiqn languages, and time-sharing operating
systems, but the extent of military application is unknown.
2. Soviet higher level programming language and
related compiler developments are characterized by
independent, and at times redundant, efforts. They have
omen geared largely toward scientific problem-solving
applications, with the ALGOL-60 language and its derivatives
receiving most attention. Higher level language compilers
have been developed for most models of domestic computers,
out machine language programming predominates. Soviet
capabilities in this area have been hindered by ineffective
means for program sharing, and software documentation and
maintenance are poor.
3. Soviet development of standard types of computer
systems software has been impeded by shortcomings in
coordination and by the limited storage and input/output
capabilities of domestic computers. Parochialism and
differences in computer system configuration among
facilities have resulted in independent and localized system
software development. Soviet interest in time-sharing
operating systems is high but actual accomplishments have
not kept pace with the demonstrated theoretical
understanding, and only experimental systems nave been
developed. Activities in this area parallel those of the US
in the early 1960s. System software developments continue
to suffer from an insufficient base of computer programmers
experienced in the use of complex computer systems.
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Development of Soviet computer software has been
characterized by independent, uncoordinated efforts. These
efforts nave been directed largely toward satisfying the
needs of local institutions and their individual computers.
Well before 1960 the Soviets demonstrated a theoretical
understanding comparable with that of their Western
contemporaries on the problems associated with computer
software development, but the software that the Soviets have
produced has not kept pace with the needs of complex
systems. For example, back-up documentation has been
inadequate for easy location and correction of errors.
:1aintenance software has not been developed and thoroughly
documented concurrently with corresponding hardware. Space
missions have failed because of software errors, probably
caused by inaaequate program check-out proceaures. In order
to close the gap, Soviet designers will have to emphasize
the development of general purpose time-sharing and
iultiprocessinq operating systems that can easily support
compilers for high level languages. The Soviets will also
nave to provide for more effective user groups to help solve
software problems. They will also have to accelerate
efforts to build a sizable base of programmers who are
experienced in the use of higher level languages and in the
operation of complex computer systems.
The total extent of military involvement in Soviet
software developments is not known, but the military
affiliations of people and institutes involved in these
efforts indicate possible military applications work on
multipurpose languages, system design languages, and
time-sharing operating systems. The Soviets are capable of
developing adequate software to support guidance systems,
scientific and technical problem-solving, and process
control systems. Soviet development of computer-aided design
systems will continue to be hampered by the limited
capabilities of Soviet computers for input/output and
storage. These hardware limitations and the lack of
experience with automatic systems for mass data manipulation
Rill impede the development of software for complex command
xnd control, tactical, logistical, and other nonnumeric data
processing systems.
Th Soviet Union and its East European neighbors are
currently developing a series of general purpose computers
called RYAD which is similar to the IBM/360 series. The
.soviets have not demonstrated an adequate understanding of
the problems associated with 360-type software, however, and
appear to be repeating mistakes others have made in
developing software for similar types of computers.
"sufficient emphasis is not being placed on some software
-areas cuch as Jo. Control Lanqu.~ge, used to initiate and
,ntro job pros aid to pi vide data cnar:u.-teristics
-t.,JJ pF, spheral c., Lp,uent requirem nts at the time a program
is executed. It as likely, therefore, that the RYAD project
rill not be the panacea that the Soviets expect it to be and
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that lack of experience will cause them great difficulty in
developing computer programs for such applications as
national economic data processing.
The first significant high level programming language
to be implemented by the Soviets was ALGOL-60, which became
the nucleus for most later software efforts. Most of the
60-odd higher level languages and the 50 compilers that have
been identifies are extensions or specialized subsets of
ALGOL-60. The remainder are one-of-a-kind languages for
which no compilers have been identified. The Soviet
decision to use ALGOL-6C was probably based in part or. the
international effort that went into its development. In
addition, ALGOL has a strong mathematical orientation, and
most Soviet software developers are mathematicians. The use
of ALGOL-60 and ALGOL-based languages probably will continue
is the Soviets increase their efforts to develop and
implement multipurpose languages, particularly PL/1.
Multipurpose languages like PL/1 probably will be
increasingly utilized with the RYAD computer series.
Early Soviet language compilers appeared to be
straightforward and unsophisticated, geared more toward
getting the job done than toward improving the techniques
Ised. Most compilers were aesigned to accommodate the needs
of local installations and the specific computer model being
employed. In several cases multiple compilers existed for
the same model of computer, indicating a lack of
coordination between organizations as well as an absence of
affective computer user groups. Most programs were written
in machine or assembly language, very few in higher level
languages. The literature indicates that most of these
practices still prevail and probably will continue for the
current models of Soviet computers.
The Soviets have expressea their intention to exploit
thorouqhly proven Western computer languages such as FORTRAN
mnd COBOL. The mathematically oriented Soviet software
designers previously were opposed to the use of COBOL for
economic data processing but the Soviets now intend to
extend its use in order to benefit from large Western
program libraries. Increased utilization of FORTRAN will
likewise enable them to benefit from the Western scientific
program libraries already in existence.
The majority of operating systems for Soviet computers
rias been developed by individual institutes. These
operating systems are handicapped by the relatively small
internal memory capabilities and poor peripheral equipment
of the computers involved. Until recently, magnetic disc
units were nonexistent and operating systems were based
exclusively on the use of magnetic tapes or magnetic drums.
complex operating systems could not be supported and indeed
were not needed since programs were written largely in
machine or isserol.ly language. Even now the Soviets do not
have enough well-trained experiences computer specialists to
develop and maintain standardized operating systems.
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Operating system expertise in the Soviet Union appears
to be concentratea in a few facilities, particularly in the
institute or Applied Mathematics (IAM) at tine Academy of
iciences in Moscow. The relatively small IAM group was to
have developed a standard operating system for the
1965-vintage UESM-6 computer, out this group has not yet
completed its task satisfactorily--probably because or
managerial inadequacy and differences in machine
configuration at various installations. As a result,
-several organizations--notably the Institute Dt Cybernetics
in Kiev and the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research at
Dubna--have had to provide operating systems for the BESM-6
on the basis of their local needs.
soviet interest in developing general purpose
time-sharing operating systems has increased greatly.
Current high level plans to increase utilization of computer
-systems anu to develop a nationwide network of computers and
automated management information systems have imposed
increased requirements for development of general purpose
time-sharing systems. While the Soviets have claimed the
time-sharing capability for a number of their operating
systems, available material indicates only experimental or
very simplistic developments at scientific research and
dnveiopmeat establ.ishmonts. Lack or appropriate hardware
-and peripheral equipment is a major handicap to software
development efforts in this area.
Even before 19h0, such Soviet computer pioneers as A.
Yershov, A. :. Kitov, L. V. Kantorovich, and A. A.
Lyapunov demonstrateu strong capabilities in the
mathematical and theoretical aspects of computer software.
(1-9) In particular, Lyapunov's theory or programming has
been a classic in the field. (8) A revised version of the
textbook in computer programming by A. I. Kitov and N. A.
Krinitskiv is still one of the works most frequently cited.
(9)
Erior to 1965 machine language was used almost entirely
_or programming, and high level language development in the
USSR consisted of basic independent research by many
individuals. Soviet software designers were so
inexperienceu that programs were not designed for
step-by-step development nor were provisions made for
possible program expansion. (10) A. P. Yershov ana his
rssociates at the Computing Center or the USSR Academy of
sciences at Novosibirsk devoted 35 man years to development
if the aLGOL-dialect ALPHA language aria its associated
:ompiler. (11) M. R. Shura-Hura became involved with ALGOL
implementation and with general programming theory. V. M.
.;lushkov authored books and articles on cybernetics and
Abstract programming theory. (13-20) Other programming
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systems developed before 1965 apparently were specialized
research tools that never became popular. These included the
?SK-1 compiling system, which utilized a subroutine library,
and various developmental efforts for interpreting systems
and primitive assemblers. (21-24)
Since 1965 the Soviets have intensified on-going
development programs in the area of computer languages and
language compilers. Although good theoretical work has been
demonstrated, practical work has been constrained by the
limited capabilities of internal and auxiliary stores and by
Lack of good input/output equipment for both alphabetical
and numerical data. (25) Most early efforts were directed
toward development of scientific and computational languages
at the expense of business and data processing languages and
associated compilers. As the numbers of computers have
increased anti as their use for economic planning and
nusiness-oriented as well as scientific applications has
expanded, software problems have likewise assumed greater
importance.
Soviet computer languages are divided into six major
categories:
Numerical scientific
Data processing
String and list processing
Multipurpose
System design
Miscellaneous
Jnly the more significant features of these languages and
compilers are discussed here.
These languages, which are oriented toward
computational capabilities were originally designed to solve
such engineering problems as matrix inversion and to
evaluate mathematical formulas. Twenty-five languages
mentioned in the Soviet literature are categorized as
numerical scientific languages, five of which--AI,COR, ALGOL,
FORTRAN, CEItN-FORTRAN, and SUBSET-ALGOL--were developed in
Western countries. There are more compilers (approximately
24) in the numerical scientific category than in.any other
category, which indicates a strong Soviet interest in
numerical problem-solving.
ALGOL is the most widely used high level language in
the Soviet Union, probably partly due to the international
effort that produced it (it is used extensively in Europe)
and partly because of its strong mathematical orientation
(more appealing to mathematicians than the languages
eriented more toward engineering). AL13OL was created to
solve a variety of problems in engineering and numerical
analysis, but it has also been used for numerical forecasts,
processing of observation data, and certain information
retrieval applications. (26)
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I iFor instance, the translator of the
iUBSFT AL(;OL-6C lanquage, developed at the Computing Center
if the Aoscow State University, is part of the BESM-6
)peratinq system there.
Under the leadership of A. P. Yershov at the Academy of
Sciences Computing Center in Novosibirsk, the Soviets have
ueen major participants in international meetings held to
determine specifications for the updated version of ALGOL,
called ALGOL-b8. Apparently no ALGOL-68 compilers have been
leveloped for Soviet computers. (28)(29)(38) The increased
complexity of the lanquage requires greater storage and
input/output capabilities than are generally available on
Soviet computers.
The ALPEiA language is the second most widely publicized
soviet computer language; it is reportedly in use all over
the USSR. (11) A. P. Yershov and his associates developed
ALPHA, wnicn is an extension of ALGOL-60, in 1959-64. In
order to make better use of their computers, new
features--handlinq of complex quantities, better declaration
;apabilities, and optimization features--were added to
ALGOL-o0. Thus, ALPHA could conveniently be used for
solving linear algebraic problems. (36) (37) There is no
mention in the literature of any significant problems that
were solved by utilizing the ALPHA lanquaqe. The ALPHA
translator for the Ni-20 allows direct use of matrix
notation. ALPHA also uses list structure processing for its
internal translating processes, thereby permitting
;ignificantiy faster compilations; list structure
processing, however, is not available in object code. (26)
(32) (33)
FORTRAN, developed by IBM, has become the most widely
ased programming language in the US and much of Europe--in
noth its original and updated versions. In spite of a late
start, the Soviets are now increasing their use of FORTRAN
in order to take advantage of the large quantity of
commercially available FORTRAN language programs. Since
1967, at least tour Soviet FORTRAN compilers have been
ieveloped. One of these is a two-phase compiler written in
the soviet-developed language ALMO (discussed in more detail
oelow). This compiler translates the source language into
1LMO and then into machine language. (35)
Botii the Joint institute of Nuclear Research (JINR) at
Jubna and the Institute of High Energy Physics at Serpukhov
appear to be using FORTRAN as their high level language.
(36-38) The FORTRAN compiler at the JINR was developed by
converting into E3RSM-6 code each instruction of a compiler
for the US Control Data corporation 1604 computer. This
primitive approach resulted in a much Less efficient
compiler than one specifically designed to tare advantage of
the characteristics of the computer with which it is to be
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used. The Soviets at JINN apparently were willing to
sacrifice efficiency in order to utilize immediately the
FORTRAN language programs developed for high energy nuclear
physics problems at the European Center for Nuclear Research
(CERN) in Switzerland. (39) N. N. Gororun of JINR admitted
that a major reason for acquiring the CDC 1604 computer was
to get the FORTRAN compiler. (40) The JINR also developed
the IFVE-67 system for monitoring the performance of FORTRAN
language programs, and this system appears to have been
incorporated as part of the standard software package for
use with the BFSM-6 in the solution of engineering as well
as nuclear research problems. (41) A major advantage of the
FORTRAN language is that it can be used in conjunction with
large libraries of relatively independent programs. Other
FORTRAN compilers are operational at the Institute of
Cybernetics of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kiev,
the Institute of Control Problems in Moscow, and the
Novosibirsk State University. (33) The compiler cited in
connection with the University was stated to he the Soviet
version of FORTRAN-IV and was used with a BESM-6. Only a
very limited subroutine library was available as of May
1971; complex variables and double precision variables could
not yet be used although procedures for their use were
described in the associated manual. (42)
There are numerous examples of Soviet attempts to
develop languages for special types of scientific and
engineering applications. These developments reflect
original theoretical and conceptual work, but in many cases
the results do not appear to have been implemented; in
certain cases use of the languages is confined to the
originatinq facility. One example is the K-lanquage
developed for proving theorems and solving certain classes
of linear algebraic equations. This work was based on that
of L. V. Kantorovich at the Leningrad Branch of the
Mathematics Institute of the Academy of Sciences who
pioneered in the use of computers in nonnumerical symbol
manipulation. (43) (44) A second example is the SIRIUS
language, developed at Kharkov University to perform
analytical operations in solving problems of numerical
analysis. This was a query-type language that could he used
in a conversational mode. A third example is the work of
the institute of Cybernetics in Kiev on the APROKS and SAP-2
languages used for the flame-cutting of ship parts and for
chemical plant control, respectively. (n5-49) APROKS is
currently in use at three Soviet shipyards. (66)
Data processing languages were originally designed to
solve problems that have large data files on which
straightforward operations must be performed. Examples of
such problems are payroll, inventory control, and insurance
files.
Initially, the USSR exerted little official
encouragement to use computers for economic data processing;
pence, very little effort on related software was expended
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until the early 1960s. Even then, after the need for data
processing languages was recognized by some Soviet
specialists, the amount of effort on data processing
languages and compilers remained small. This may be
Attributed to the fact that Soviet computers and related
equipment were not well designed for data processing. In
addition, the leading software specialists were largely
3cientirically oriented. Indeed, Soviet efforts have been
limed at adding data processing features to scientific
Languages rather than developing languages strictly oriented
to data processing. Currently, intensive efforts are under
way to uevelop and use large numbers or computers of
Appropriate design for economic applications. This will in
turn motivate the Soviets toward increased implementation of
lata processing languages, particularly those already widely
used in the west. (51-55)
only eight or the languages mentioned in the Soviet
literature have been categorized as data processing
Languages. Two of these, FACT and COBOL, originatea in the
JS, and one, A-COBOL, is an extension or COBOL. Until
recently COBOL, the most widely used US data processing
Language, was not widely accepted in the USSR, partially
Because its terminology was unsatisfactory to many Soviet
;pecialists. Growing Soviet interest in COBOL was indicated
in April 1968, when COBOL developers met to formulate an
integrated Soviet version of minimal COBOL and to achieve
the program compatibility provided in this language. (54)
Phis meeting was evidence of a complete change in Soviet
attitude toward the use of COBOL in a growing awareness of
the use of the computer as an aid in economic planning and
data processing. Three COBOL compilers are presently used
for processing large arrays of data in information retrieval
applications and economic planning problems. The compiler
used for information retrieval was developed at the
institute of Cybernetics, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences,
Kiev. (33)
ALGEK is perhaps the most significant and the most
publicized data processing language developed by the
Soviets. A 1963 directive specified its development for the
solution of economic problems. It was produced by computer
;pecialists at Novosibirsk, Moscow, and Kiev. (26) (45)
Features were added to ALGOL to accommodate data processing
problems and to permit ALGEK to be used in the development
>f translators. As a result, ALGEK is unduly complex and
therefore difficult to use. As late as 1963, it had been
used only on a limited scale, probably because of its
.onplex nature. (38) (56-61)
The ALGAMS data processing language, also based on
ALGOL, was developed at the institute of Applied
iathematics. Like FORTRAN-ALMO it too goes through an
intermediate ALMO translator to be processed into machine
Language. (62) The personnel who developed the ALGAMS-ALMO
translator are not the same as those who worked on ttie
FORTRAN-ALMO compiler, but these related developments
indicate that an exchange of information between the two
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associated institutes probably took place. (62-65) EPSILON,
while classified as a data processing language, has been
mentioned in relation to symbol manipulation; it is a
machine-oriented language which has been used for software
design and implementation as well as for documentation. (12)
(34) (50)
String and list processing languages were originally
designed to solve problems that require maintenance of
tables of several different kinds of data and/or
manipulation of variable length sequences of characters.
Compiler writing, theorem proving, manipulation of formal
algebraic expressions, linguistic data processing,
artificial intelligence, and text processing are all prime
3xamples of potential applications of string and list
processing languages. There are five of these languages and
three associated Soviet-developed compilers in use in the
USSR. Two of the languages (SCL and SIGMA) were developed
by the Soviets and the other three (COMIT, SNOBOL, LISP) by
the US.
a was a :eloped at the Computing Center of the
rider' of Sci ct., in Moscow.
It in me,atio., .d in an
irticl by S. S. ivrov as, a stri. ;I processin:; la;, uage, but
insufficient info-mation is available for evaluation. (67)
SIGMA represents the only major attempt by the Soviets
to develop a native list processing language; there is no
indication of an associated operational compiler. SIGMA was
developed at Novosibirsk by A. F. Rar and A. 2. Yershov,
(68) for use in writing assemblers. (50) The SIGMA language
reflects worK performed in the US on IPL-V and LISP and
ooncepts borrowed from the US language SLIP.
COMIT was developed in the US, primarily for language
translation, but the Soviets have experimented with it.
There is no indication of any COMIT compiler in the Soviet
Union.
SNOBOL, anot.iner US string processing language, utilized
experience gained from COf1IT. SNOBOL was developed to solve
a wide variety of problems involving string handling and
pattern matching. The Soviets have indicated a growing
interest in SNOBOL and have developed SNOBOL compilers for
the BSM-6 computer at the Academy of Sciences Computer
enter in Moscow. (33) Other developmental work has been
lone at the Institute of Computer Design in Moscow. (70)
LISP iias been of interest to S. S. Lavrov at the
Academy of Sciences Computer Center in Moscow. A compiler
was developed there but is reported to be extremely
inefficient; it takes 20 minutes to compile fairly small
programs. (53) (71) A. P. Yershov implemented
LISP on a BEShi-f computer, and it has fled also in
relation to projects at the institute of Computer Design in
Moscow. (70) (71) (143)
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Although the Soviets are aware of the value of string
ind list processing languages, they apparently have made no
significant advances in this area in spite of publicity
liven to valuable applications of such languages.
Multipurpose languages were developed so that a single
language could moat the needs of several applications.
"hese languages are of special interest because they are the
types needed in certain important military applications of
computers, including command and control, tactics,
Logistics, and computer-aided design problems. Some
multipurpose languages also can he used reasonably well to
develop guidance svstems. Fragmentary information indicates
that some or the Soviet work on multipurpose languages may
nave peen intended tor military applications. (72)
The soviets have worked on at least five multipurpose
lanquages in addition to the ALGEK language (previously
iscussed as a daTa processing language). ALGEK might be
considered a multipurpose language in the sense that--like
ALGFM--it is based on the kernel of the ALGOL scientific
Lanquage with added features for data processing.
Me ALGEM, AL_EM, ALGOL-COBOL ianquaqe evolution is of
,peciai interest not only because it represents a major
continuing Soviet effort but, more importantly, because of
some indirect evidence that the leading figures in the
effort, it. I. Kitov anu F. F. Schiller, have military
affiliations. (73) The Soviets have avoided revelation of
the full name and location of the institute involved--NIIAA,
the Scientific Research institute of A A--both in reports of
the language developments and of a conference on
computer-aidea resign. (74) Kitov has co-authored articles
with N. A. KrinitsKiy, who has been more directly identified
with military uses of computers. In discussions during US
visits, Kitov indicated his in-depth knowledge of the use of
computers in both Western and Soviet military systems. (75)
fr- G. A.
lironov, who worke on is mi i ary project, was an
lssociate of Krinitskiy.
compilers for the Minsk-22 computers have been reported
for both ALGFi'l and ALTFM. Time latter is an extension of the
former and was developeu to incorporate elements of the US
business-oriented language, COBOL. No compiler for the
ALGOL-COBOL extension or the early work has been reported
but if, as is suspected, the applications were classified,
compilers for such computers as the M-220 model may have
been developed and not revealed openly.
Two other centers for work on multipurpose language
ievelopments (probably overt) are the Institute of Applied
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lathematics in Moscow and the Computing Center of the
Siberian Department of the Academy of Sciences in
Novosibirsk. Both groups display a strong interest in PL/1,
a US language that has been used in some military tactical
and logistics applications. This language is mentioned
frequently by A. F. Yershov and a PL/1 manual reportedly was
translated into Russian, (72) but there is no indication of
an operational FL/1 compiler. S. S. Lavrov, a member of the
Working Group on the ALGOL-68 Algorithmic Language, has
stated that ALGOL-68 and PL/1 are viewed as possible
universal programming languages of a new generation,
replacing ALGOL-60, FORTRAN, and COBOL. (78)
In September 1971, the Soviets mentioned that they were
planning--and had actually started working on--a single
compiler to be used for three different languages: PL/1,
SIMULA-67, and ALGOL-68. This was to be a general software
package for the BESM-6 that could also be used with the RYAD
series of computers (currently being developed). It was
further stated that various groups--notably those in
Novosibirsk, hoscow, and Leningrad--were cooperating in this
project. (79-82) In May 1972 Yershov indicated that this
compiler project, being funded through an industrial
contract, would probably be completed by 1975. (83) In
)ctober he admitted that his work was lagging, apparently
because of a lack of programming capabilities. To overcome
the problems, an attempt was being made to simplify the
program for the language. (121).
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System design languages are used in the analysis,
design, and optimization of systems. Soviet work on such
languages has taken two directions. First, there has been
work on simulation languages for use in the development of
aconomic planning, industrial control, and for trade,
transportation, and communication systems. The languages
involved, SIMULA and SIMSCRIPT, are both of Western origin,
but only the former appears to have had any extensive uses.
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(86) (87) Second, worx has been aimed at the development of
computers, related components, and software. Eight of the 11
different languages that have been studied for the second
type of application were Soviet developments, with varying
degrees or dependence on adaptation of prior Western work.
SIMULA is an ALGOL-based simulation language which was
leveloped for a US company by Dr. Kristen Nygaard, Director
Jf the Norwegian Computer Center. Nygaard later provided
=ignificant assistance in the implementation and use of
SIMULA by Soviet computers. In addition to presenting a
number of seminars on the language during visits to the
USSR, Nygaard received Soviet specialists at his facility in
Norway where he collaborated with them in developing SIMULA
compilers for the Jral series of computers during 1967. (98)
(89) The Central Economics Mathematics Institute has been a
leaner in Soviet development of SIMULA language
capabilities, probably because no suitable Soviet simulation
Lanquage was available for use by the institute in its
Assignment to develop models of the Soviet economy.
In 1970 the Soviets were reported to have SIMULA
:compilers for tee a2sr:-3M, URAL-14, and UPAL-16 computers
ind to nave a compiler for the BESM-6 under development.
(90) Increasing Soviet interest in SIMULA application is
exemplified by its incorporation in multipurpose language
3evelopments under A. F. Yersnov. (79) The Soviets probably
prefer SIMULA to other Western-aeveloped simulation
languages because or its ready availability and its close
relationship to ALGOL, to which they are already committed.
in addition to its value in economic applications, SIMULA
could be used to develop systems for logistical support and
communications.
Although the Soviets have studied and experimented with
everai nesters computer-aided design lanquages, most of
their reported applications have: involved lanquages of their
:awn development. Soviet capabilities for development and use
3f these languages have been seriously handicapped by the
Limited storagE, and input/output capabilities of- their
iomestic computers. Thus, by far the qreatest amount of
soviet erfort or, system design languages has been aimed at
ievelopment of computers and other electronic components and
ccircuits.
-he earlie:,t aria the most widely used system design
Language is the aiL-derived language, LYAFAS. (91) (92) This
language was developed by A. D. Zakrevskiy and his
rssociates at the Tomsk State University. LYAFAS was
>pecifically developed as a computer-aided design language
ind reportedly has been implemented on most Soviet
:omputers, It seems to be a highly specialized Boolean
Logic language. It was kept close to machine language in
order to minimize the computer storage required for its use
Ind is tnereiore very difficult to use. (93-95)
.'rom the standpoint of possible uses in classified
projects, probably the most significant Soviet system design
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Language is PRCYLKT. :t was developed as a cooperative
3ffort of several facilities in the Moscow area under the
leadership of N. Ya. Matyukhin and Ye. I. Gurvich; the
latter has also experimented with Western-developed
languages. As previously noted, people associated with
programming developments at the institute designated NIIAA
nave been assigned to projects which are related to military
research and development.. Reports from a 1967 seminar
chaired by Gurvich revealed an association between
computer-aided design work at NIIAA and related work at a
facility listed as MNIIP,
to be engaged in military electronic aevice nts.
(MNIIP is believed to be a cover designation for NII-17 in
Moscow which has been concerned with computers for use in
missile systems. (74) In describing the PROYEKT language in
1967, Matyukhin noted that it was designed to overcome
inherent inadequacies which existed in previously designed
Soviet languages such as LYAIAS.
PROYEKT was developed on the basis of the general
purpose ALGOL-60 language and was designed with adequate
computational and string capahilites, good report
generation, and strong input/output (I/O) capabilities. The
I/O incluues alphanumeric printers and plotters. This
language was described as suitable for solving problems of
synthesizing and modeling digital automata and for solving
many algorithms used for structural design. This is perhaps
the most advanced language developed ny the Soviets for
system design efforts.
Results of the PROYEKT language work probably formed
the basis for the ASP automated design system described by
Matyukhin and Gurvich in 1969 for the M-220 computer. As
was the case with the ROYFKT language effort, the ability
to produce detailed and thoroughly checked documentation
Automatically for all phases of the design process has been
emphasized in the ASP developments. The ASP system appears
to be intended for use in the development of
third-generation computers. The Soviet system has
incorporated all of the critical features of the Solid Logic
Design System (SLDA) developed in 1964 by IBM for use in
designing and preparing documentation for the 360-model
computers. ASP is called a two-stage system that uses
ALGOL-basea programming languages. The first stage deals
with the functional and structural simulation of the
proposed computer and uses a language called MODIS. (96)
(97) A second language called MOLK is used for
specification and testing of the detailed Boolean logic
description of the designs for functional units. The MOLK
language also is used for at least part of the second state
of the ASP system which specifies the physical
implementation of the logical design. The authors claim
that the total size of the basic anu auxiliary ASP programs
is approximately 35,000 instructions. The experiences of IBM
with the SLDA system indicate that a much more extensive set
of programs for computers with considerably better internal
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and auxiliary storage capabilities than the M-220 would be
needed for the ASP system to be used effectively in the
design or any major new computers.
The Institute of Applied Mathematics of the Academy of
Sciences in Moscow, which previously has been identified
with space and military projects, also has worked on
designing languages and compilers apparently intended for
classified projects. in 1967, Yu. M. Bayakovskiy described
the development of a computer-aided design Language called
)PAL, which was similar to a Western lanquage specifically
intended for the design of parallel processors. In response
to questions on the use of the OFAL language, the cryptic
.comment was made that it had been used by IAM for the design
:)f small parallel computers intended for "unpleasant
Purposes." (98)
The most publicized Soviet work on software for
computer-aided design has been done at the Institute of
:ybernetics in Kiev. In addition to having worked with the
LYAPAS language, they have also studied and experimented
with languages of Western design and origin, notably LOTIS
-nd SLANG. (99) One internally developed language, ALOS,
has been used to describe the logic of a computer, and an
improved version called ALGORITHM is used in the institute's
PROYEKT computer design system (not to be confused with the
PROYEKT language previously discussed). Once again, V. M.
>lushkov and his colleagues at the Institute of Cybernetics
have chosen to use a language quite different from that of
other Soviet groups working on similar problems. Generally,
the qroup in Kiev has concentrated more heavily on a design
program rather than on optimization of the language used.
In part of their work they have used the assembly language
or Autocoue for the M-220, and its limitations may have
prompted their more recent selection of the higher level
ALGORITHM language. rractical results presently within the
capabilities of the ALGORITHM language and the PROYEKT
system still appear to he at most designs for relatively
ainor subunits of computers. (100-104)
Other Soviet organizations, such as the Institute of
?recision Mechanics and Computing Techniques in Moscow, also
nave made what appear to be major efforts on computer-aided
design, but information is too fragmented for assessment of
the software employed. The need to produce good
documentation as well as good logical and engineering design
for computer equipment is an area commonly emphasized in
Soviet work on computer-aided design. The need for using
computers to assist in the design, checking, and
documentation of software for new computers also is
mmphasized, but results do not yet appear to he
satisfactory. In late 1969, Soviets concerned with
programming specialized computers for space acknowledged a
lack of software that would allow them to model and debug
completely the programs for the specialized computers. (71)
Inadequacies in Soviet software for system design also are
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indicated by failure to develop maintenance programs for the
IBM-360 type computers along with the hardware.
The miscellaneous languages include those used for
information retrieval, compiler writing, analog computer
modeling, and geometry. Six of these languages were
developed in the Soviet Union, and a seventh, SYNTOL--an
information storage and retrieval language--was developed in
France.
The SArAM language is based on ALGOL-60 (105) and is
used for automatic programming of analog machines. A
translator has been developed that transforms the
mathematical description of a model in SAPAM source language
into the language of analog computer components. This could
be a powerful tool for use in the support of engineering
problems related to military systems development. One
indication that SAFAM might be intendea for use in
classified projects is the apparently deliberate concealment
of the affiliation of its developers.
In three separate articles V. F. Turchin briefly
described the RE'_'AL language and compiler without supplying
any technical details. (106-10:3) REFAL (recursive functions
algorithmic language) was developed at the Institute of
Applied Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences in
Moscow, apparently for the purpose of writing translators. A
REFAL compiler translates the REFAL language into assembly
language for the 3ESM-6 computer.
The ALMO language was developed about 1966 by V. M.
Kurorkhin, S. S. Kamynin, F. Z. Lyubimskiy, and V. V.
Lutsikovich at the Institute of Applied Mathematics in
Moscow. (56)(109)(110) ALMO is a machine-oriented, rather
than a problem-oriented, intermediate language and serves as
an abstract representation of machines. It is similar in
concept to UNCOL (universal computer oriented lanquage) in
the United States; however, the US has never successfully
developed UNCOL nor any similar language. Apparently each
higher level language is to be reduced to ALMO as an
intermediate language and then ALMO is to be translated to
each machine lanquage. For example, the FORTRAN-ALMO
translator translates FORTRAN into ALMO and then to machine
language; this compiler is itself written in ALMO. In
addition to the FORTRAN-ALMO translator and the previously
mentioned ALGAKS-ALMO translator, a COBOL-ALMO translator
has been reported to he under development. (111) An ALMO
translator has been developed for the BESM-u with a
compilation rate of 120 instructions per minute under poor
conditions; a large part of this compiler deals with
documentation of the object program.
S. S. Kamynin, F. Z. Lyubimskiy, and A. P. Yershov have
been involved in most Soviet efforts to develop an
intermediate language. Kamynin and Lyubimskiy were involved
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in the development of the A-2 compiler, and Yershov was
interested in an intermediate lanquage for ALFHA.
(59) (60) (112) (113)
The strengths and weaknesses of 34* Soviet computer
languages are depicted in table 1.
*Some of these languages were excluded because of
insufficient data on which to base an evaluation.
"he potential usefulness of these languages in certain
Application areas is depicted in table 2. The figure
provides an overview of the Soviet application capabilities
tud needs reflected in the data presented in table 2. The
-act that Soviet computer languages generally have good
-:omputational capabilities is reflected in the overwhelming
majority of 22 that have been ranked A (have all minimum
attributes and excel in at least one) for scientific and
technical problem solution. In the areas of command and
:ontrol, logistics, and tactics, only the Western-developed
'L/l language, which was designed to be machine independent,
iaas been given an A rating; almost 30 have been rated C (do
not meet minimum requirements) for use in thane areas. The
ioviet-developed language PHOYEKT and PL/1 have been rated A
in the area of computer-aided design; of the remaining 32,
23 have been ranked 3 (have only the most important
attributes) and the remaining 9, C. In the two areas of
process control and guidance, the distribution of ratings
rmonq the 34 languages is fairly even: 10 As, 15 Bs, and
the remaining 9, Cs. It should he noted that PL/1 is the
only language which has been rated A in all areas, a good
reason wny Soviet interest in its use has increased.
An operating system
is composed of
that software which
:ontrois the computer
system's
execution of
programs. An
)per.atinq system may
provide
scheduling,
monitoring,
lebugging, input/output
control,
accounting,
compilation,
,torage assignment, data management, and related services.
_)peratinq systems are designed for a specific model of
users of the
hared even b
t
il
t
d
canno
no
:.ompu
er an
y s
eas
y
ame model if minor mo
dificatio
ns have been made at the
various installations.
when provided, standard operating systems for Soviet
serially produced computers generally have been very
unsophisticated. No standard software that could properly be
:alled system software is available for the widely used
linsk-22 models although some individual installations have
developed primitive types for local needs. Such local
modifications probably have slowed the development and use
it standard operating systems. Indeed, successful Soviet
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Attributes of Soviet Computer Languages
Input/
Report
Language
Output
String
List
Computation
Generation
A-COBOL
good
fair
poor
poor
good
ALCOR
poor
poor
poor
good
poor
ALGAMS
poor
good
poor
good
poor
ALGEK
poor
good
fair
good
poor
ALGEM
poor
good
fair
good
poor
ALGOL
poor
fair
poor
good
fair
ALGOL-COBOL
good
poor
poor
good
good
ALGOS
fair
fair
poor
good
poor
ALMO
fair
good
good
poor
poor
ALPHA
fair
fair
poor
good
poor
ALTEM
poor
good
fair
good
poor
APROKS
fair
poor
poor
good
poor
CERN-FORTRAN
fair
fair
poor
good
poor
COBOL
good
fair
poor
poor
good
COMIT
fair
good
poor
poor
fair
EPSILON
fair
fair
---
good
---
FACT
good
fair
poor
poor
good
FORTRAN
fair
fair
poor
good
poor
K-LANGUAGE
LISP
poor
poor
fair
fair
poor
good
good
fair
poor
LOTIS
poor
good
poor
good
---
LYAPAS
poor
good
poor
poor
poor
MALGOL
poor
poor
poor
good
poor
PL/1
good
good
fair
good
good
PROYEKT
fair
good
fair
good
fair
SALGOL
poor
fair
poor
good
poor
SIGMA
poor
fair
good
fair
poor
SIMPOLIZ
poor
poor
poor
good
poor
SIMSCRIPT
fair
fair
fair
good
fair
SIMULA
poor
fair
good
good
poor
SLANG
poor
fair
fair
good
poor
SNOBOL
fair
good
poor
fair
fair
SOL
fair
fair
fair
good
fair
SUBSET-ALGOL
poor
fair
poor
good
poor
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Applications Potential of Soviet Computer Languages
Application Areas
Comp.
Comm. & Process
Aided
S&T
Languages Control Control
Logistics
Tactics
Guidance
Design
Problems
A-COBOL
B
C
B
B
C
C
C
ALCOR
C
B
C
C
B
B
B
ALGAMS
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
ALGEK
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
ALGEM
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
ALGOL
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
ALGOL-COBOL
B
A
B
B
A
B
A
ALGOS
C
A
C
C
A
B
A
ALMO
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
ALPHA
C
A
C
C
A
B
A
ALTEM
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
APROKS
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
CERN-FORTRAN
C
A
C
C
A
B
A
COBOL
B
C
B
B
C
C
C
COMIT
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
EPSILON
C
A
C
C
A
B
A
FACT
B
C
B
B
C
C
C
FORTRAN
C
A
B
C
A
B
A
K-LANGUAGE
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
LISP
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
LOTIS
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
LYAPAS
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
MALGOL
C
B
C
C
B
B
B
PL/1
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
PROYEKT
C
A
C
C
A
A
A
SALGOL
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
SIGMA
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
SIMPOLIZ
C
B
C
C
B
B
B
SIMSCRIPT
C
A
C
C
A
B
A
SIMULA
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
SLANG
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
SNOBOL
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
SOL
C
A
C
C
A
B
A
SUBSET-ALGOL
C
B
C
C
B
B
A
A: has all of the minimum attributes and excels in at least one.
B: has the most important attributes but none of the others.
C: does not meet minimum requirements.
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129 C
Rated Potential Use of Soviet Computer
Languages for Various Applications
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developments in this area are fairly recent; these, too,
have been characterized by independent efforts, owing to a
lack of uniform input/output devices and limited computer
storage capabilities.
The simplest type of computer operating system is one
designed to execute one program at a time. Most Soviet
computer models--even some of the largest ones--employ this
type of operating system, which usually monitors the
progress of program performance, permits the operator to
interrupt the computation at any stage, and may provide for
collection of statistics on job processing. Typical of
these is the auto operator system for the M-20 and M-220
models. (114) (115)
Frequently in Soviet discussions on computer
applications emphasis has been placed on more efficient
techniques for the transfer of blocks of data among internal
and auxiliary stores. one simplistic answer to this problem
is the D2U system which supervises the transfer of data to
and from magnetic tape units of the URAL-11, -14, and -16
computers. (116) An upgraded version of this system, the
DIU.R, was proposed in 1968, but only the D2U has been noted
as standard software with the URAL computers. (117)
In addition to providing for monitoring and record
keeping, which are typical features of the batch mode
operatinq system, various local needs have been satisfied by
individual developments. Some of these have included the
addition of compilers to smaller machines in order to
compile programs written in higher level languages for
larger machines. For example, the BESM-4 installation at
Dubna incorporates an ALGOL compiler to compile programs for
the BESM-6. The IFVF-67 monitoring system was developed for
a MinsK-22 at the Institute of High Energy Physics at
Serpukhov specifically to support a FORTRAN compiler which
could compile CERN-FORTRAN programs. (37)
A multiprogramming system allows concurrent processing
of two or more programs by switching between programs during
computational delays due to input/output or storage
transfers. The BESM-6, which is the largest and fastest
Soviet computer to be announced openly, was supposed to
accommodate multiprogramming features, but initial efforts
were unsuccessful. The Computing Center of the Academy of
Sciences in Moscow was responsible for these developments,
and its failure may have been due to inadequate manpower
assignments and an underestimation of the overall problem.
Although the BESM-6 was available in 1965, the Soviets
sere still working as late as 1971 to develop a satisfactory
operating system. As yet no standard type for all BESM-6
installations has been developed. The criticality of the
problem was evident when the job of developing a standard
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operating system was offered to leading Soviet software
specialists, all of whom declined. This task was finally
assigned to V. S. Shtarkman at hte Institute of Applied
Mathematics, who was diverted from work on the design of
computers more advanced than the BESM-6 to do the job. By
Shtarkman's own admission, this Institute's operating system
for the BESM-6 still is unsatisfactory; it cannot be used
with the BES^-6 at the Computing Center of the Academy of
Sciences due to differences in the hardware configurations
of the BESM-6 installations. (71)
Several other installations have attacked the problem
of providing an operating system for the BESM-6 on the basis
of their own needs. At the Institute of Cybernetics in Kiev
the BESM-6 is multiprogrammed to handle up to three jobs in
core; further details are unknown. The BESM-6 operating
system at Dubna was developed jointly by the Institute of
?recision Mechanics and Computer Techniques, the Joint
Institute of Nuclear Research, and the Computer Center of
Moscow State University. This operating system uses a
virtual memory paging technique for multiprogramming and has
an interrupt capability; SUBSET-ALGOL 50 and CERN FORTRAN
compilers as well as a SIBFSt^-6 assembler are available, and
the system relies heavily on subroutine libraries existing
in source language, machine language, or SIBESM-6 assembly
language. {36) (~: (118-120)
The problems the Soviets have had in developing an
operating system for the BESM-6 appear to be due in part to
the limited input/output and interrupt capabilities of the
machine. Variations among the different installations
clearly have made interinstitutional collaboration difficult
or impossible.
The Minsk-32 computer is reported to have
multiprogramming capabilities. This computer was designed
as an upgraded follow-on to the Minsk-22; their programs are
compatible. Specifications in 1971 for the Minsk-32
indicated that the central processing unit could accommodate
a maximum of four simultaneous jobs residing in its magnetic
core memory. Sorting, editing, filing, and
assembly/compiling routines reportedly are available, and
the general language used is a symbolic one for which
individual users have developed a number of macro routines.
As with the BESM-6, apparently very little or no
compatibility exists among various Minsk-32 operating
systems due to tape formatting differences within the
various installations (a magnetic tape-based type of
operating system is specified for this model of computer).
(122)
The Soviets are now attempting to follow the US lead in
leveloping computers patterned after the logical
architecture of the IBM/360 series. The first models in the
Soviet line, the ASVT (modular computer hardware system)
series, were discussed at the first All Union Conference on
Programming held in Kiev in 1968. (123) The operating system
of the ASVT series is reported to have multiprogramming and
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multiprocessing capabilities. Economic, process control,
and scientific libraries are said to be available, and high
level language compilers, an assembler, and debuqqing and
diagnostic utilities are said to exist. (124-126) While the
instruction set of the ASVT series appears to be the same as
that of the IBM/360 models, the extent of their
7ompatibility is not known, nor is it known whether the ASVT
series has the kinds of special instructions that would
permit use of IBM/360 compilers and other system software
without considerable reprogramming. There are reported to
be six models in the ASVT series--M-1000 through M-6000--but
only M-400r through M-6000 are believed to be
third-generation computers (i.e., thin- or thick-film hybrid
And/or integrated circuits). (127)
A time-sharing system is a multiprogramming system in
which multiple users have simultaneous access to the
resources of the computer system. This operating system
makes it appear to each user that he has a completely
dedicated computer system at his disposal.
The Soviets have been trying since the mid-1960s to
develop general purpose time-sharing systems for day-to-day
use. indirect evidence indicates that some of their
efforts--at least initially--were aimed at military
applications, possibly for command and control systems.
(128)
The Soviets have claimed that a number of their
operating systems have time-sharing capabilities, but the
openly reported work on time-sharing systems has been
experimental or very simplistic and confined to scientific
research and development establishments. One operating
system that may incorporate time-sharing features is the
SIRENA system for airline reservations. At present, this
system reportedly employs some remote terminals with display
devices, but Soviet interest in acquiring western systems
for the same purpose indicates that SIRENA is a simplistic
first attempt at an on-line time-sharing system.
(129) (130) (153)
Of the 24 operating systems identified, eight have been
declared by the Soviets to be time-sharing systems.
However, the ATSS, UVK, and Dnepr-21 systems seem to be
small process control systems with only a crude interrupt
capability to simulate a time-sharing environment. (131-134)
The TENZOR system, developed in Moscow oy M. M. Bezhanova,
operates in a dialogue mode to permit several users
simultaneously to solve linear algebraic problems, with
partially automatic selection of the solution method. (135)
The first Soviet testing of a general purpose
time-sharing system was carried out on a Dnepr-2 computer at
the institute of Cybernetics in Kiev around 1969.
Teletype-like terminals physically located in the same room
as the computer were connected to the computer in a
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time-sharing mode. It was hoped that the Dnepr-2 would
eventually operate as a remote terminal to the larger
BESM-6; further specifics or characteristics for this system
are lacking. (72) (136)
The operating system developed for the BESM-6 computer
by M. R. Shura-aura and his associates at the Institute of
Applied Mathematics in Moscow supports a
conversational mode via teletypes, but not enough
information on this aspect of the system is available for a
complete evaluation. (137) (138)
Perhaps the most widely publicized Soviet attempt to
develop a time-sharing system is the AIST (automatic
information station system), which was assigned to the
Siberian Department of the USSR Academy of Sciences at
Novosibirsk. Specifications in 1967 called for this system
to service users as far as 200 kilometers from the computer
center; it was suspected then that certain users had
military affiliations. (128)
The AIST project was broken down into several steps.
AIST-01 supports a conversational ALGOL language
(139) an u i izes M-220 computers and a Minsk-22 monitor
computer. (111) Software includes system programs, batch
processing, console debugging, an incremental compiler,
analytic manipulation, and a document search text editor.
(31) (140) This software package was estimated to be
comprised of 20,000 words. (12) Originally scheduled to be
operational in the summer of 1968, (128) AIST-O was not
implemented until June 1970. (139) The next phase in this
project is AIST-1, involving two BESM-6 computers with a
Ural-14 performing intercommunication functions (141) of
collecting and batching data to send to the BESM-6 for
standard batch processing. (140) This system is to be
located at Akademgorodok and will be capable of
servicing more than 100 termina s at remote locations. (139)
Further developments in the AIST project include integration
of several BESM-6 computers in order to serve several
hundred users. (ILLO) In light of the delays in AIST -0, it
is probable that AIST-1 is still in the experimental stage
and that more ambitious efforts at time-sharing are only in
the design stage.
As early as 1965 the Soviets began to realize that many
advantages could be gained by designing and developing
computers similar to those widely used in the West. In that
same year they launched the previously mentioned ASVT
series, to be used in hierarchical computer systems for data
processing in the planning of industrial operations as well
as for on-line process control.
The second major effort directed against the S/360
design is the RYAD series of computers being developed
jointly by the Soviet Union and the Eastern European
countries. A 1968 decision to copy the IBM/360 designs for
25X1
25X1
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this project resulted in plans to develop six basic computer
models and several modifications (144). While the three
larger models probably are still in the design stage--due to
the increased number and more advanced design of planned
integrated circuits--serial production of the three smaller
models and several variations has reportedly begun. There
are firm indications that software for the RYAD series of
computers probably will be highly oriented toward the PL/1
language.
Developing operating systems for the RYAD series
probably will prove to be a troublesome exercise since there
are indications that the Soviets have neglected--as they did
for the BESM-6--to devote sufficient effort to the problems
associated with the Job Control Language, JCL (used to
initiate and control job processing and to provide data
characteristics and peripheral equipment requirements at the
time a program is executed). JCL has been one of the
biggest problems for programmers using the complex and
advanced MVT S/360 operating system, and the same types of
problems would probably exist in using the entire set of
S/360 reference manuals. A Soviet translation of the IBM
3/360 JCL manual would probably add to the ambiguities
already present in the manual. If the Soviets attempt to
use a bootlegged "tape" copy of the 360 operating system,
they may expect to encounter both operational and technical
difficulties--especially if the RYAD hardware is similar but
not totally identical to that of S/360, as design
specifications indicate.
Modeling computer systems after the S/360 can make
available a myriad of related software packages for various
Applications and thereby reduce design efforts plus the
expenditure of time and manpower. However, through naivete
and inexperience the Soviets probably will have to solve a
great many operating system programming problems before
achieving successful operation of the RYAD series of
computers.
User groups or associations have been conspicuously
beneficial to both the.developers and employers of computer
hardware and software in the West. In both formal meetings
and informal communications these groups have shared
programs, ideas, and experiences in order to publicize new
developments and alert other users to possible problems and
corrective measures for their alleviation or circumvention.
Such user group activity in the Soviet Union is
probably minimal. In 1968 there was an All-Union Congress
on Programming in Kiev, but there was no society in being
for programmers; instead, reports were published in
Kibernetika, a journal of the Academy of Sciences in Kiev.
(31) As of 1969 no organization comparable to the US
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) existed in the
USSR, although small user groups reportedly were exchanging
software. (50) Thus, the numerous gatherings to discuss
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topics oZ common concern to computer users appear to be
one-time events and not really coutinuinq organizations.
(145) (146)
The reason tor the small number of formal Soviet user
Iroups prouably has been the lack of standardized hardware
ind software in the Soviet Union. The various hardware
configurations of the same model of computer necessitate
software variations before a given program can be
successfully executed at another location. Also, the
independence of computer manufacturers in the Soviet Union
allows them to deliver a computer without the responsibility
for bacK-up maintenance support, which in turn forces the
and user to develop independently his own software support,
i practice which is unheard of in the West.
The only formal Soviet user groups are the associations
Linked to each of the major computer models produced in the
Soviet Union (147-150) plus several miscellaneous groups
concerned with computer information dissemination. (148)
(151) (152) The largest and best organized group appears to
be the Association of Users of the Mir Series of Computers.
(150) This association reportedly has a constitution,
charges dues, and has 102 organizations as members.
?robably the newest group to come into existence is the HYAD
3roup, formed in 1971 as an intergovernmental association to
discuss methods of cooperation in using the RYAD series.
(149) This group is probably somewhat premature since the
ZYAD computer is still being developed and is far from being
in day-to-day use. However, its inception and reported
existence indicate that the Soviets now recognize that there
is much to be Gained through standardization, cooperation,
and back-up support in the computer hardware and software
areas.
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Computer languages can be characterized by certain
functions which they support, how well they are capable of
performing these functions, and how well suited they are for
certain applications. Following are definitions of five
attributes, each with three ratings for judging. how well
individual languages support these attributes. These three
ratings are not absolute but relative; they represent a
dross way of evaluating a language's capability. These are
followed by definitions and general characteristics of seven
areas of application and by table 3 which summarizes minimum
language attributes desirable for these seven applications.
LjaqUa_qe Attributes
InputLQutpv_.t_Cagahi].ity--The types of input and output
devices that can be supported and the convenient use of the
devices.
1) Poor--The language supports only a very basic
I/O capability, such as paper tape input and output or
specialized sensor devices.
2) Fair--Tho language support includes the basic
capability plus magnetic tape handling and a printer
capability.
3) Good--The language supports basic I/O, tape
handling, printer capabilities and random access
devices.
String_Frocessing--The capability to handle
alphanumeric character representations in nonnumeric
operations.
1) Poor--The language can support only fixed
length strings in a few basic operations.
2) Fair--The language can support fixed and
variable length strings in a few basic operations.
3) Good--The language can support fixed and
variable length strings in a wide assortment of
operations.
List_jrocessing--The ability to list or chain-together
logically related alphanumeric character strings.
1) Poor--The language supports no list
capabilities explicitly but does allow programmers to
create their own form of list processing.
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2) Fair--The language supports basic list
processing with a few basic operations.
3) Good--The language supports list processing
very easily and contains many operations.
Computations--The ability to perform mathematical
operations.
1) Poor--The language supports basic operations
(addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) in
perhaps one number form (i.e., floating point only).
2) Fair--The language supports the basic
operations in both integer and floating point
representation.
3) Good--The lanquage supports basic operations in
multiple representations and easily describes
mathematical calculations. A large mathematical
subroutine library is included.
3eport_9ene121ion--The ability to write "management
type" reports including both computational results and
alphanumeric information.
1) Poor--The language supports a very basic
capability for printing in which a programmer has to
worry about many details.
2) Fair--The language supports a basic capability
and includes aids to simplify the programmer's effort.
3) Good--The language supports a sophisticated
capability making it very easy to write reports.
&R21ication. Areas and Attributes
Command _andcontrol--A computer system which supports
various levels of military personnel in a chain of command
by providing information necessary to carry out their
objectives. A command and control system relies on such
operational subsystems as logistics and tactical systems for
information. it is a military management information system
with the following characteristics:
1) Large amount of data,
2) Relatively simple calculations,
3) Complex data handling requirements, and
u) Complex report generation.
Tactical_System--A computer system which aids in the
arranging, positioning, or maneuvering of forces in contact,
or near-contact, with the enemy so as to achieve the
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objectives in an air or surface battle. Characteristics
are:
1) Storaqe of vast amounts of data,
2) Retrieval of vast amounts of data in real time,
3) Formatting and printing of small amounts of data,
and
4) Deletinq and adding elements to large lists of data
in real time.
Logistics_System--A computer system that facilitiates
the support (liven by a command (or other) organization to a
person, activity, unit, or force in which all or any part of
its supplies, equipment, combat materiel, maintenance,
transportation, administration, or any other service is
furnished to enable the person, activity, unit, or force to
carry out its own operation more expeditiously.
Characteristics are:
1) Storage of vast amounts of data,
2) Retrieval of vast amounts of data in a reasonable
time period,
3) complexity of interrelated items,
4) Formatting and printing of large amounts of data,
and
5) Deleting and adding elements to large lists of data
in a reasonable time period, i.e., one to seven days.
GuidanceSystem--A computer system which completely or
partially controls the act of guiding a moving object (e.g.,
rockets, bombs, or other missiles) along a course.
:haracteristics are:
1) Heal time,
2) Storage of a small volume of data, and
3) Complicated mathematical calculations.
grocess_Coietrol_Sy_.tem--A computer system used in
controlling some technological process (e.g., petroleum
refining or steel malting). An advanced process control
system is a closed system in wnich inputs are evaluated and
an optimal output command (e.g., change the temperature to
115 degrees) is sent electronically without human
intervention. An elementary type is an open system in which
the suqqested output command is printed or displayed and
human intervention is required actually to execute the
command, (e.g., turn the burners up to increase heat).
characteristics are:
1) Real time,
2) Storage of a small volume of data,
3) Simple comparisons of values against object values,
and
4) Comulex calculations (required for the advanced
type).
92mpu1-er_a ided_Design_System (digital computers) --A
computer system used to facilitate the design and
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implementation of digital computers. Characteristics are:
1) Storage of large amounts of data,
2) Complicated mathematical and logical
computations, and
3) Gooa report generation capabilities.
Scientific and Technological Problems--Problems
concerned with complex computations such as matrix
inversion, evaluation of mathematical formulas, and
3ngineerinq calculations. Characteristics are:
1) Minimal input/output,
2) Vast amounts of computation, and
3) processing of a small volume of data.
Table 3 summarizes the minimum language attributes
desirable for these application areas.
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Minimum Language Attributes Desirable for Certain Applications
Application
Input/
Report
Areas
Output
String
List
Computation
Generation
Command &
control
good*
fair
fair
fair
good*
Process
control
fair
poor
poor
good*
poor
Logistics
good*
fair
fair
fair
good*
Tactics
good*
fair
fair
fair
fair
Guidance
fair
poor
poor
good*
poor
Computer-
aided design
fair
fair
fair
good*
fair
Science &
Technology
poor
poor
poor
good*
poor
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The following abbreviations have been used for
publications cited in these references:
Abbreviation Russian Title
DAN Eoklady Akademii
Nauk SSSR
Report of the Academy
of Sciences, USSR
TPVKpoP Turdy Pervoy
Vsesoyuznoy
Kon.ferentsii po
Frogrammirovaniyu
_VVKpoP Trudy Vtoroy
Vsesoyuznoy
nonferentsii po
L rogrammirova niyu
VAN Vestnik Akademii
Nauk SSSR
ZhVNiMF Zhurnal
Vychislitel'noy
Natematiki i
Matematicheskoy
Fiziki
Proceedings of the
First All-Union
Conference on
Programming
Proceedings of the
Second All-Union
Conference on
Programming
Herald of the Academy
of Sciences, USSR
Journal of Computer
Mathematics and
Mathematical Physics
1. Yershov, A. P. "Fundamental Principles for the Setup
of a Programming Program at the Mathematical Institute of
the Siberian Department of the Academy of Sciences, USSR,"
Sibirskiy Matematicheskiy Zhurnal, v 2, no 6, 1961, p
835-852
2. Yershov, A. P. "Operator Algorithms (Basic Concepts)
Part I," Problemy Kibernetiki, no 3, 1960, p 5-48
3. D'yachenko, V. F. "Transformation of Logical Systems
of Algorithms," Problemy Peredachi Informatsii, no 17, p
35-47
4. Yanov, Yu. I. "On the Equality of Program Schemes and
Their Transformations," DAN, v 113, no 1, 1957, p 39-42
5. Bekishev, G. A. "Deparallelization of Computer
Algorithms," Vychislitel'nyye Sistemy, no 5, 1963, p 22-30
6. Yershov, A. P. "Reducing the Problem of Memory
Allocation During Program compiling to the Problem of
Coloring Chart Vertices," DAN, v 142, no 4, 1 Feb 62, p
785-789
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Obtaininq Random Numbers," Problemy Pecedachi Informatsii,
no 11, 1962
8. Lyapunov, A. A. "An Algebraic Treatment of
?rogramminq," Problemy Kibernetiki, no 8, 1962, p 235-241
9. Kirov, Anatoliy Ivanovich, and Krinitskiy, Nikolay
Andreyevich Electronic Digital Computers and Programming,
2nd ed., Moscow, Fizmatgiz, 1961
11. Yershov, A. F., Kozhukhin, G. I., and Voloshin, Yu. M.
"Input Language for Automatic Programming Systems,"
8eferativnyy Zhurnal-Kibernetika, no 7, Jul 64
13. Popov, V. N., Stepanov, V. A., Stisheva, G. A., and
Travnikova, N. A. "A Compiler," ZhVMiMF, v 4, no 1, Jan-Feb
54, p 78-95
14. Gladun, V. P., Letichevskiy, A. A., ;1ikhnovskiy, S.
3., and tabinovich, Z. L. "Expanded ALGOL," ZhVMiMF, v 5,
no 2, Mar-Apr 65, p 369-372
15. Shura-Bura, M. R., and Lyubimskiy, E. Z. "An ALGOL-60
lonverter," ZhVMiMF, v 4, no 1, Jan-Feb 64, p 96-112
16. Shura-aura, M. R. "International Scientific Life,"
VAN, no 11, Nov 60, p 94-97
17. Glushkov, V. M. "On a Signle Synthesis Algorithm for
Abstract Automats," Ukrainskiy %atematicheskiy Zhurnal, v
12, no 2, Apr 60, p 147-156
18. Yershov, A. P., Lavrov, S. S., and Shura-Bura, M. R.
"Input-Output Procedures in the ALGOL-60 Language," ZhVMiMF,
v 4, no 5, p 970-973
19. Shura-Bura, M. R. "Programminq," Mathematics in USSR
Over Forty Years, 1917-1957, Moscow, v 1, 1959, p 879-886
20. "Development of Research on the Automation of
Programming," VAN no 5, 1964, p 19-26
21. Smirnova, T. N. "A Polynomial Compiler and the
Performance of Analytic Transformations with the Aid of an
Electronic Computer," Trudy Matematicheskoy instituta,
Moscow, v bb, 1962
22. Morozov, Yu. I. "Programming System of the Compiling
Type (PSK-1)," Referativnyy Zhurnal--Matematika, no E, 1962
23. Arin', F. I. "The Symbolic Address Method for a
Two-Address Computer," Referativnyy Zhurnal--Avtomatika i
Radioelektronika, no 12, 1961
24. Krinitskiy, N. A., Mironov, G. A., and Fiolov, G. 0.
Programming, Moscow, Fizmatqiz, 1963
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Levina, A. M., and Maklahov, A. V. "FORTRAN-AL"10 System of
Programming," TPVKpoP, 1966
36. Govorun, N. N., Veretenov, V. Yu., Volkov, A. I.,
Zaikin, N. S., Silin, ~. N., Fedorova, R. N., and Shirikov,
V. P. "The Dubna Monitoring System for the BESM-6,"
TVVKpoP, Feb 70, p 3-6
37. Sokolov, S. N., Kalinchenko, P. A., Lupashina, I. S.,
Makarov, V. A., Markov, A. S., and Popova, I. V. "The
FORTRAN IFVE Translator," TPVKpoP, 1968
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