REPORT OF THE PANEL ON POWER SOURCES TO THE TECHNICAL COORDINATION COMMITTEE 18 OCTOBER 1972, REVISION

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP74B00535R000100130002-8
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 36
• Document Creation Date: December 19, 2016
• Document Release Date: May 30, 2006
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: October 18, 1972
• Content Type: REPORT

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Report of the Panel on Power Sources to the
Technical Coordination Committee
18 October 1972, Revision
This Report is believed to reflect Power Source efforts within
this Agency. It understandably reflects the background and
beliefs of the members of the Panel.
Approved For Release
Respectfully submitted,
OEL/DD/S&T
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CONTENTS
BACKGROUND
Overview
Major Power Source Fields
Uniqueness of Agency's Requirements
LONG-RANGE OBJECTIVES
Technical
Organization
CURRENT CAPABILITIES
Technical
Organizational
ACTIVE-PROGRAM INVENTORY
Power Source R, D, & E Program
Project Listing by Functional Requirements
EVALUATION OF PROGRAM ADEQUACY
Overview
New Initiatives
Technical Gaps
Parallel Efforts
Lithium Cell Technology
Radioisotope Sources
Power Source Testing
Policy, Political or Organizational Problems
RECOMMENDATIONS
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Report of the Panel on Power Sources to the
Technical Coordination Committee
18 October 1972
(Written 5 May 1972)
(Revised 11 May 1972)
BACKGROUND
Overview
Power Source expenditures for R, D, T & E in the Federal
Government has ranged from 148M in FY65 to 67M in FY71 (Table
1). This sum excludes prime movers (engines), spatial arrays,
and nuclear reactor systems; it also excludes the major amounts
of items buried within systems development programs such as the
120M plus for the Apollo fuel cell. It encompasses "packaged
power" items of almost infinite variety. The current reference
for Power Source activities is a series of Project Brief Sheets
issued and maintained by the InterAgency Advanced Power Group.
Some 2600 Briefs have been issued over the past 14 years!
The many energy sources and conversion systems provide
a user with wide-ranging trade offs. Commercially, stand-
ardized sizes and capacities of many types exist to meet
volume markets in a highly competitive cost situation.
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. Table 1
GOVERNMENT POWER SOURCE EXPENDITURES
Amounts in Thousands of Dollars
(Complied by Power Information Center)
FY65
FY68
FY71 ?
TOTAL
1965-1971
Electrochemical
$18,457
$11,299
$ 9,835
$ 84,080
Electromagnetic
1,835
1,604
261
7,280
M(;chanica1
86,627
39,136
30,016
323,064
MUD
3,047
3,409
2,225
19,248
Photoelectric
3,655
10,047
2,583
40,040
Power Conditioning
1,885
3,620
1,617
20,752
Solar - XX
1,715
875
1,673
7,222
Nuclear - XX
0
4,044
40
8,979
Thermoelectric
14,362
25,308
8,741
127,835
Thermionic
9,012
7,768
4,989
53,956
Miscellaneous
7,110
13,709
5,176
67,051
X-XX
0
0
66
106
TOTAL ,I
$147,705
$120,819
$67,222
$759,613
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Requirements for Agency use, however, invariably include
operational features of life, duty cycle, form factor, etc.,
which lead to characterizing the bulk of our efforts as
being in the Special Purpose Power Supply field.
Special Purpose Power Supplies cannot be developed
without substantive interfacing with the using equipment.
The power supply selected for applications engineering will
range from an adaptation of established technology to the
early exploitation of a new concept. In general such work
is very costly, for user confidence can only be built upon
test data derived from highly controlled, manufactured items.
To develop, engineer, produce, and evaluate a new power
source for operational use is typically a $500,000 effort
over a period of several years. New efforts beyond the
exploratory phase should not be initiated lightly. This
state of affairs also points up the need for early coor-
dination when new electronics systems are contemplated to
reduce lead time and point up those new areas of power
source technology which merit close attention to satisfy
a need.
There is not, nor will there ever be, a universal
power source. This being the case, this Agency, as well
as DoD, AEC, NASA, and other governmental consumers, must
remain knowledgeable with regard to all power sources and
energy conversion capabilities and concepts. Selectively,
power supply tasks are urdertaken to satisfy customer
objectives, and infrequently, research is undertaken on
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identifiable, limiting materials or system problems. It is
noted that the Power Source field is rarely given sufficient
attention early in a systems program, perhaps because it is
a field in which almost every engineer considers himself
self-sufficient yet the many power sources problem areas
contradicts this assumption.
Major Power Source Fields
To provide an added perspective to the scope of this
subject, it is useful to present a summary taken from the
Charter Document of the InterAgency Advanced Power Group
(PIC 119/1.4, November 1963). The classification of the
Technical Fields of Interest is:
Electrical - Energy conversion to electrical forms,
including electrical energy control, by electromechanical,
electromagnetic, electrostatic, magnetohydrodynamic,
electronic, and solid state devices, excluding photo
voltaic and photoemissive devices.
Electrochemical - All electrochemical systems,
including chemical batteries, biochemical devices,
simple fuel cell systems, and regenerative fuel cell
systems, regardless of the source of energy for
regeneration.
Mechanical - Energy conversion to mechanical,
hydraulic, and pneumatic energy. Includes working
fluids, materials, heat transfer processes, heat
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transfer and storage equipment, and other components
of mechanical conversion systems, including energy
sources. Additionally, includes hydraulics, pneumatics,
,and lubrication developments.
Nuclear - Nuclear fission and radioisotope power
sources and related systems.
Solar - Collection of solar radiation, its storage,
and its conversion to heat or other energy forms. In-
cludes photovoltaic and photoemissive devices and related
systems.
It is the Brief Sheets issued by the Power Information Center
(University of Pennsylvania) that provides the basic input to
the establishment and conduct of any Special Purpose Power
Supply program such as that required by the Agency.
Uniqueness of Agency's Requirements
The dominant influence on the Agency's requirements for
power sources is the environment. Unlike the Military, NASA
and the AEC, the overriding problems facing the power supply
developer are concealment, detectability, very long service
life, and highly unusual duty cycles to protect emplacements.
Even the basic problem of reliability differs for one must
prove long-term performance capabilities on nonproduction
items and on an accelerated basis.
Any new need must start with an in-depth analysis of the
using equipment and its operating environment. Will it be
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employed on a mountain top, the desert, a city, or indoors
or outside and in what climatic zone? As devices become more
sophisticated and/or smaller and as operating environments
become more hostile, new sources must be proven. Use is made
of established National capabilities but a few illustrations
will show wherein this organization is faced with R, D & E
problems in order to exploit existing technology.
a. In the primary battery field, attempts are made
to utilize known chemical systems, but no other consumer
is faced with the problems of an This
Agency must therefore press for abnormally long-life
performance and for high-energy density on a volume basis.
b. The secondary battery field has been highly
developed by NASA. Since a majority of their cells are
of the sealed type, they are not unique to space appli-
cations. Normally, this Agency needs only to select a
battery type and interface it with the using system.
Difficulties invariably arise however in gaining energy
for recharging and in meeting weight and volume demands
imposed by operational considerations. Difficulty also
arises from the fact that despite
NASA effort, there
are only three battery systems available to choose from
when designing a secondary battery power source.
c. The solar conversion field has seen NASA R&D
expenditures estimated at well over one hundred million
dollars. This Agency when faced with terrestrial needs
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contends with a whole set of new parameters--weather, dirt,
covertness, and variable light incidence spectrally,
directionally, and in intensity--all of which requires
deviations from NASA-optimized equipment for space.
d. Even in the nuclear power source area, the Agency's
operating environments pose problems not faced by the AEC
in their role as the prime movers in such developments.
Further,
the fact that our devices are oriented to foreign use
introduces an entirely new consideration, i.e., the
political. Normally, the application of a nuclear source
can be stated; Agency use of a nuclear source requires
even greater concern with concealment.
LONG RANGE OBJECTIVES
Technical
Long range objectives necessarily reflect recognition of
the fact that most technical collection systems become power
or energy limited as the result of size, weight, life, and
related parametric requirements placed upon the power source.
These limitations demand a very early consideration of power
source capabilities in the development of any collection system.
One cannot establish simple goals of energy or power density.
One can identify significant functional areas for which a major
advance is needed. These are identified below; comments
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relative to their solution are presented in the material
included in the discussion of the various energy conversion
systems and projects.
Organizational
This Panel believes that there is a need to consolidate
and strengthen the Power Source Activities within this Agency,
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if the highest level of capability is to be attained. The
present diffuse staffing and programming is detailed under
CURRENT CAPABILITIES. This objective is developed in some
depth in a discussion associated with a RECOMMENDATION.
- CURRENT CAPABILITIES
Technical
Propulsion Power. In the small engine field for platform
propulsion needs this Agency has recently opened new capa-
bilities with small Wankel Engines and an advanced 4-cycle
engine in the few horsepower range. No further R&D is neces-
sary at this time unless one was to undertake an isotopically
heated Stirling engine; marine requirements might justify such
an effort but it would be costly, long and complicated by
political operational problems. Battery packs will continue
to find use (especially for marine vehicles) in spite of
severe limitations.
Auxiliary Power. No particularly unique capability has
been identified. Various mechanical systems-(ehjines with
motor generators)
are available for the Office of Communi-
cations. The special requirements of the Office of Special
Projects are met by the massive programs of NASA and of the
AEC.
Emplaced Systems.
This requirgment area is perhaps the
most complex. Operational situations and energy demands are
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so varied that almost all types of energy conversion systems
have a role. At this time there is no significant inventory
of capabilities from which to draw. battery 25X1
packs have been used, the latter also have used solar arrays
to gain extended life. Each user need is the basis for a
special study and trade-off analysis; an energy-limited
compromise is usually necessary.
Organizational
Technical Services Division. TSD has by far the strongest
power source development program (excludes Office of Special
Projects). It is highly purposeful and is making use of the
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*Office of Research and Development. Appreciable talent
exists but there is no strong on-going program primarily
because of the lack of involvement in user requirements. R&D
conducted in a vacuum in the power source field will rarely
be productive. Advanced staff capabilities exist in small
engines, special purpose batteries, nuclear systems, and
environmental energy.
Office of Communications. Significant experience in
evaluating and assigning power sources to a wide variety of
equipments has produced a substantial know-how. Some explora-
tory assessments are made of new possibilities but with heavy
emphasis on Test and Evaluation rather than R&D. The capa-
bility is largely in relating available hardware to very
complex worldwide situations. Special capabilities are noted
in electromechanical conversion systems ranging from diesel-
electric to a variety of manually operated, mechanically
driven generators. Experience exists with wind and solar
conversion systems.
Office of Special Projects. This Office has highly
specific needs which are generally satisfied by the R, D, T
& E of the AEC for nuclear systems and of NASA for solar arrays
and secondary battery storage systems. Details were not developed.
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ACTIVE PROGRAM INVENTORY
Power Source R, D & E Program
The organization of the programmatic content within this
study is based upon functional requirements rather than energy
conversion systems. This selection is made in spite of the
overlap of given sources/systems with functions for it better
reflects Agency interests. To present the material in a
meaningful manner, a format has been established which is
suited to the subject matter and which hopefully provides
clarity in a concise form. It must be remembered that any
given effort may well have fall-out values for functional uses
other than that to which it is assigned. Table 2 summarizes
resources. To provide perspective on the major energy con-
version mechanisms, a brief summary by method is provided in
Appendix A.
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EVALUATION OF PROGRAM ADEQUACY
Overview
The major technical efforts in the Agency are in TSD where
a broad-based, objective effort is aggressively pursued and in
ORD where a capability has been established
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for use at audio levels. Other activities reflect
either specific user system needs or scattered exploratory
efforts. Exploratory efforts should be encouraged when related
to the LONG RANGE OBJECTIVES (a) through (j) previously listed.
Critical considerations are the technical concepts and the
confining of efforts to prototypes until a specific application
is defined as the basis for developmental specification.
Continuing references to LONG RANGE OBJECTIVES have been
presented within the detailed project section. Clearly, the
present program is responsive to these Objectives.
New Initiatives
The recommended expanded scope Power Source Program is
given in Table 3. Projects reflect a priority ordering. This
program does not include considerations of any desired increased
level of effort of normal programming. Following Table 3 are
specific discussions of each item presented.
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Terrestrial Solar Converters continue to receive wide
consideration for this source and related converters offer the
single best approach to using environmental energy. Limita-
tions--diurnal, seasonal, meteorological and latitudinal--
exist, therefore, a full system must encompass coupling and
storage capabilities (see Hybrid Systems to follow). Isolated
studies have been made by various Agency elements on array
design, cell selection, operational conditions, camouflage, etc.
What is needed is a fully integrated program to establish
expertise in the adaptation and exploitation of the massive
space capability to the terrestrial environment. Energy levels,
clandestinity, storage requirements are major points to be
treated in establishing the in-house capability to evaluate
effectively the capability of this approach to needs in the
Auxillary Power, Emplaced Systems Power, and Audio Power areas.
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Hybrid Systems as used here means power source capabilities
involving low energy, long duration sources which are not suit-
able for direct use but ones which can be coupled to and used
to maintain the charge on a secondary storage system. This
secondary battery then actually powers the using equipment.
Environmental energy (solar, wind, heat, etc.) depends on such
storage to provide a continuous capability, and nuclear sources
(high energy/low power) often use such storage to provide higher
power capabilities.
There may be cases wherein a high capacity/low power
electrochemical battery could be effectively used to maintain
the charge on a small high-power battery. An example would be
an improved solution to problems of Emplaced Systems wherein
the energy requirement is for standby power, but the power
requirement is set by transmitting power. These tend to be
mutually exclusive in a single battery source.
The approach suggested would be an in-depth evaluation
of storage (i.e., secondary) batteries with emphasis on those
operational parameters of concern in Agency applications.
Parameters of very low-level charging rates and of very long-
term operation are outside of the considerations used by the
developer in arriving at his product capability. Without a
concerted Agency effort, this area will probably not develop
systems useful to the Agency.
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Micro Systems utilize power in a new and unique manner.
Electronic functions and stages operate at the microwatt level.
An orderly investigation should be undertaken of actual power
needs by function or element and consideration should be given
to supply these needs by highly stable sources matched to the
need and supplied in component form for inclusion in the
circuitry phase. With this approach, major gains should be
possible in power economy (system life), in design simplifi-
cation, and in system maintenance.
Fuel Cells, including metal/air types, should be reassessed
for Auxiliary Power and Emplaced Systems needs. The overriding
capability, of course, is energy density; the level of prime
value is for requirements of thousands of watt hours for
extended times (years). The general deterioration of interests
and capabilities Nationally have produced a very cloudy picture
regarding Fuel Cell technology. A staff study is needed to
put this field of endeavor in perspective and to determine what
form of R&D should be undertaken. Interests tend to peak in
terms of Blackbox requirements suitable to a hydrogen/oxygen
form of cell and in the more difficult area of natural gas
consuming fuel cell for worldwide Commo and Audio interests.
Technological Gaps
Gaps "for which no solution is currently foreseen" are
rather hard to define for the limitation is generally one of
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prohibition (policy or cost) or the lack of technical concept
rather than one of theory. Nonetheless, the Panel has identified
three points which merit consideration. These are Requirements,
System Life, and a Data Base.
Requirements generally arise from a user's specification
whereas they should be mutually developed with the power source
expert. In this manner, trade offs can be made to the overall
benefit of the system. Another aspect of the problem (which
is probably not unique to power sources) is that very often
the initiator of a requirement leading to an R&D effort is
transferred overseas or to a new position and the R&D work
accomplishment falls into a vacuum of "who wants this". This
gap makes programming and accomplishment difficult and can
probably be improved only by organizational changes.
System Life probably will remain the dominant problem
until such capabilities as nuclear sources, solar arrays, and
fuel cells are both available and operationally acceptable.
Electrochemical systems have finite limits on energy and power
density as well as stability. The concept of fully packaged
energy for the multiyear duration of a system will probably be
directly dependent upon an advanced nuclear capbility. (An
exception in the sequential activation of reserve batteries
is noted.)
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Data Base problems always arise. The reason is simply
that the Agency uses power sources in specialized ways which
rarely parallel those of other consumers. Accordingly, manu-
facturers and developers have no incentive to acquire the data
needed for our engineering evaluations of the usefulness of
their products. Many examples can be cited wherein an out-
standing power source has failed miserably because of a
seemingly minor deviation in our use. The development of such
a Data Base is very costly and of long duration. Work must be
continued as at present (TSD and Commo); the compensating facet
of broad expertise in power sources must be developed and used.
Parallel/Redundant Efforts
The nature of power sources is such that parallel approaches
must be recognized and supported; such work is "not" redundant
when the parallel efforts are evaluated in an environment free
of the "nih" syndrome.
Lithium Cell Technology
From the list of individual projects presented above,
it can be seen that there is a major effort (primarily in
TSD) to exploit lithium anode electrochemical systems.
These systems are all relatively new (two to three years
at most) and much effort is needed to establish the real
advantages of these systems. The term "lithium cell" is
a misnomer in that there are more than a dozcn present
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systems which utilize lithium as the anode; each of these
systems presents certain advantageous parameters. The R,
D & E effort is in the process of evaluating these various
'systems to find the systems best suited to operational
needs and to develop the advantageous parameters beyond
present levels.
The similarity of projects in this area of the power
sources effort arises from the fact that there is no
extensive bank of experience on which to draw for infor-
mation to allow a decision on which present systems
should be pursued to the exclusion of others. Indeed, the
field is expanding so rapidly that new systems are being
developed by the industry monthly indicating that industry
is not satisfied that present knowledge is sufficient for
a focusing of product attention and effort. In order to
monitor current industrial capability and progress, much
effort is aimed at obtaining quantities of experimental
or laboratory-produced cells for evaluation. Such evalua-
tion requires hundreds of units for meaningful results
and it provides the only bank of information for feedback
to the producer relative to improvements on modifications
necessary for certification for ultimate Agency deployment.
In summary, there are many related or parallel efforts in
the field of lithium anode electrochemical cells which
appear to be redundant procurement actions, however, these
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efforts are mandatory because of the infancy of this
technology and because of the need to have experience
and data upon which to base decisions on ultimate opera-
tional use.
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Power Source Testing
Testing of power sources will probably have to be
continued as separate Office responsibilities because of
the diversity of requirements and because of the respon-
sibility for the ultimate selection of a power source for
a given equipment. This necessarily introduces parallel
efforts with a somewhat inefficient use of resources.
One method of overcoming this is described later in terms
of a centralized Power Source Activity to encompass all
Agency needs.
The testing of primary electrochemical cells (non-
rechargeable) is inherently destructure and, hence, suf-
ficient quantities must be tested to give an adequate
statistical picture to the operational consumer. For
this fundamental reason, testing of such power sources
is and will be expensive. In addition, there is no known
reliable method to accelerate the testing of batteries;
and therefore, the high degree of reliability demanded by
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operations requires continued long-term testing and
evaluation. This facet of the problem adds to the lead
time of power sources certification and to their ultimate
'cost.
Battery reliability is an intensive function of time,
numbers, and effort. As stated in the section on Uniqueness
of Agency's Requirements, long-term performance is a prime
goal of power sources. It can be stated unequivocally
that reductions in funding or man power devoted to unglam-
orous battery testing programs must eventually be reflected
in greater uncertainty as to performance parameters.
Policy, Political, and Organizational Aspects
Key considerations relevant to Program Adequacy are cited
under this heading, but discussions of the various points is
introduced elsewhere in this Report. This approach gives
greater meaning and significance to the considerations and
does limit repetition.
Policy:
(a) Program approval versus task or
project approvals
Political: (a) Competitive attitudes
(b) unih" factors
Organizational: (a) Communications
(b) Fragmentation of resources
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RECOMMENDATIONS
Program
The Power Source Program should be an integrated effort
involving all R, D, T & E capabilities and all consumers.
"Coordination" at management levels does not accomplish this
end nor does it insure full use of resources including those
involved in subcontract situations. Responsibility for des-
cribing and
mendations) is the assignment of this Power Sources Panel;
there is no
approval.
Resources
Resources presently identifiable approximate ,
per year and about three man-years of in-house effort. The
assessing the present overall program (with recom-
basis to define and submit a Technical Program for
dollar value should be doubled both by supporting programs
listed under New Initiatives and by increasing the level of
effort to permit faster more thorough progress on active pro
jects. Man power is grossly inadequate; the recommended level,
if operations continue as at present, would be six to eight.
A later recommendation presents another organizational approach
and program scope which would require a different treatment of
Resources.
Policy
Policy questions in the past have been troublesome in the
area and in the granting of full Program
approvals, particularly when parochial interests become involved.
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It is recommended that a unified Power Source Program be kept
in a current form and that a review channel be established to
act on questions of resource conflict, responsiveness to needs,
acceptability of technical approaches and mission responsibilities.
It is believed that the mechanism now being evolved through the
Agency's R&D Board, as supported by the Technical Coordination
Committee, can supply the required action channel.
Communications
The introduction and use of a procedure for direct working
level use in describing active technical efforts is recommended.
A suggested format is attached as Appendix B. This Brief is
designed for technical communication and is not for planning
or evaluation objectives; it should not become a staff document.
In use the operating element would fill out said form upon the
initiation of an activity, whether it be a contract, subcon-
tract, or a major in-house study. Copies would be distributed
to an established list of recipients to include all R, D, T & E
elements and consumer offices. Revisions would be issued only
at times of a major change in scope; a Final Brief would be
issued to succintly describe the project accomplishment. The
need to implement this recommendation vanishes, if any signifi-
cant form of the Organizational Recommendation is implemented.
Organization
It is recommended that the Agency establish a centralized
Power Source Activity. If one examines the conduct of Power
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Source R&D in the Government, he invariably finds that a broad-
based program is carried out by a multidisciplined, support
element that operates across wide-ranging consumer sponsors.
Rarely is the power source function an integral part of a system
development. Examples can be cited in the nuclear weapons field
at Sandia, in the ammunition development field at the Naval
Ordnance Laboratory and at the Harry Diamond Laboratories, in
the electronics field at the Army's Electronic Command, and in
the space field at the Goddard, Lewis, and JPL Laboratories.
It is observed that within TSD, as the Agency's largest activity
in the field, that the power source function is horizontally
organized within the Division.
A centralized Power Source Activity would permit the con-
duct of a well-integrated activity making optimum use of Agency
human and fiscal resources. Further, it is probably the only
mechanism whereby adequate test and evaluation capabilities
could be established and supported that would be acceptable to
the various consumers.
If a Power Source Activity is to be established the Mission
would properly encompass responsibility for
a. conducting Research and Development
b. conducting Engineering, Test, and Evaluation
c. supporting Applications Engineering segments
of system programs
d. maintaining an industry-wide data base
e. providing consulting services.
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The Scope of such a capability would encompass a full
program covering Propulsion Power, Auxillary Power, Emplaced
Systems Power, Audio Power, and Micro Systems Power requirements
and involve the technologies of Electrical, Electrochemical,
Mechanical, Nuclear, and Solar capabilities.
The physical Location of the recommended Activity is
relatively unimportant provided all segments are in a single
integrated facility. The few thousand square feet of floor
space should include a small wet laboratory. A test and evalua-
tion capability involving five to eight people at an annual
operating cost of perhaps
per year and requiring a facility
investment of kould best be contracted.
Professional Resources to fulfill the responsibilities of
the Activity would be eight to ten individuals representing a
number of disciplines. Financial Resources should be not less
than
annually with a mechanism being provided to support
more costly, specific ventures.
The most difficult question is that of the Placement of
the Activity in the Agency's Organization structure. Realis-
tically, there appear to be three options:
a. a new organizational element established at the
Office or Divisional level,
b. operating unit included as a Branch or Component
in TSD, or
c. operating unit included as a Division in ORD.
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The first option is rejected due to support staff require-
ments (empire/cost) and to a higher probability of communication
problems with users. The advantage of starting with a clean
slate in personal and interoffice relationships does not offset
these disadvantages.
The Panel believes that should the recommendation of a
centralized Activity be favorably received, then an in-depth
assessment of its Placement in the Agency's structure should be
made. Arguments, pro and con, relative to assignment in TSD or
ORD are complex and analysis is judged to be beyond the imme-
diate scope of this effort.
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APPENDIX A
Solar Conversion. This technology is based upon the
direct conversion of light, usually sunlight, to electricity.
NASA with the expenditure of many tens of millions of dollars
has established the National technology in materials and arrays
and provides the substantive base for OSP requirements. Other-
wise, to this Agency the photovoltaic (or solar cell) conversion
is of prime interest in exploiting environmental energy for
possible audio applications, Blackboxes, and emplaced systems.
The new technology needed is operation in terrestrial situations
and in situations of artificial light, normally of low intensity.
TSD and ORD are working closely toward the audio objectives.
Sources involving terrestrial arrays are in use in OC. Frequent
studies are made on special units for emplaced systems. Prob-
lems of concealment, fouling, and low power density requiring
back-up storage batteries generally arise.
Batteries. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to
electrical energy. The field has been widely researched so that
bounds are known for energy density, power density, life and
shelf characteristics. Since every application has its own set
of trade offs, the best battery system must be selected for the
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given application and then engineered into an acceptable device.
It is rare that a battery power pack fully satisfies the user's
goals; his system usually ends up power/energy limited.
It is very difficult to bound a power supply, battery
program. The numerous possibilities coupled with the design
trade offs in the using system define a complex program. Added
difficulties enter in the costs to fabricate controlled items
and in the area of test and evaluation where both numbers and
simulation are required. The program does show heavy emphasis
on improving energy/power density in systems compatible with
the extended life objective. The other requirement of major
influence is concealment. Work directed toward Blackbox
requirements is minimal.
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Environmental Energy. Many studies have been made on
environmental energy sources. Levels of energy/power range
from megawatts to microwatts using hydroelectric turbines, wind
turbines, solar furnaces, solar cells, and many others. In
this Agency's work operational constraints invariably limit the
sources to low-grade heat or light. R&D in this area is frus-
trating due to incompatibilities between operational demands and
the energy sources. Work will continue to be undertaken in
response to sound technical approaches, however, for the pos-
sibility of getting "free" energy without being limited by
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stored materials is most inviting. This area may eventually
produce real capabilities for long life, unattended systems.
'Biological Sources. No effort has been identified. These
sources can have unique value for organically embedded devices,
for example, Pacemakers. No real Agency need exists. "Nih"
activities on implants will be monitored for possible future
use; it is doubtful that any electrode system can be found to
operate as a battery with body fluids within an animate object.
Problems of poisoning and of body fluid imbalance can be expected
from such systems which at best would be very low power devices.
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APPENDIX B
Power Source Brief
Project Title Project Officer
Sponsoring Office Technical Field Classification
Funding Contractor Principal Investigator
Project Goal
Technical Approach
Objective Specification
Project Officer Date
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