'UNDERSTANDING A FOREIGN SOCIETY: A SOCIOLOGIST'S VIEW'*

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• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP55-00001A000100070011-7
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• Document Page Count: 12
• Document Creation Date: November 11, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 21, 1998
• Sequence Number: 11
• Content Type: PAPER

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satisfied with the pro,sress mado to date. It seems apnroprtate to
offer the caution, the-efore, that our problem cannot properly be
defined as one of developing a now science of foreign societies.
There cannot be one social science for the stub of one's own
country, and a different one for the study of other natio;-`s, The
task should properly be etatec tot an one of aaaekin our methods of
research gore adequate for the study of foreign societies, but of
tmprovtng our coneept .l tools and methodological equipment to
make us ore effective in the study of &a society,
X should likwe, therefore, to point out some Aaaaal features
concern* and perhaas as evidene of the fact th.--t they are
to nressaenttf; a s('ctologistle point of view in this symposium
T feel compelled to begin by stating a matter of general principle.
This session m.y be taken as evidence that .meriean social scientists
feel the study of foreign cultures to be a problem of increasing
contributing to the understanding of social systeno as such, keeping
Alex inkeles
Harvard University
38 Quincy Street
of the soetologist's orientation which suit him to the tas?> o
the framework of this symposium only to the extent that my
Sal
illustrative mr
ertal will to drawn from experten
interdiset-
pltnaary research in the study of the Soviet Union.
* Paper read at the annual meeting of the American Sociological
Society, December, 1949, at a joint session with the American
Political Science Association.
This is a first draft, which will be considerably revised before)
publication, and the reader Is urged to keep this fact in mind.
Critical comments will be appreciated.
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wee sociologist who takes institutions as his data can, I
believe, ms e a st l contribution to the eanderstan
prime re* onsi bility for studyiu ; the t,roducttOn and dis-
society through what may, for purposes of diseusssion here,
distinguished as three different foci of research.
to the first -)lace, the sociologist was. enrich the investi-
gaatton of protless or areaat legitt:ately re-rd.ed as the chief
concern of disci; lute other thait sociology, Certainly the econo-
tribution of goods and services, and he has the oczireptual
work and the research at hods to deal most effectively with such
phone
national incomee
baste elements in his
ductivo unit ca able of turctint ou'
which the economist takes as the
process of -ireductioo and.
distribution may be invested h4th Important social measln&n for the
individuals who participate in those -rocesses. The factory is not
merely a
per day,
and emo
5n 7,%%y automobiles
but is also a social organivation in 7tad with values
affect by the participants.
pie, the eiye of the labor force and the facto
Abet cant m, z,ross national output, and
central problems in the
a f any
economy. it would be setting up a straw Zan to pretend
.that our ocono+mists have not cor=e a long wag *oa the type of
eeono-mll.e thinking whit operated as if the behaviour of labor cou
under the same general theory which acco .ted for the
moment of raw materials in the marett ut it is not inaaroprite
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labor supply and itaR disetributio*l among the var!
tress that awnj the 00ACitionse which significantly affect they
economy and between different occupations are social
are not systematically treated to most :systsrnss of
eoonos tc analysise.
To illustrate this point wee may not* recent Soviet a rteetace
with the problems of recruiting workers for industry. In 1940 the
Soviet goverment Instituted, and continues in force today, a systeea
of state labor reserves based on an annual draft of about half a
s tl,lton youths between the ages of l4+ and 17. 'The youths so aaobill ssd
are train rid in lnduetr' al and craft schools, anc upon eoapletton of
their t
designs
correct
are oblige
by the
that At waq In large d.el ree neceseary to
`or four ye .rs at an sntsrArt st.
alyse# s of this sure has cal to
youth off the farms, which enjoy a labor slurplus, and into industrial
production, and it has also
this reluctance of the
rural youth to enter industry is related to ltv'n,g conditions in the
crowded Industrial centers, wid so on.
rtt; si i fi ca etly +'snou h this analysts did not deal with the
that there is apparently no neeessi ty to draft
ervice as white collar employees in offices and traado occupations
In the urban centers, yet the t.acreeassr in the store of such o ccupa-
tonal categories has been rot ly proportional to the increase in
the site of the industrial labor force. Nor is the difficulty to
resolved in torus of differential wages, since the pay of we
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of average skill to geanerally hither than that for comparable skill
grades in the employee category,
b ei# o.T i3itation It +s, of
course, in the differential gtiki" I pl ac-,ed by $k viet yo itaas
upon brain or white collar as age.inst pbyeteal or industrial work.
rai atenee of such sentiments in Soviet society. presum-
ably a workers' state, has
entered into here, but it
interesting history which ca.},not be
priats to note that such eoe-tal
sentiments consetitute data which the sociologist is sensitive to,
has been tradition ylly concerned wia, and is particularly well
equipped to str r.('T ?urtber ore, sociological anilysis a servo
('
as an is,rnrt snt ad unct to stand=z,rd economic s
es not only in
connection with this ,)articular srobleasz of the ;rmbolte significance
which certain statuses to the oectu,ttona
the members of any ooctety*, but equally in the treatment of other
social aspects of the productive process such a the patterzxing of
tnter-personal rely.ttons in work grout:.ase, the reltition of informal
group patterns to the formal structure of authtrl
biltty in the plant, Aid so on.
one of this to to suggest that
the sociologist can rep ;ace the economist in the analyst* of
ratio al escor:cis? es. rr th t ho stands equal to him
It does atroz ?ly argue that tang account of tile.
forces to the econonte realm with which the sot olo,
ticularly r?oncerned. not only .d.e to the depth of oi
1`1, of the $eOnr:--:mt.e behc.Ttour of W. but actually may contribute
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to more effective ec nom c analysis as such.
A second ohaaee of the sorielojiet'e contribution to the un.esr-
staanding of any society derivoe from hi
certain areas of social life riot oyster atlcalty t' aatea br any of trues
other dtaeci;plina s, with the posEtble ex Ieptlon
Aspeets of any society shook as the site and qua,?t
insti tuttonp like the family, and phenomena like '
ry and researc
:adequate
workin ; grasp of any social s stes is possible which does .iot take
account of theme elements and attempt to integrate then into the
total schenc of analysis, it would seem obvious, for ample,
standing of Chinese society is not possible for any
individual who to not equipped or prepared to treat systematically
the singularly important influence of the fanil
in China. Similarly, the soci.oloa ;tst t s long standing concern with
the phenomenon of social stratification makes him a strong card
date for a major role In any effort to analyse a haste society
such as that found in India.
Cues again the sociologist's potential contribution say be
highlighted by an ersaaa?ple drawn from research
Soviet Dion. A6 fune ental t roblem in aseeesing the political
etrengtle and veaknes?es of the Soviet rega
that it enforces rigid restrictions on the expression of pubile
sentiment to the extent that there to serious question
thropology.
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political scientists as to whether the leaders ay not be to isolated
the feelings & ad eentime:utta of the population as to be unable
to calculate the degree of popular support or o-?..positton which r
be met by an government vesture.
ociclogist. -,:s a result of his concern with the social
rolr of mars communication is able to provide at Least a partial
investigation of the flow of mass eommunte&tion
qutc lj hi ?,hli:L:ts the crucial role in Soviet
eoc#.ety of the several mi llio:i ; olsheevi1 agitators through whom
the regi e i s able to maintain fairly cons
t :r-,t = n i att. to co taet
with the rank ;~anad file of the pcpulatio.. By er :ttting what for
Sovt$t 7eondittone it a relatively free atmosphere of discussion
in the daily sesssions conducted by the agitator with the workers
in his shop or farm brigade, o then coll.atiz the reacts c ns of
the population which the sgttai ter to thus able to coil
which he passes up through the }warty hierarchy to the natiorxal
tment of propegana3.a and agitation, the leaders are able to
Mintatn a reasonably effective mechanism for determining the :stets
of popular senttaeent on many iseueas,
A third, and probrtibly the most important, feature of the
sociology of institutions which is significantly related to the
understanding of social systems i
;aa Vhat has erme to
be known as structural-fuactio.ral analysis. 3toted in its siszpleest
terms this approach assumes that the particular i:istitutic .s and
Institutional eub..sy stems in & AY society are not indepondeait entities
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any tyrs of f ! ly system, &- may bR freely combined vi th
-hoar ~~:a*,fi
any kind of occu,rational system. It asesureaa the eombinatlon of
in any social system is not simply a product of hietort..
cal accident or the chance imraet Of culture diffusion,
sition to such pri iciples, it statoo that the i.nstitutlous in a~ r
society are meaningfully
related;
w tole fors a
that the various el ie ats
tore operate to support or facilitate the fuaeationt4
ifl nt change# in
any one institution na be expected to force ad u: tment or to create
dislocation in others and hence to the functionfn of the total
structure.
In arsti ciTmti on of repeated ett ti ci seta and r si eundersta id.tu, on
these points it is nece>; sary to state that this fora ul? tinn. does
not at all necessarily ignore the problems of el sec uilibrium in
social systems. On the eontrnry, it prov'_clee P. theoretical fr s--
work for treating ^ueh diaec;suilibricar, unfortun> teiy called
"social pathclo y*, in terms of the lack of integration between
the elenente of the total stricture and the eoa:requeut strains on
individuals in the performance of their roles I
tions and institutional sub-systems. 11ett;-
necessarily constitute a clod defense of any ex'istinc, status quo.
Indeed, it provides a sore adequate basis for consideration of
planned social chafe by bj,j. institutional forces
might act to frustrate such programs in-so-far as t ielr did not tap e
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account Of the facts of the tnter.?rs *dese of the com ronents e5 t'
the total structure.
The most obvious advantage of such an approach to goo'
lies to the fact that it focuse on the social system as a whole.
rather than concentrating on discrete elements or aspects.
addition, ;t f-%etlitatAe avotdw.ce of monistic tnterpre tat tons of
tents in one realm of Ioriat life Which 4-n fact are giro,.
foundly affected by forces operating in other
the system.
It serves, furthermore, to nintstsee the tendency towards theories
h by u n tdeaaltett a tee over..rationali stir exm
by what it tie effect an
abandonment of scientific analysis through resort to such t seem..
t ally+ t retteal concepts an the "force" of history and the
sirmsrutabtiity"' of human nature.
A brief example drawn from the history of Soviet serial
development is again aporcpriate at this point. t.cting according
to what w-.s at leapt one log teal interpreetatict of Marxist-Leninist
doctrine, Soviet leaderq adopted, in the early years of the regime,
a radical series of miss ures concerning the school and the family.
ools standard curricula w
y by parties :attn? in grsup pro
largely abandoned and sub-
oing, pre-Vann; for life in
visiting factories, a-*d
on. The structure Of authority in the school Vas completely
revamped, the conduct of the clasp largely entrusted to the ;aupils
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jects such as aari thmette were de..eriphast sed, the reigning assuu ti oa
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Ives through the agency of the Taw Communist
the teaeber given little
over the pails and in many
respects sub1ected to their authority. In regard. to the fa:
not only were legalised free abortion
dam of divorce per:aitted. but the child wa
neouraged
etion the authority of his parents, and indeed was v'ewod
as being competent to i:nstruet and if neae8raX7 to control them
by resort to den'unciaE on before the authorities.
In the early uadniddle thirties there began a marked shift
away from there policies in -zvtet law and practice.
curricula were reintroduced, the te
authority an& even
ally absolute free-
cho+s l
9.ras restored to
given control over the cells of tie loua
ist League itself; discipline, order, aaad respect for author-
ity became the standard and predominant emphases in the Soviet
educational process. J ,elated chances toot place, to
attitude towards the foam l,y. Not only were measur
strengthen the family by eliminating free abortion and sharply
restricting access to divorce, but the fa'l.y was reinterpreted as
a=pillar on which the nation rested and the parents were re.s4efi,s
as -partners of the state on whom it had devolved responsibility for
bringing up loyal, disciplined, hard-working citizens.
e mared sh i ft s in Soviet
variously interpreted as products
principle by the regiae a s leaders, and as the coax letely uxaoxeeptional
exercise by the state of its right to curb social abuses h3f'ul to
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Its citiu$ns- -in+s,
. v? %-fi rzrst morel
Y put , the
question o
ne s trap
back u to wh
th
y
e leads b
rsfldo aes
Marxist nrin+ i ale
d
,
z:
?e caud raises the n., q tes$1or~ of why 'a ate oats coa
t
s
er,
suited to the society's reec3.s o*'
eat later to be deftneci aq js1rj.iri.nU*,
tt to e! ested Ireran that a structural. functi03a
1 s" raac.,h
ea-tly factltta,tes derscts di a
a:udvlet Policy, if ti" s 01croentn w,,,4^,%
a ehen es in
113 Gasen to take oitly one for i 6lustratx.crra
in the interval, betarperr the adoption of ttr r r_
he
-
vwen t1 e8 +"Uid the b*yinn"'& of the 144j or s:r;i#'te 4 ~
aa 44
policy In ties thirties eerte,in crUeial c?es took place #Z,
st
ruetur
e 04' Sovi st eCac iet.r_
established - -0-"maLLQa was
and agricultural Production was recr ,njZo4 on a new
leis of lar a sea" eallective units extez,sire
IY worked by
sr
aehi
ne ?addi
. ation. the svtet regilae bed huildi
n u'cxe
seal+r n?eehani red armed fore** in arsticipaticr, uc iri.nent M' li taxi.
srtr lesa. The Soviet anion+s iaicittstr7 its 2at*, a scaale Mechanized
tore and its 1 l =tart' l?ro, r , partidularrl.r un 'er the condi-
ticns of fareed d
erelo
pcaAnt which a raateri,,d
Unst, amble of
,_-_., ~~ease,vet to .ruthorit
3s?. t the eaxl4r ;"cavl,et sclool,
+cyate a and the sure}sect f ;,'.ly had encoura, ei devs~lcaiament of e
parsra lity whta distxueted authority, reacted ne ative
to dine
'0l1ne, -rsd ind
eed
trel
:eved to the rirture of tt rani the de :.ands
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of both. The changoq introdtced into the pattern of Soviet education
and the legal and social status of the fare' ly tun thus be Most
meantnd;fu;lly understood as an attempt on the part rf the t-r.attcnee
loaders to adapt those institutions to the newly defined ncede of
the society for the the eftton of a different attitude tcwards
authority during the process of socialisation - ' the future cittren*.
on prevented here certainly doe not begtr to e
e l st of the types of contribution whf.eh scciolo + can
e, vs
to a ,general social science effort to understaneF foreign e5octeties.
tt has, for ee-?saole, b4en Imp enible to give proper weight to the
importance of sociological exa.rience in the study of ecctsl change,
to the potential usefulness of the methods and findings
tar branches of the field such as U e sociology of religion and of
to the ai>plicasbiltty of the Modest arsenal of fief : techuaiq,eas
of empirical research ti.t tch has been developed. in the last two decades.
bar was the material preeen
ft
ntandet to serve as a
the sociological a lysis of social syste as. That tusk
well beyond the scope of t !s discussion, and e?,would soon involve
us with problems such as the inter-relations of ottvationa1
patterns and socia structure, and others of the c" fficulties fao4 n
contemporary sociological theory sad research.
Certainly the view presented hero - and t=`.s is perhaps worth
stressing because of former met eunderstandings -- does not press aayr
claim for sotiolo* as noma kind of "queen bees" of the social sciences
for which the other disciplines are necessary but distinctly
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secondary workers. ther, the ba pAc ftesum,tton on rh*ch theee
eoar? eents have been based Is th%t an adequate une.*rStanding
social system, at least go long as we remain some
inteegra,ted social science, de?aends an our ability and willin nees
to utilize the ieen1tar contri bvtione of e
The crucial cri tenon r:auet
disci i.tnee.
be the defin tion of the problem.
the basic question .... How can we insure that the contribution
discipline which eould enrich the analysis
will not be neglected? - .and, Peconca3rtlya -- ' htoh 61901 1the ie
beet equipped to t=at the team with th
most effectively uti?i^e the contribution of th ther die?-t
requires humility on the -.rt of the reproeent t
d eci clines in recognt^.ing thy: limits on the
the in(tytdual
own field, -me frankrne