SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY VOL. 41, NO. 4

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• Document Page Count: 78
• Document Creation Date: January 4, 2017
• Document Release Date: September 23, 2013
• Sequence Number: 4
• Publication Date: October 1, 1976
• Content Type: REPORT

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Russian Original Vol. 41, No. 4, October, 19
SATEAZ 41(4) 867-938 (1976)
SOVIET
ATOMIC
ENERGY
ATOMHAFI 3HEPINFI
(ATOMNAYA iNERGIYA)
TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN
CONSULTANTS BUREAU, NEW YORK
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SOVIET
ATOMIC
ENERGY
Soviet Atomic Energy is abstracted or in-
dexed in Applied Mechanics Reviews, Chem-
ical Abstracts, Engineering Index, INSPEC?
Physics Abstracts and Electrical and Elec-
tronics Abstracts, Current Contents, and
Nuclear Science Abstracts.
Soviet Atomic Energy is a cover-to-cover translation of Atomnaya
Energiya, a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
An agreement with the Copyright Agency of the USSR (VAAP)
makes available both advance copies of the Russian journal and
original glossy photographs and artwork. This serves to decrease
the necessary ,time lag between publication of the original and
publication of the translation and helps to improve the quality
of the latter. The translation began with the first issue of the
Russian journal.
Editorial Board of Atomnaya tnergiya:
Editor: M. D. Millionshchikov
Deputy Director
1. V. kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy
Academy of Sciences of the USSR
Moscow, USSR
Associate Editor: N. A. Vlasov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal'
V. S. Fursov
I. N. Golovin
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
V. V. Matveev
M. G. Meshcheryakov
V. B. Shevchenko
V. I. Smirnov
A. P. Zefirov
Copyright C) 1977 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York,
N.Y. 10011. All rights reserved. No article contained herein may be reproduced,
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SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of Atomnaya Energiya
April, 1977
Volume 41, Number 4 October, 1976
CONTENTS
Engl./Russ.
ARTICLES
Problems of Radiation Safety in Nuclear Power Stations Containing VVER-440 Reactors
? L. M. Voronin, A. P. Volkov, and V. F. Kozlov
867
235
Monitoring the Reactivity of Extremely Subcritical Reactors by Means of Reactivity
Meters, Corrections Being Made to the Analog of the Source ? V. V. Bondarenko,
B. G. Dubovskii, R. E. Bagdasarov, V. A. Lititskii, and A. N. Efeshin
871
238
Continuous Analysis of Iodine, _Cesium, Barium, Strontium, Yttrium, and Rare-Earth
Isotopes in the Aqueous Coolant of a Nuclear Reactor ? L. N. Moskvin,
L. K. Zakharov, G. G. Leont'ev, V. A. MePnikov, I. S. Orlenkov,
and G. K. Slutskii
874
241
Acceleration of Ions by the Quasi-Static Field of an Electron Beam ? A. N. Lebedev
and K. N. Pazin
878
244
Compensation of a Space-Limited Positive Charge by Electrons ? V. M. Kulygin
and V. I. Telegin
882
247
REVIEWS
Nuclear Reactions in the Sun ? N. A. Vlasov
887
251
Radiation Safety at Nuclear Power Stations ? N. G. Gusev
890
Radiation Safety during Operation of High-Intensity Radiation Equipment ? E. E. Chistov
897
The Relative Danger of Nuclear Power Stations (NPSs) and Thermal Power Stations (TPSs)
for the Environment ? Yu. V. Sivintsev and E. N. Teverovskii
901
263--
DEPOSITED PAPERS
The Possibilities of Determining Copper Trichlorphenolate in Plants by the Neutron
Activation Method ? G. I. Gofen and A. A. Kist
905
268
Pulsed Electron Current Excited by y Radiation in Air ? A. V. Zhemerev,
Yu. A. Medvedev, and B. M. Stepanov
906
268
LETTERS
Rate of Change of Reactivity of the BOB -60 Reactor during the Operating Period
? V. A. Afanas'ev, V. N. Efimov, N. V. Krasnoyarov, N. N. Skulkin,
and R. E. Fedyakin
907
270
A method of Determining the Thermophysical Properties of Reactor Materials at Elevated
Temperatures ?S. A. Balankin, D. M. Skorov, and V. A. Yartsev
909
271
Production of Intense Monochromatic Beams of Longwave Neutrons from the Open
Tangential Channel of a Nuclear Reactor ? B. N. Goshchitskii and V. G. Chudinov
912
273
Simplified Determination of the Number of Fission Neutrons Emitted Per Thermal Neutron
Absorbed in a Uranium?Water Lattice ? G. G. Bartolomei, V. D. Baibakov,
A. V. Klimenko, and V. D. Sidorenko
914
274
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CONTENTS
(continued)
Engl./fiuss.
Experience Gathered in the Utilization of Low-Energy Accelerators for the Activation
Analysis of Metallurgical Products ? L. V. Navalikhin, D. I. Blinkov,
and V. A. Muminov
917
277
Measurement of the Effective Resonance Integral of Thorium Metal ? L. N. Yurova,
A. A. Polyakov, V. P. Rukhlo, and Yu. E. Titarenko
920
279
Calculation of f3-Particle Total Backscattering Coefficient for Thick Absorbers
? V. A. Kuz'minykh and S. A. Vorob'ev
922
280
Range of Fast Electrons in Dielectrics ?0. B. Evdokimov, B. A. Kononov,
and N. I. Yag-ushkin
924
282?
COME CON CHRONICLES
Thirtieth Meeting of COMECON Standing Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy ? Yu. I. Chikul
927
284
CONFERENCES, MEETINGS, AND SEMINARS
Third All-Union Scientific and Practical Conference on Radiation Safety ? V. I. Ivanov
and U. Ya. Margulis
928
284
All-Union Conference on the Use of Neutrons in Medicine ? B. A. Berdov
and V. N. Ivanov
930
286
Third Meeting of the LATE Technical Committee on High-Activity and a-Emitting Waste
?Yu. P. Martinov
932
287
5th International Symposium on the Desalination of Sea and Salt Water ? 0. I. Martynova
933
288
BOOK REVIEWS
V. I. Levin. Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Reactors ? Reviewed by V. K. Vikulov
934
292
B. M. Kogan, I. M. Nazarov, and Sh. D. Fridman. Principles of they Spectrometry of
Natural Media ? Reviewed by E. M. Filippov
935
293
V. A. Bobrov, F. P. Krendelev, and A. M. Hofman. The y-Spectrometric Analysis in
a Chamber with Low Background ? Reviewed by E. M. Filippov
936
293
A. S. Serdyukova and Yu. T. Kapitanov. The Isotopes of Radon and Its Decay Products in
Nature ? Reviewed by E. M. Filippov
937
294
The Russian press date (podpisano k pechati) of this issue was 9/23/1976.
Publication therefore did not occur prior to this date, but must be assumed
to have taken place reasonably soon thereafter.
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ARTICLES
PICOBIJElMS OF RADIATION SAFE TY IN NUCLEAR
POWER STATIONS CONTAINING VVER-440 REACTORS
L. M. Voronin, V. P. Volkov, UDC 621.039.58
and V. F. Kozlov
Since the assembly and initiation of the first standard-production nuclear power stations containing
VVER -440 reactors, the Novovoronezh station (third and fourth units) has been operating for more than four
years and the Kol'sk station (first and second units) for about three [1]. Existing data indicate that the radia-
tion safety of both personnel and local population has been reliably ensured.
The efficiency of the biological shielding against the n and y radiation from the active zone of the reactor
and the pipelines containing the circulating coolant was studied at the time of the physical initiation of the units
and again after power production had begun.
In the period of physical initiation, access was available to the equipment of the first circuit and to the
space immediately surrounding the reactor, so facilitating the study of protective measures in these zones.
After a certain period of operation at nominal power, information was collected not only regarding the
radiation from the activated atoms of the water coolant but also regarding the active fission products and cor-
rosion which had accumulated in the water and on the equipment of the first circuit.
25 -
a
ZO
50-
0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l I I 1
If 1111 II IF I. ? rT FIll El Ill liii 1111111
1973 1974 1975
Fig. 1. Total activity of 85mKr, 88Kr, 133Xe, 115Xe in the
water of the first circuit (a); ejection of radioactive gases in-
to the atmosphere (131; activity of the gases in the air of the
technological rooms (c); reactor power (d).
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 235-238, October, 1976. Original article sub-
mitted March 29, 1976.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
867
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TABLE 1. Calculated and Actual Content
of Various Fission and Corrosion Products
in the Cooland and Deposits of the VVER-
440 Reactor
A,
o
0
=
o
4.4
-a
g
Activity of coolant,
Ci/liter
Activity of
deposits
cak.
actual*
. , 2
Ci/cm2
Contribu '-
tion to
dose, To
'Xe
0,3.10-2
2,4.10-3
_
125)(e
1,2.10-2
3,0.10-4
85ralir
2,0.10-4
6,1.10-5
_
?
88Kr
2,1-10-3
8,1.10-5
3ii t
8,2.10-5
2 40-5?
?
1,0.10-4
? 3-10-6
439Ba
5,7.10-4
1,5-10-5
?
?
"?La
6,3.10-8
?
3,8.10-8
4,1
oil
1,7.10-3
4,6-10-5
1,3.10-8
0,2
1331
4,3.10-2
1,3.10-4
__
__
i35I
3,3.10-3
1,2.10-4
?
?
9iSr
1,7.10-4
2,5.10-8
?
?
92Sr
3,0.10-4
1,2.10-5
?
?
&Co
4,0.10-8
1.10-8
1,4.10-7
19,0
58Co
?
8.10-9
3,0.10-7
17,0
Mn
?
2.10-8
2,5.10-7
12,5
59Fe
7,7-10-5
1-10-8
4,5-10-8
2,9
85Zn
?
?
9,0-10-8
2,8
95Zr
1,4.10-5
5.10-9
3,6-10-8
1,4
100,71.4
____
6-10-8
2,6.10-7
38,5
181%1
1,2-10-1
?1,0.10-1
?
?
24Na
?
5-10-5
?
?
Tor a nonhermeticity of the fuels elements amounting
to 0.07 of the permitted value.
tThe first value of the sH activity arises from triple
uranium fission, the second from the reaction "B(n, 2d)
31-1.
These Investigations showed that the level of penetrating radiations encountered during the operation of
the reactor at nominal power never exceeded 28, 2.8, and 1.4 mrem/h, as respectively specified by health
rules OSP-72 [2] for unserviced and partly serviced rooms and rooms constantly occupied by personnel. In
some cases the figures were well below the design values. Individual slight defects in the biological shielding
were discovered, but these did not result in any serious irradiation of the personnel, being of a local charac-
ter and occurring in unserviced zones (these defects resulted from deficiencies in the casting of the concrete
and the filling of the serpentinite during the construction of the nuclear power station, or from minor construc-
tional shortcomings).
Thu, the weight and size of the biological shielding of the VVi?kR -440 might reasonably be reduced, sub-
ject to improvements in construction quality, in conformity with the low annual dose of irradiation received
by the personnel, on the average not exceeding 5% of the maximum permissible dose. The personnel in fact
received about 70% of this dose during the recharging of the nuclear fuel and preventive maintenance in the
shut-down reactor on account of the y radiation arising from radioactive deposits of corrosion products (IlunAg,
60, 58CO3 54Ma, and others) in the equipment (Table 1).
The radiation characteristics inside and outside the nuclear power station may be greatly affected by the
radioactivity of long-lived nuclides accumulating in and migrating from the coolant during service. The level
of activity is determined by the number of fuel elements with damaged cans, the degree of damage, and also
the activation of the corrosion products circulating through the active zone. The VVER -440 is only allowed to
be used if no more than 1% of the fuel elements are lacking in gas-tightness and no more than 0.1% allow con- ?
tact between the coolant and the fuel.
The calculated composition (Table 1) of gaseous and volatile fission products corresponds to this number
of defective fuel elements in the active zone of the V17E13-440. Table 1 also gives the measured specific ac-
tivity of several corrosion products in the water and in the deposits on the surface of the 'equipment in the first
circuit; the dose contribution of the y radiation of the deposits is also indicated.
Considering the major contribution of 11?InAg and other corrosion products to the dose, technical mea-
sures are now being developed and initiated for removing these products as quickly as possible from the
coolant and reducing their proportion in the deposits.
868
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TABLE 3. Calculated Average Annual Doses
of External and Internal Irradiation Experi-
enced by the Population in the Region of a
Nuclear Power Station Containing a VVEll-
440 Reactor, mrem/yr
TABLE 2. Radionuclides in the Air of the
Technological Rooms, and Their Ejection
into the Atmosphere of the Kol'sk Nuclear
Power Station
Iladionuclide
Activity in air, Ci/liter
1311
1 3 3 1
133Xe
135Xe
techno-
logical
rooms
before entering
the gas filters
after pass-
ing the
filters
ventila-
tion
pipe
2,7.10-"
4,35.10-'2*
2,5.1015*
1.21-1031? t
0
3,2.10-14
42,2.10-11*
4,6.10-10
0
7,6.10-10
2,2.10-6
6,3.10-8
3,5.1
1,4.10-10
9,0.10-7
1,4.10-8
00-11
12
"In aerosol form.
tin volatile form.
de
nuclide
External irradiation
Internal irradiation
projected
r
dose
actual
dose
projected
dose
actual
dose
85-rnKr
3,5.10-3
9,0.10-6
?
?
87Kr
6,7.10-2
1,6.10-4
?
?
88Kr
3,2.10-1
8,0?10-1
____
3H
_
_
1,5.10-3
4,0.10-6
133Xe
3,1.10-1
7.8.19-4
_
?
135Xe
3,8.10-1
9,5.10-4
?
1311
1,0.10-6
?
23,0
6,0.19-2
1331
4,0.19-6
?
2,2
5,5.10-3
1351
1,0.19-7
?
0,2
5,5.10-4
Total
? 1,0
?3-10-3
?.294,2
?6,6.10-2
Note. The projected dose refers to the outflow into
the atmosphere when operating at nominal power with
a limiting amount of fission products in the coolant
(up to 0.1 Ci/liter) and the permitted disorganized
leakage of coolant (up to 200 liters/h). The actual
value is obtained for a disorganized leakage of Sifters/
h and a coolant activity of 0.01 Ci/liter, i.e., for 0.1
of the permissible number of fuel elements with
damaged cans. If the coolant leakage is increased to
50 liters/h while the activity reaches the limiting value
the actual doses will increase by a factor of 100 times.
We see from Table 1 that the calculated activity (for a nominal power at the instant of withdrawing the
sample) for the gaseous fission products reaches 0.1 Ci/liter and for iodine isotopes 0.01 Ci/liter. Corres-
ponding to this, an activity of ?0.01 Ci/liter attributable to nongaseous products occurs in the residue of the
sample measured 2 h after selecting the latter. These values may vary by a factor of several times, depen-
ding on the level of reactor power, the rate at which the water passes to the purification system, the efficiency
of the purifying filters, the intensities of the organized and disorganized water flows, the rate at which fresh
water is supplied, and so forth.
The true values of the activities of the isotopes 1311, 1331, 1351, 133' 135Xe, 83111Kr, "Kr, and 91' 92Sr (at
the end of the first campaign of one of the active units of a nuclear power station containing a VVP_..R-440 reac-
tor) enable us to estimate the number of leaking fuel elements in the active zone and the number with more
serious can damage. The estimate is based on the generally accepted interpretation of the mechanism under-
lying the passage of fission products from damaged fuel elements into the coolant [3]. According to these data
the can defects are 10-20 times lower than the acceptable design value.
The ejection of radionuclides from the coolant into the technological rooms and then into the external am-
bient is illustrated in Fig. 1. These curves characterize the first unit of the Kol'sk nuclear power station from
approximately the instant of starting in 1973 to the first planned fuel recharging in 1975. We see by comparing
the curves that not only the proportion of radionuclides in the coolant but also, quite clearly, the level of its
disorganized (and organized) flows and the efficiency of gas purification influence the ejection of the gases into
the atmosphere. .For this nuclear power station the 1974-1975 average gas ejection was ?3-5 Ci/day, which in-
dicates a fairly good hermeticity of the technological equipment containing the coolant and the satisfactory oper-
ation of the gas-trapping carbon filters.
Depending on the state of the technological equipment in the individual units, the disorganized leaks of
coolant lie at a level of 5-50 liters/h, much less than the permissible value of 200 liters/h (for the Kol'sk
nuclear power station the leaks average no more than 5 liters/h).
The concentration of the main radiation-hazardous isotopes in the air of the technological rooms, the
technological gas-purification conduits, and the effluent pipe of the Kol'sk nuclear power station is given in
Table 2. In the serviced rooms the concentration is below the sensitivity limit of the dosimetric apparatus
_employed.
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It follows from Table 2 that the gas-purification coefficient of the filters working in the specified techno-
logical mode is ?60 relative to the sum of the xenon isotopes (or relative to the sum of all the'gaseous nuclides
determined by other measurements not less than 130). The ten-times excess of the volatile form of Iodine over
the aerosol (in the technological air flows) indicates the comparatively greater danger of the volatile forms
of iodine.
The radiation conditions in the external ambient of the nuclear power stations is monitored over distances
up to 45-60 km. For such a low rate of outflow into the atmosphere (3-30,Ci/day with respect to the radioac-
tive gases and less than 10-4 Ci/day with respect to iodine) it is hard to detect the effects of such nuclear power
stations on the environment [4].
Measurements show that the density of the radioactive fallout in the neighborhood of the nuclear power
station, the concentration of the 0-active aerosols [3 ? 10-5 Ci/(cm2 ? day) and 6 ? 10-17 Ci/liter on average per
year referred to the total 0 activity], and their radionuclide composition correspond to the global fallout. The
gamma background is no greater than the average over the whole country and lies in the range 7-11 AR/h, not
falling at all on moving away from the power station.
No increment over the background level is found in the proportions of any of the radionuclides in the soil,
plants, or cereals, nor (and this is especially important) in iodine isotopes in the milk of cows during the pas-
ture period. In the water of open catchments (lakes and rivers) the total 0 activity is also no greater than the
background value of ?1011 Ci/liter.
Thus, estimates as to the dose of irradiation experienced by people living near the power station may be
validly obtained by calculations based on the effluent into the ambient, rather than by direct measurements on
the site.
Estimates made by the method set out in [5] are presented in Table 3 for the European part of the Soviet
Union. The power-station effluent pipe was taken as being 100 m high, the wind velocity 3-4 m/sec, and the
elongation of the wind rose (directional diagram) 1: 2.
The projected dose representing the internal irradiation of the human thyroid gland with iodine isotopes
is calculated on the assumption that milk from the zone of action of the effluent is only used for one six-month
period (while the cows are in pasture). With regard to 1311 the projected dose is obtained on the assumption of
an outflow of 7.0 ? 10-3 Ci/day (in aerosol and volatile form), for a rate of deposition from the atmosphere
equal to 10-2 m/sec. Tithe activity does not pass through the food chain, the contribution of internal irradia-
tion may be neglected (for example, in the case of the Kol'sk nuclear power station).
On the whole, the projected and actual external and internal irradiation doses of the population in the
region of nuclear power stations with VW:R-4'10 reactors do not exceed the permitted values; the external ir-
radiation may amount to only 1-2% of the natural background.
The real effect of the effluent from nuclear power stations with VVER -440 reactors on the population is
even less than that indicated, since it is difficult to allow for the following factors: the relative times spent by
the population in the open and in their dwelling houses, which screen the dose rate and reduce it by a factor of
several times, the type of food eaten by the people, the age composition, and so on. A four-year period of ex-
perience in the use of the first standard units of nuclear power stations with VV ER -440 reactors shows these ,
to be quite reliable, being characterized by reasonably advanced working characteristics from the point of
view of ensuring radiation safety for the service personnel and local inhabitants.
LITERATURE CITED
1. L. M. Voronin, Teploenergetika, No. 6, 5 (1974).
2. Basic Health Rules for Working with Radioactive Substances and Other Sources of Ionizing Radiations
(OSP-72) [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1973).
3. L. M. Luzanova et al., in: Soviet ?Swedish Symp. Reactor Safety Problems, Pt. H, Rep. IV-60, ISBN
(1973).
4. N. G. Lusev et al., in: Proc. Intern. Congress Rad. Protect. Assoc., Washington (1973).
5. Methodical Hints on Calculating the Limiting Permissible Effluent of Radioactive Products into the Atmo-
sphere by Industrial Undertakings [in Russian], Gidrometeoizdat, Moscow (1973).
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MONITORING THE REACTIVITY OF EXTREMELY
SUBCRITICAL REACTORS BY MEANS OF REACTIVITY METERS,
CORRECTIONS BEING MADE TO THE ANALOG OF THE SOURCE
V. V. Bondarenko, B. G. Dubovskii,
R. P. Bagdasarov, V. A. Lititskii,
and A. N. Efeshin
UDC 621.039.58:621.039.519
Oneofthemost important problems in nuclear technology is that of monitoring the degree of subcriticality
of reactors and critical assemblies; this includes the continuous monitoring of the reactor as it approaches
the critical state (assembly of critical mass), monitoring the changes taking place in the reactivity relative to
the critical state of the reactor (Wight or brief changes in reactivity), and continuous monitoring of the behavior
of the reactor in the subcritical state after the emergency protective systems have operated.
In these cases problems of nuclear safety may be "effectively solved by creating a device capable of moni-
toring the reactor in the real time scale by reference to the basic parameter, the reactivity. Such devices in
dudeanalog reactivity meters based on the principle of analyzing the power prehistory [1-4] of the system.
Within the framework of the local kinetic characteristics of the reactor under consideration, the reac-
tivity meter analyzes the behavior of the neutron flux and produces a signal proportional to the reactivity. The
high sensitivity of this instrument toward reactivity indicates that, in principle, it may be successfully applied
to the supercritical, critical, and subcritical operating conditions of the reactor.
However, existing reactivity meters have a dynamic range of no more than three decades with respect
to power input (corresponding to the continuous calculation of reactivity, while preserving the initial conditions
intact) [1-3]; this is insufficient for the long-term monitoring of reactivity in the case of severe subcriticality.
Reactivity meters have proved extremely successful in monitoring variations in the reactivity of reactors rela-
tive to the critical state, in which the reactivities introduced are slight or only last for a brief period, i.e.,
in which the changes in input currents are no greater than two or three orders of magnitude.
Recently, further developments have occurred, leading to the appearance of the first experimental models
of reactivity meters with a dynamic range extending to five orders of magnitude [4]. Such instruments have
greatly extended the monitoring period of the extremely subcritical state (e.g., that which applies after the
emergence safety devices have operated), but the period is still quite limited, being governed by the instant
at which the neutron flux becomes comparable with the power of the neutron source, which may be of the Po?
Be or any other type, as well as neutrons from the (y, n) and (y, n) reactions. For calculating the initial con-
ditions such devices require that the reactor should have passed into the critical state before starting the
measurements.
If, however, an appropriate correction may be made for the source component S in the simulating part
of the reactivity meter, then quite apart from monitoring a reactor deviating slightly from the critical state
such an instrument will enable us to execute continuous monitoring during the actual assembly of the critical
mass (i.e., on approaching the critical state) and also long-term continuous monitoring in the subcritical state,
for example, after the safety devices have been set in operation.
It is well known that in a subcritical reactor with a steady-state neutron flux the power is proportional
to the intensity of the source, and the reactivity is calculated from the relation
p= ? C (S/N),
where C=//g; N=const.
(1)
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 2:38-241, October, 1976. Original article
submitted September 16, 1975.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
871
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/23: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700080004-6
Thus, in order to simulate the source analog in the instrument correctly we mustknow the subcriticality
of the reactor.
In this paper we shall describe three methods, not requiring any additional pieces of apparatus, which
will enable us to determine the magnitude of the source components for cases involving reactivity meter's.
Method of the "Shooting Source". Some time after reaching subcriticality, an equilibrium state deter-
mined by the following system of equations is established in the reactor [51:
i=1
dC N xic 1. (2)
dt 1
In order to calculate the reactivity in this case we are required to realize an equation constituting'the solution
of (2):
6
/ dN dC \
13=-AT3 P?'
i=1
(3)
which contains the unknown source S.
It may be shown that a criterion for the correct choice of bias voltage in the solving part of the reactivity
meter is the condition that aps/at =0 after the "shooting" of the source.
Let us accordingly consider that the source analog is chosen in an arbitrary manner, and that in general
Ss; the mismatch between the actual subcriticality and the readings of the instrument will then be given by
the equation
Po?Ps (()=m(t) (S Ss), (4)
which is inconstant in time on account of the fall taking place in N(t). After differentiating Eq. (4) we obtain
Ops_ I ON _so,
at pniz at k
(5)
from which we see that equating the rate of change of the instrument readings to zero means achieving equality
between the simulated and real sources, since in Eq. (5) N 0 and 3N/at 0.
Measurements in a uranium ?graphite test-bed showed that, for S =106 neutrons/sec, the subcriticality
could be measured from zero to ?8.4geff (the total efficiency of the control-and-safety rods) to an error of
5% without first having to pass into the critical state. The error is due to an apparatus effect which may sub-
sequently be reduced. As sensor for the measurements we used an SNM-18 counter. ,The counter and the
reactivity meter are connected to a pulse tract, a smoothing device, and a linear intensity meter.
In order to measure deeper subcriticalities and increase the measuring accuracy it is essential to in-
crease the power of the "shooting" source and to improve the pulse apparatus, or else to use highly efficient
fission chambers. The use of fission chambers extends the range of applicability of the method, since these
chambers are able to work at high temperatures (up to 400?C) and subject to a strong y background, which
enables this method to be used for energy-stressed reactors in the subcritical state. However, a powerful
"shooting" source is required owing to the strong neutron background due to (y, n) reactions.
Method of the Injection of an Unknown Absorbent. Let us assume that a neutron source of intensity S
exists in the subcritical reactor. The rapid introduction of an unknown absorbent into the subcritical reactor
will have the effect that a transient process described by the system of equations (2) will begin. In order to
choose the value of the source component after introducing the absorbent the aps/dt =0 method may be em-
ployed.
In order to increase the accuracy of the measurements (if the efficiency of the unknown absorbent is
very great) the neutron flux is first reduced at a rate faster than that which would correspond to aps/at =0 in
the instrument. This operation may be repeated several times, and the value of Ss may be established by the
method of successive approximations. After this the instrument will indicate the total reactivity of the system.
Thus this procedure enables us to measure the subcriticality of the reactor without first bringing it into
the critical state, and also at the same time to calibrate the unknown absorbent.
872
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Method of Introducing a Calibrated Absorbent. This procedure is based on the choice of a bias voltage
simulating the source in such a way that the reactivity determined by the instrument corresponds to the known
efficiency of the absorbent so introduced.
,We'see in fact from Eq. (4) that for a steady-state flux, i.e., for N(t)=const, the difference p ?ps is
proportional to the difference between the intensities of the real and simulated sources. Hence by choosing
the reactivity bias voltage so as to be equal to the efficiency of the calibrated absorbent introduced in this way
we may achieve equality between the real and simulated sources. The distinguishing feature of this method
is the possibility of using it with reactivity meters having a dynamic range of two orders of magnitude. The
accuracy of the subcriticality measurements here depends on how accurately we know the efficiency of the cali-
brated source, on the validity of the corrections made for interference, and on the extent to which the lifetime
of the neutrons depends on Keff.
This method was tested in a uranium ?graphite installation. The subcritical reactivity was varied from
0 to ?8.4geff. The error in determining the reactivity was no greater than 5-10% and was attributable to the
interference of the rods. As sensor we used either an snl-18 counter or a KNK-56 chamber.
In order to increase the accuracy of the measurements when using this method it is desirable to use
powerful neutron sources. The more powerful the source in the subcritical reactor, the higher is the accuracy
of the method, i.e., the introduction of a calibrated absorbent enables us to measure subcriticality in subcriti-
cal energy-stressed reactors with a substantial neutron background or in the presence of a powerful intensify-
ing source.
CONCLUSIONS
The advantage of the instrumental methods here described lies in the fact that no additional apparatus is
required for determining subcriticality; it is sufficient simply to use an analog reactivity meter allowing the
source component in the solving part to be varied. By using these methods we may determine the bias voltage
(constituting the analog of a steady-state source in the reactor) in the subcritical state. If the intensity of the
source does not alter very sharply over the period of measurement (5-10 min), the introduction of the source
function into the instrument is an "on-off" operation, after which the reactivity meter is able to monitor any
changes in Keff continuously without first bringing the reactor into the critical state. This offers the possibiT
lity of making quite accurate measurements to ensure nuclear safety. In cases in which it is required to se-
cure especially accurate and reliable results, these measurements may be repeated as from the critical state
as part of a total monitoring operation. The safety of operations requiring passage into the critical state is
also increased, since the passage into the critical state is monitored completely.
Instrumental methods of measuring subcriticality are universal; they embrace not only critical assemblies
but also any energy-stressed reactors in the subcritical state, and enable us to measure temperature effects,
effects of poisoning, and so on, i.e., effects characteristic of energy-stressed reactors. In addition to this,
these methods may be applied both in the presence and in the absence of a strong neutron background in the
reactor.
In conclusion, the authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to F. B. Bryndin, A. S. Vodolazhskii,
and V. S. Parshutin for taking part in the development and manufacture of the reactivity meter with the exten-
sive dynamic range, and for participation in the measurements, and also V. N. Gurin and Yu. V. Volkov for
valuable comments and advice when discussing the results of the measurements.
LITERATURE CITED
1. M. Deisse and J. Uberschlag, in: Proc. IAEA Symp. "Nuclear Electronics," Bombay (Nov. 22-26,
1935), p. 353.
2. A. A. Voronin and V. V. Ostapenko, Preprint IAE-1689 [in Russian], Moscow (1968).
3. J. Plaige, in: Proc. IAEA Symp. "Nuclear Power Plant Control and Instrumentation, 1973," Prague
(Jan. 22-26, 1973), p. 273.
4. R. Gariod and E. Tournier, ibid., p. 275.
5. J. Kipin, Physical Basis of the Kinetics of Nuclear Reactors [Russian translation], Atomizdat, Moscow
(1959).
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/23: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700080004-6
CONTINUOUS ANALYSIS OF IODINE, CESIUM, BARIUM,
STRONTIUM,- YTTRIUM, AND RARE-EARTH ISOTOPES
IN THE AQUEOUS COOLANT OFA NUCLEAR REACTOR
L. N. Moskvin, L. K. Zakharov,
G. G. Leont'ev, V. A. Mel'nikov,
I. S. Orlenkov, and G. K. Slutskii
UDC 543.544.621.039.5
The successful two-dimensional chromatographic separation of iodine and cesium isotopes from aqueous
solutions [1] has made it possible to contemplate the continuous radiochemical analysis of the isotope composi-
tion of fission products in aqueous reactor coolants within the general monitoring of operation [2].
The investigations were made on the main loop of the MR reactor of the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of
Atomic Energy. Figure 1 shows the scheme of the circuit arrangement. The basic features of the multisor-
bent block of continuous chromatographic separation are listed in Table 1 (the design and the principle of opera-
tion were described in [1]). A mixture of formic acid (to stabilize the ionic forms of the elements) and sodium
chloride (to prevent the sorption of barium and strontium on ammonium molybdate) was used as the adjusting
solution. The sections for preparing the sample and for radiochemical analysis and the draining collector
were joined via flexible tubing with the line for taking samples, the special ventilating system, and the sewer-
age system. The flexible tubing between the equipment and the point at which samples were taken had a length
of 15 m. The measuring chambers (100 ml for the I and Cs fraction and 200 ml for rare-earth elements ? Y,
Sr, and Ba) were joined with tubes of 2.5-mm diameter and 6-m length with the outlet openings of the inter-
mediate collectors of the radiochemical analysis block and the draining collector of the sample-preparation
block.
The y radiation of the fractions was analyzed with a spectrometer equipped with a DGDK-25B semicon-
ductor detector. The resolution of the spectrometer was 6.5 keV for 1332-key y radiation. The energy cali-
bration had an accuracy of ?4 keV in the range 0-1500 keV. The detector was placed 6 m from the separating
block and no additional shielding was employed. The y background was insignificant and originated mainly
from the radiation of the isotopes "Co, 137Cs, 18F, and 24Na. The background generated by 24Na increased 1.5
times during the operation of the chromatograph.
During the tests, the setup was run through four cycles of continuous 10-h operation. Constant condi-
tions of operation were maintained; the rotation period of the sorbent layers was 30 min; the flow rate of the
initial solution and the eluting solution through the block of separation was 0.3-0.4 and 0.2-0.3 liter/h,
TABLE 1. Basic Features of the Radiochemical Analysis
Block
Sorbent
Element
separated
Eluting solution
Trioctylamin (TOA)
Di-2-ethylhexyl-orthophosphoric
acid (D2EGFK)
Ammonium phosphormolybdate
(PMo)
Cationate (KU-2)
*REE = Rare-earth elements.
REE and Y
Cs
Ba and Sr
1 M NHINO3
0.01 M trilon B
pH = 5.5
5 M NH4NO3
0.01 M trilon B,
pH= 10
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 241-243, October, 1976. Original article
submitted December 9, 1975.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
874
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/23: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700080004-6
Fig. 1. Scheme of the setup for the con-
tinuous monitoring of the activity of I, Cs,
Ba, Sr, Y, and rare-earth elements: 1)
line for taking samples; 2) ceiling (between
floors); 3) special ventilation; 4) sample
preparation block; 5) block of continuous
radiochemical separation; 6) chamber for
the iodine fraction; 7) chamber for the
rare-earth element and Y fractions; 8)
chamber for the Cs fraction; 9) chamber
for the Ba and Sr fractions; 10) semicon-
ductor detector; 11) preamplifier; 12) low-
noise amplifier; 13) pulse analyzer; 14) digi-
tal printer; 15) special sewerage system.
respectively. In order to reduce the time of supplying a sample, a flow rate of 4-6 liters/h was maintained
in the loop consisting of the line for the removal of samples, the input collector of the sample-preparation
block, the draining collector, and the special sewerage system. The adjusting solution was added to the sam-
ple in the ratio 1:4 in order to maintain in the sample 0.1 M concentrations of formic acid and ammonium
chloride. For the purpose of reducing the time within which the fractions separated were supplied to the detec-
tor, the rate at which the eluant was run through the sorbents with TOA, PMo, and KU-2* was doubled in the
course of five-day tests. The flow rate of the eluant through the layer with D2EGFK* was kept on the previous
level in view of the low activity of the isotopes to be monitored.
In the course of the entire testing period the reactor worked with constant power; in the loop uncorrected
neutral conditions with pH =7-7.5 were maintained; and the total specific activity of the dry residue was (3.5 -
4.5) ? 10-4 Ci/liter 2 h after a sample had been taken. The specific isotope activity was determined with fast
chromatographic analysis [3] and is listed in Table 2 (the notation m ? 10-n =m ? n was used).
During the continuous separation, seven series of y radiation measurements were made on the fractions
"in flow"; two series of such measurements were made after the fractions had been introduced in the respec-
tive chambers. By analyzing the resulting spectra, 131-1351 and 991nTc could be identified in the first fraction
(see Table 1),91mY and 92Y in the second fraction, 139Cs in the third fraction, and 139-141Ba and 91-92Sr in the
fourth fraction. The values of the specific activity of the long-lived 1311, 1331, 1351, 91Sr, and 149Ba (see Table 2)
isotopes and the data obtained for the corresponding isotopes from measurements made on the continuously
separated fractions were used to calibrate the detector for the photoefficiency in the case of a source geometry
in the form of 100- and 200-ml chambers. Based on these results, the specific activity of all isotopes moni-
tored was calculated for the moment of the measurement. The ratio of the activities calculated for the short-
lived 1321, 1341, 1:1N,
- -pia, and 141Ba isotopes for the moment of the measurement with the corresponding data of
Table 2 made it possible to determine the time within which the sample was transferred from the point of sam-
ple removal to the detector. This time amounted to about 60-70 min. When the flow rate of the eluting
*The abbreviations are explained in Table 1.
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725
1531i3+1
1521
1311
44m
9?M y
92Y
1398,
1418a
92sr
9'sr
1408a
:
kwimil
,
N":?--...4_,
--1
Mal
0
oks
a?Al
N
gi
*
?
?
../0
111i=
,
. 1 I,
4
,
?
?
*.----
IN
/
-...................,
1620
1220 1470 755
'
n'20
1245 16 2'
01C
- lo
=
-
% 10
I 1 ii
155
255 1435 162
-'
I I I
154
n 30
7740 7550
q3
=10
1 10
-
I
1525
'---
1315 1555 5550
*
':'
150072
50
-16
-
MI
'
?
141mn?s.!
F.:1111M
v
I
- ....-
-
_
- 10
1 -
,
1 ? -
14
,
,
iss't
1
,544 1535 172'
Z
"
122
1530 17
6
1115
7 D.
8.
0
7 3
4.4
0
0
8 .C3
5 >.
C.)
rO
.94
6
04
-5
7
ys
Time
Fig. 2. Activity of the samples monitored inJhe measuring
chambers at various conditions of operation of the chromato-
graph.
solutions was doubled, the delay was reduced to 35-40 min. The dependence of the isotope activity upon both
the time and the rate at which the solutions flow through the measuring chambers is shown in Fig. 2.
A stable isotope composition in the fractions separated was observed during stationary operation of the
setup. The deviations of the experimental points from the average value did not exceed 15-2n; the 92Y data
were an exception, which is explained by the low specific activity of 92Y and the inherent insufficient statistical
accuracy of the measurements. The activity values of the yttrium isotopes, which are too low when compared
with the 91-92Sr mother isotopes, and the missing photopeaks which should originate from the radiation emitted
by radioactive cerium isotopes are apparently caused by the increased sorption of these elements on the
876
TABLE 2. Specific Activity (calculated for
the time at which the sample was taken)of
the Nuclides in the Coolant of the MR Re-
actor at the Beginning and at the End of
the Tests
Radio'
nuclide
y, Ci/liter
Radio-
nuclid
I vci/liter
first
days
7th
days
I first
days
7th
days
1316
4,3-7
4,1-7
14oBa
_
C400 ts.0
..00
DF, CZ' GZ 00 00 00CJ J
1321
2,1-6
2,5-6
14113a
1,8-5
133I
3,0-6
3,3-6
139Ba
7,4-6
134I
6,7-6
7,8-6
141Ce
3,2-8
051
3,9-6
4,1-6
143Ce
1,3-7
997mTc
2,0-6
1,5-6
1 4 4ce
6,0-8
139Cs
1,3-5
1,1-5
91mY
1,0-6
91Sr
2,5-6
2,0-6
92Y
1,2-6
92Sr
4,7-6
3,5-6
24Na
2,0-4
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/23: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700080004-6
surface of the construction materials. After trapping the fractions separated in the measuring chambers,
the ratio of the activities of the isotopes monitored varied within the experimental accuracy limits in accor-
dance with the half-lives of the elements. Specific conditions of a continuous separation of fractions could
be established after repeated interruptions ranging from several dozen hours to several days. The flow rates
of the eluting solutions could be used to adjust the activity ratio of the short-lived and long-lived isotopes in
the fractions separated by the time of the measurement. For example, the activity ratio of 141Ba and 92Sr in-
creased from 1.2 to 3.7 when the flow rate of the eluant was doubled.
A noticeable accumulation of long-lived radioactive isotopes in the measuring chambers and near the
detector was not observed in the period of the tests. The background was almost constant in the course of all
the tests. Products resulting from the corrosion of Cr, Mn, and Co, and also Zr and Ce were retained on a
mechanical filter (porous teflon tablet). The absolute activity of the individual isotopes separated on the filter
was approximately 10-8-10-7 Ci.
Our results indicate that a continuous separation of I, Cs, Ba, Sr, and Y isotopes from the aqueous
coolant of a nuclear power plant is feasible. Two conditions of operation of automated systems for monitoring
the hermetic sealing of the fuel-element shells are possible: periodic, remote-control analyses of the radio-
activity of isotopes in the coolant under conditions of stationary reactor operation, or continuous monitoring
to assess the state of the fuel-element shells from fluctuations of the fission-product activity which arise when
the conditions of reactor operation are modified.
LITERATURE CITED
1. L. N. Moskvin et al., At. Energ., 39, No. 6, 412 (1975).
2. A. A. Chubakov et al., Preprint of the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy [in Russian], (1966),
p. 1034.
3. L. N. Moskvin et al., At. Energ., 35, No. 2, 83 (1973).
877
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/23: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700080004-6
ACCELERATION OF IONS BY THE QUASI-STATIC
FIELD OF AN ELECTRON BEAM
A. N. Lebedev and K. N. Pazin UDC 621.3.038.625
The following scheme of accelerating ions by the quasi-static field of an electron beam was proposed in
[1, 2]. By sending a high-current electron beam through a corrugated metal tube situated in an external homo-
geneous magnetic field, one can generate a stationary longitudinal electric field which periodically depends
upon the z coordinate in the direction of beam propagation. The maximum amplitude of the longitudinal field
is given by the condition that the electrons stop and can be estimated with the formula Ezmax (ye ? 1)/L,
where yo denotes the relativistic factor of the electrons; L denotes the modulation period of the system. With
yo =6 and L=10 cm, the formula renders the value Ez max 50 MV/m which considerably exceeds the accelera-
ting field strengths of 1.5-2 MV/m obtained with conventional ion accelerators.
It was suggested to generate the travelling wave required for the acceleration of the particles with the
aid of a slow, time-dependent modulation of the beam current at the input to the system (for z =z0). By com-
bining a spatial modulation (with the wave number k=27r/L) with a time-dependent modulation (with the frequen-
cy koc), one can generate a wave propagating with the phase velocity vph= (ko/k)c. Theparametersk and ko
of the modulation are chosen so that, on the one hand, the required phase velocity vph'=. vi (vi denotes the veloc-
ity of the ions) is obtained, and, on the other hand, the rotational fields, which are proportional to the fre-
quency and maintain a field pattern close to the stationary case, render a negligible contribution. The first
condition means that the relation ko =vik/c must be maintained; the second condition imposes restrictions
upon /3p2h= Ith/c2=14/k2?1. Since in this scheme the accelerating field is generated with a high-current elec-
tron beam, the scheme might be successfully used to accelerate protons to medium energies at high proton
intensities; the intensity is limited only insofar as the proton current must be much smaller than the electron
current. In addition to that, the combination of large field gradients with the possibility of extensively adjust-
ing the phase velocity of the accelerating wave (by changing k or ko, very small pph values can be obtained)
makes the scheme promising for the acceleration of heavy ions.
The goal of the present work is to determine the approximate requirements which the electron beam and
the parameters of the system must satisfy and, more specifically, to establish a relation between the electron
current, the degree of modulation of the boundary, and the longitudinal field.
We consider the stationary (a/at = o) state of an axially symmetric (a/ao =0) monochromatic electron
beam inside an ideal conducting tube which on the r, z plane of a cylindrical coordinate system has a periodic
boundary in longitudinal direction, the boundary being described by the equation F(r, z) =0. The beam is as-
sumed to be infinite in z direction; the transverse motion of the beam is "frozen" by an external homogeneous
magnetic field so that the electron trajectories are straight lines.
In hydrodynamics, the stationary state of such a beam with the temperature zero is given by the following
equation system
I a iraa 820 = ,
r Or k Or I m oz2 qnP,
a. 0;
To = 7?ealinzoo,
(1)
(2)
(3)
where Cr, z) denotes the two-dimensional potential; p (r, z) and jz (r z) denote the charge density and the cur-
rent density, respectively; y = (1 ?192)-l/2, and p =v/c. Equation (1) is the Poisson equation, Eq. (2) is the
continuity equation, and Eq. (3) is the law of energy conservation, where yo has the meaning of the coordinate-
independent total energy of a particle.
Translated from Atomnaya Ertergiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp, 244-247, October, 1976. Original article
submitted December 22, 1975.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
878
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1,0
?g 45
0 41 42 43 44
Fig. 1
ex
1,3
1,2
1,1
05 x0
5 10 (E0zL)max15
Ecz L, MV
Fig. 2
Fig. 1. Compact beam: 1) depth of the corrugation; 2) minimum cur-
rent.
Fig. 2. Tubular beam for y 0 =10 and x0=0.1; 1) charge per period of
the system; 2) minimum current; 3) depth of the corrugation; 4)param-
eter of the charge-density modulation.
By eliminating from Eqs. (1)-(3) p and jz, we obtain an equation which is the analog to the equation de-
scribing the formation of a virtual cathode (see, e.g., [3]):
a ( arp ) azzp 4:ri0 vo+ (I) E)
Ox ax k2JA V [To+ (I) (x,)1? 1
where go=e43/m0c2, x =kz, JA =m0c3/e =17 kA, and k=27:1.
Beyond the region occupied by the beam, the potential obeys the Laplace equation whose solution must
satisfy the boundary conditions on the surface of the conducting tube
(r, const for F rr (z), z] = 0,
(4)
(5)
and must also satisfy the conditions of matching with the solution of Eq. (4) on the boundary between the beam
and vacuum (if the beam is tubular, then matching on two boundaries must take place).
Serious mathematical difficulties are enconntered in the solution of the straightforward problem, when
the self-consistent field in the beam is to be determined along a given boundary. However, in the case under
consideration one can treat the inverse problem, i.e., one can start from some potential distribution which
is periodic in z direction and satisfies the corresponding differential equations and matching conditions and then
use Eq. (5) to determine the shape of the boundary surface which ensures the specific potential distribution.
We use the inverse approach and consider the stationary state of compact and tubular beams.
Compact Beam. Assume a cylindrical beam of radius ro which satisfies the conditions formulated above
and which is composed of relativistic particles for which
T2(x, (6)
Condition (6) makes it unnecessary to consider the self-consistent field and allows us to disregard the in-
fluence of the intrinsic fields upon the velocity of the particles in the beam. The problem is reduced to deter-
mining the field generated by a charged rod which is homogeneous in r and z direction and enclosedbyaperiod-.
ic boundary. In this case a longitudinal field results from the curvature of the boundary, because the modula-
tion of the charge density in z direction is negligibly small in the beam.
Equation (4) assumes the following form
I a ( Th:P 02C1 4?1
?x---J ? J ar:Ijo; xo krG.
Ax 0
x ax Lox
(7)
The solution to this equation, which is periodic in, and represents a finite potential on the axis, is written in
the form
(x, C0/0(x) sin if: [1 ? -:(7) 2] ?00/0 (xo), x xo, (8)
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where Io(x) denotes a Bessel function of imaginary argument; Co denotes the dimensionless amplitude of longi-
tudinal modulation of the potential; J/JA and Co must satisfy the condition
J/JA 2C010 (x0) yo ?1
in accordance with condition (6).
The longitudinally periodic solution to the Laplace equation for the potential beyong the beam assumes
the form
(9)
2J x
(x, t) =? In ? Coin (x) Cc/0 (x0),
JA x()
(10)
with the matching conditions (8) for x =xo=kro. We omitted the term describing the field originating from the
variable charge density component which can be ignored in the case under consideration.
Equations for the equipotentials can be easily derived from Eqs. (8) and (10). An investigation of the
structure of the equipotentials for a given xo shows that for small a 1J/JA)/C0I0(x0)theequipotentiallines are
closed only for r ?Go. Closing on a finite radius begins when the parameter a reaches some value al but as
long as al a < a2, only equipotential lines which are fully or partially inside the beam close; a metal bound-
ary cannot be arranged along these equipotential lines. Finally, for a =a2 the first equipotential line which
is situated fully outside the beam closes. The equation of this equipotential is written as _
2cc In x 4- (x) sin t ? 1 =0.
xo Jo (x0)
A further increase in a causes the closing of an increased number of equipotential tines situated outside the
beam; in principle, a conducting surface could be arranged along these equipotential lines. But a given field
strength En is reached with a minimal beam current if the boundary follows the equipotential described by
Eq. (11). Then
(J/JA),flin=a2coro(xo).
(12)
Apart from this, this boundary is more advantageous as far as the energy is concerned, because in this case
the constant component of the potential difference between the edge of the beam and the wall is minimal.
The minimum current required for generating a given longitudinal field strength E0z can be calcula ted with
the dependence of (J/JA)min/C0 and of the degree of modulation Ax -xmax ? xo upon the dimensionless beam
radius xo (dependence shown in Fig. 1). The geometrical dimensions of-the corrugation are automatically
chosen so that a sinusoidal potential distribution in the z direction is obtained. In particular, for a beam with
radius r0 =O.5 cm, a field strength of 10 MV/mrequires a current J/JA =0.48 (C0=1). The period of modula-
tion L of the boundary is in this case 31.4 cm, and the depth of the modulation is Ar =5.8 cm. A beam of the
same radius but with a current J/JA =1 renders a field strength Eoz =40 MV/m at L =7.85 cm and Ar =1.6 ctn.
We obtain in the cases under consideration from condition (9) -y>4 for the total energy.
Thus, an electron beam of uniform cross section does not render the above-estimated maximum fields
and, in addition, requires a rather high power (J yo ?4). This is basically related to the large trans-
verse "creeping" of the potential in the beam, because the transverse electric field is much stronger than the
longitudinal electric field at reasonable values of the modulation. As far as the acceleration aspect of this
scheme is concerned, tubular beams offer greater possibilities [4].
Tubular Beam. We consider within the above model an infinitely thin tubular beam of radius 1-0. In this
case the external potential (pll (for x:= xo) and the internal potential col (for x xo) satisfy the Laplace equation
and the conditions of matching on the beam surface (for x =x0):
(PI (x=x0, = (x= ro, = (); (13)
eon
1 day except for 131I and 89.91R.
tIncluding 89Sr. .
The radiation situation at the Kol'sk nuclear power station is even more favorable; in 1974, irradiation
of personnel was 0.15 rem/yr and was mainly connected with fuel reloading and the performance of planned
preventive maintenance. During nine months in 1975, 0.15 rem out of 0.22 rem resulted from reloading [2].
Units I and II at the Beloyarsk nuclear power station have somewhat poorer characteristics although the
mean annual radiation dose for personnel at those units (2.2-3 rem/yr) is below established standards. The
main factor in the radiation hazard at these reactors is also the performance of repair operations [3].
At a commercial VVER -4,10 reactor, the calculated specific activity of the primary coolant, assuming
that 1% of the fuel elements show gas leakage and 0.1% of the microdefects result in direct contact between
nuclear fuel and coolant at the end of a run, is 8 ? 10-2 Ci/titer for the sum of all fission products, which in-
cludes 1.6 ? 10-2 Ci/liter from radioactive noble gases (RNG), 5.2 ? 10-3 Ci/liter from iodine isotopes, and
5.8 ? 10-2 Ci/liter from the remaining fission products; there is 4.5 ? 10-3 Ci/liter from corrosion products
and 0.12 Ci/liter from "oxygen" activity.
The actual specific activity is 1-2 orders of magnitude less than specified. The short-lived radionu-
clides 18Fe, 24Na, and 42K at a concentration of 3 ? 10-4 Ci/liter predominate in the water of the primary loop.
At Kol'sk, the 131I-138I content does not exceed 1.5 ? 10-7 to 2.8 ? 10-4 Ci/liter. This is because the number
of fuel elements with gas leaks is 30 out of a permissible number of 440 and the number with microdefects is
2 out of a permissible number of 44. There are even fewer defective fuel elements in unit IV at Novovoronezh;
the surface contamination of fuel elements with 235U is 6.8 ? 10-11 g/cm2 as compared to the permissible value
of 1 ? 10-9 g/cm2 [2].
In the neighborhood of the primary loop of a shut-down reactor, the y-ray field is produced mainly by
activated corrosion products adsorbed on the internal surfaces of piping. Typical data for the Kol'sk nuclear
power station are shown in Table 1.
The large contribution from11?111A;.,r is typical; it is formed by activation of stable silver contained in
electrodes and certain reactor structures.
At Beloyarsk, "Co is predominant in deposits on the internal surfaces of the primary loop; its contribu-
tion to the dose rate is 97% in unit I and 35% in unit II (Table 2). The main sources of "'Co are Kh13N1OT stain-
less steel and stellite welds in the armature and rods of disconnect devices.
Decontamination performed at unit I of the Beloyarsk nuclear power station led to a reduction in y-ray
levels by a factor of five on the average and by a factor of 25 at particular locations. The effectiveness was
less at unit II (a factor of two). Bench tests of a method for high-temperature decontamination gave en-
couraging results [3].
Commercial VVER-440 reactors are recommended from all aspects and particularly from the viewpoint
of the rate of discharge of gaseous radioactive wastes. Thus, the annual discharge of RNC; from units III and
IV at Novovoronezh in 1973-1975 was, respectively 2140, 2056, and 24,785 Ci/yr. Only in 1975 did it reach
2% of the maximum permissible discharge (MPD) of 1.2 million Ci/yr; in the preceding two years it was less
than 0.2% [1].
In studies of the degree of dispersion of radioactive aerosols at Novovoronezh, it was established that
the radioactivity and mass distributions of aerosols with respect to their aerodynamic diameters were de-
scribed by a lognormal function. In the stack and in the four ventilating systems, the average aerodynamic
891
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TABLE 4. Air Concentrations of Radionuclides
near the Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Station,
x 10-17 Ci/liter [1]
Total aerosol
13-activity
0
(.)
JSos
Point of mea-
Year
surement
4-
',P
2
2
1972'
At power station
9,6
3,8
1,4
0,57
0,27
60 km from power station
9,3
3,0
1.,35
0,32
0,23
1973
At powerstation
4,0
0,9
--
0,21
0,12
50 km from power station
3,0
1,0
--
0,21
0,10
1974
At powerstation
2,0
6,5
4,0
0,40
0,42
50 km fmmpowerstmion
1,8
5,5
2,8
0,33
0,34
1975
At powerstadon
13,0
11,3
3,9
0,40
0,51
50 krn from power station ?
10,5
12,1
3,0
0,30
0,5:::
diameter with respect to particle activity was 2.1-3.9j. and 0.5-1.1 2 with respect to mass; the average mass
concentration was 0.017-0.086 mg/m3. Precipitation of aerosols in the sampling tube for monitoring aerosol
discharges from the large stack of units III and IV at Novovoronezh was 45-6ff3 pH. Information on the rate of
aerosol discharge is presented in Table 3.
Thus, the total 4-yr discharge of radionuclides from two units at the Novovoronezh nuclear power station
does not even exceed the mean daily MPD for all isotopes.
At Kol'sk, random leakage of water from the primary loop did not exceed 5 liters/h as compared with a
design standard of 200 liters/h. As a result, discharges of RNG during the second half of 1973 came to 87 Ci
in all, were 1047 Ci during the whole of 1974, and 430 Ci for four months of 1976. The 1311 concentration in
air discharged from a stack 120 m high did not exceed 2.5 ? 10-15 Ci/liter, which is 100 times less than the
average permissible concentration in air at populated locations. The aerosol components in the discharges
were negligible amounts of the short-lived radionuclides 881313 and 138Cs (0.03 and 0.3 Ci in 1973 and 1974, re-
spectively, [2]).
The radiation environment around the location of the Novovoronezh nuclear power Station is mainly
, 144c-, ;
characterized by radionuclides of global occurrence (66Sr, 137cs e) "station" nuclides (65Zn, "Co) make
a barely perceptible contribution. Table 4 shows that the air concentration of radionuclides is very low and
comparable with the background produced by global fallout. Only a barely perceptible difference is observed
between the air concentrations of of nuclides near the nuclear power station and at a monitoring station 50 km
away. A similar pattern is also observed in water basins (Table 5). _
Calculated radiation doses for the population in the neighborhood of the Novovoronezh nuclear power
station are practically the same as the doses resulting from the natural radiation background from global con-
tamination of the biosphere [1].
892
TABLE 5. Radionuclide Concentrations in
Water (pCi/liter) and Bottom Sediment
(nCiAcg) of the Don River [1]
6.4
:0
Upstream from nu-
clear power station
Downstream from
nuclear power station
2
1972
Water
7,5
0,47
0,58
7,0
0,49
0,54
Mud
11,4
0,46
0,13
9,3'
0,12
0,10
1973
Water
9,4
0,49
0,80
8,8
0,50
0,58
Mud
10,0
0,11
0,04
11,2
0,15
0,10
1974
Water
10,3
2,6
0,63
10,3
2,45
0,68
Mud
9,2
0,22
0,10
7,0
0,18
0,14
1975
Water
11,6
1,37
0,46
9,7
1,46
0,52
Mud
18,3
0,07
0,18
12,9
0,18
0,22
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TABLE 6. Radioisotop;c Composition of Coolant. Gas, and Deposits in Various Operating Cycles of the BOR -60
Reactor [71
Dperating
cycle
Year
Specific activity at coolant, iCi/kg
l
Surface activity at deposits,
pCi/m2
Specific activity of gas, ?Ci/liter
Dose rate in
primary loop
boxes during
preventive
maintenance,
pR/sec
22Na
1 ,n1/1.g'
131Cs
1,7CS
95m,
125Sb,
lofith,
etc.
6000
56mn
?5N1,
lior,a
CS
etc,
41 Ar
133xe
1:15x,
85Kr
8587..
814kr
etc.
Sealed
core
107(
50
16
0,2
,..:(1,1
,
1
r aTo < (R)>
= e
a l A
.
(7)
(8)
A
Since the field changes insignificantly when x < 11, the quantities (h) and (Di ) are practically independent
of the field distribution and therefore are functions of R. In turn, the dependence of (h) and (4') on R is very
weak. It then follows from [9] that when Z =6 and T0=1 MeV, the increase in the quantities (D)and (h) does
not exceed in for a change in eE from 0 to 0.8MeV/g ? cm-2so that (T) and especially r in Eqs. (7) and (8) can
be considered independent of R and t. After integration of Eq. (7), we obtain the dependence of the range R(t)
on irradiation time:
R1 R1 0 + [1?exp < tt> )].
If necessary, the weak dependence of r and (T) on R can be taken into consideration.
A comparison of calculated results from Eq. (9) with known experimental data [3, 4] obtained for organic
polymers is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The function (9) can be linearized in the form
(9)
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R(Ro?R,0)
y (t) 7:: In
R0(R?R)?
(10)
where Roo= [R0-1 +r-1]-1 is the maximum value of the range. Figure 2 shows data from [3] which was analyzed
by Kennedy and Kohlberg [10].
Thus Eq. (9) is confirmed by experiments on organic polymers for beam currents from 0.1 to 10-7 A/
cm2. One can show that the equation obtained in [5] without consideration of conductivity is a particular case
of Eq. (9). In order to predict the thickness of the irradiated layer in a given material, it is necessary to
know the parameters a and A, which are determined from experiments on radiation conductivity.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Yu. S. Deev et al., At. Energ., 29, 303 (1970).
2. V. I. Spitsyn and V. V. Gromov, Physicochemical Properties of Radioactive Solids [in Russian],
Atomizdat, Moscow (1973), p. 93.
3. H. Lackner, I. Kohlberg, and S. Nablo, J. Appl. Phys., 36, 2064 (1965).
4. 0. B. Evdokimov and N. I. Yagushkin, Fiz. Tverd. Teta, 16, 564 (1974).
5. B. Gross and S. Nablo, J. Appl. Phys., 38, 2272 (1967).
6. V. S. Remizovich and A. I. Rudenko, At. Energ., 40, 64 (1976).
7. S. E. Vaisberg, in: Radiochemistry of Polymers [in Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1973), p. 400.
8. J. Fowler, Proc. Roy. Soc., 236, No. 11, 464 (1956).
9. 0. B. Evdokimov and A. P. Yalovets, Khim. Vys. Energ., 7, 271 (1973).
10. E Kennedy and I. Kohlberg, Trans. Amer. Nucl. Soc., 11,407 (1968).
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COMECON CHRONICLES
THIRTIETH MEETING OF COMECON STANDING COMMITTEE
ON THE PEACEFUL USES OF ATOMIC ENERGY
Yu. I. Chikul
The COMECON Standing Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (SCPUAE) held its 30th meet-
ing In Vraca, People's Republic of Bulgaria, in June 1976. Representatives of the international commercial
associations Interatominstrument and Interatomenergo took part in the work of the Committee.
The Committee discussed measures in the domain of nuclear power engineering following from the deci-
sions of the COMECON Executive Committee and the COMECON Committees on cooperation in planned activi-
ties and on scientific and technical cooperation; it considered preliminary proposals for the atomic energy sec-
tion of a draft long-term program of cooperation on providing for the economically justified needs of the
COMECON member-countries in regard to the principal forms of energy, fuels, and raw materials for the
period up to 1990; the Committee also considered programs of scientific and technical cooperation on the devel-
opment and promotion of computer-assisted systems of inspection and control for an atomic power plant with
a VVER-1000 (water-moderated, water-cooled) power reactor as well as the development and promotion of
methods and instruments for 'y-ray resonance (M5ssbauer) spectroscopy for the 1976-1980 period, and propo-
sals concerning the forms of cooperation in these areas.
The Committee approved draft "Regulations Concerning the Safe Transportation of Spent Nuclear Fuel
from Atomic Power Plants of COMECON Member-Countries. Part One ? Transportation by Rail" and decided
to present it to the COMECON Executive Committee for approval; these were documents concerning norms and
methods of radiation sterilization of medical materials and supplies and recommendations concerning methods
for technological dosimetry of radiation installations with radioisotopic 1/ sources.
The Committee considered a report on the activity of the Bulgarian Committee on Scientific and Technical
Cooperation in the 1972-1975 period, discussed various aspects of the further development of cooperation with
the International Atomic Energy Agency in connection with the conclusion of an Agreement between COMECON
and the IAEA. The meeting approved a report on the work done by the SCPUAE in 1975 and its further activi-
ties, and considered questions emerging from the meetings of the working organs of the Committee in the first
half of 1976. The Committee adopted suitable recommendations and decisions on all questions considered.
The Committee meeting took place in an atmosphere of friendship, complete mutual understanding, and
business-like cooperation.
In the period preceding the Committee meeting, a protocol was signed in Sofia on extending to 1980 the
validity of the Agreement establishing a provisional international scientific research team to carry out research
on the reactor physics of the critical assembly of the VVER . This ensures that important problems concerning
the design of a high-power reactor of this type will be resolved by the joint efforts of the COMECON member-
countries.
The representatives of the contracting parties of the agreement noted with satisfaction that the National
Committee of the Republic of Cuba on the Uses of Atomic Energy had acceded to the agreement in 1976.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, co. 284, October, 1976.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
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CONFERENCES, MEETINGS, AND SEMINARS
THIRD ALL-UNION SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL
CONFERENCE ON RADIATION SAFETY
V. I. Ivanov and U. Ya. Margulis
The conference, meeting in Moscow in May 1976, was organized by the State Committee of the Council
of Ministers of the USSR for Science and Technology and the All-Union Central Council of Professional Societies.
It was attended by some 500 persons representing 140 scientific and practical organizations.
Opening the conference, the Deputy Minister of Health Protection of the USSR, A. I. Burnazyan, noted
that complex scientific, technical, hygienic, and clinical problems of radiation protection are being success-
fully solved thanks to the efforts of-physicists and engineering, technical, and medical workers. As a result,
nucleonics has become a branch of industry that posesminimaldanger to man and the environment.
At four sessions the conference discussed 117 papers. More than 100 were presented by rapporteurs
in the form of surveys of particular topics.*
The first session heard papers read by the leaders of the various lines of work and programs. A paper
by A. P. Semenov and V. I. Ivanov dealt with the results of the fulfilment of a coordinated five-year plan of
work on radiation safety. They noted that as a result of the implementation of the plan, significant progress
had been made in elaborating the scientific principles and in improving the methods and measures of radiation
safety. The elaboration of normative, methodical, and legislative documents was an appreciable contribution
to ensuring safe conditions for work with sources of ionizing radiation. Thirty documents were ratified and
12 others were presented for ratification.'
Present-day approaches to the convention of standardizing the radiation factor as well as to the principal
unresolved problems in this area were presented in a paper by L. A. -Win and Yu. I. Moskalev.
Realization of the established norms and the requirements with regard to ensuring radiation safety in-
volves a necessarily single approach to the interpretation of these conditions as applied to the system of radia-
tion monitoring. Methodical and technical means of solving this problem were considered in a paper by A. D.
Turkin et al.
B. M. Isaev analyzed work aimed at unifying measurements in the domain of radiation safety, elaborating
and promoting standard measuring equipment, and organizing the inspection of dosimetric equipment.
A paper by E. E. Kulish discussed the use of radioactive isotopes in the national economy, as well as
improvement of the technology of preparing radiation sources so as to increase safety in their extensive appli-
cation in many spheres of industrial activity.
In their paper 0. G. Pol'skii and V. Ya. Golikov dealt with the establishment of a state sanitary inspec-
torate in the USSR to look after radiation hygiene and the prospects for improving it. Some current aspects
of radiation safety were taken up in a paper by P. V. Ramazaev and S. I. Tarasov.
Subsequent sessions considered specific problems of radiation safety.
Serious attention at the conference was paid to ensuring radiation safety in atomic power plants. The
papers read analyzed the principal sources constituting the radiation facility in an atomic power plant and their
relative contribution to the dose burden received by the personnel. It was shown that the operation of an atomic
power plant presents no danger to the personnel and the environment. Thus, the radiation doses received by
personnel are, on average, 1-2 rem/yr, and do not exceed 2.5 rem/yr, i.e., are below the regulatory
*The surveys "Radiation safety at nuclear power stations" and "Radiation safety during operation of high-
intensity radiation equipment" are published in this issue on pp. 890 and 897.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 284-286, October, 1976.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
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maximum permissible levels. The average ejections of radioactive material are significantly lower than the
maximum permissible and do not lead to contamination of the environment.
Since tritium is one of the "critical" isotopes determining the radiation conditions in the region of the
site of a nuclear power plant, particular attention was devoted to evaluation of the equilibrium between the
tritium concentration and the amount ejected into the environment. Using the example of an atomic power
plant with a VVER. -440 reactor, it was noted that in all cases the tritium content in the air and water does not
exceed the mean permissible concentration. The conference also considered the principles and methods of
dosimetric monitoring of the tritium content in the premises of atomic power plants, objects in the external
environment, and the human body.
Interesting information was given in a paper on the relative hazard which excursions from atomic and
thermal power plants constituted for the population of adjoining regions.
Questions of ensuring radiation safety during the use of high-power radiation techniques, gamma flaw
detection or defectoscopy, neutron and tritium sources, etc. were discussed in considerable detail. The re-
sults were presented of investigations on radiation hazard factors arising during irradiation processes in high-
power apparatus as well as in other aspects of the use of isotopic sources. It was noted that as far as ensur-
ing safe working conditions was concerned, industrial radiation ?chemical technology had the advantage over
the traditional technology. Individual doses of radiation received by the operating personnel of high-power
radioisotope apparatus does not exceed 0.3 of the maximum permissible doses, i.e. 1.5 rem/yr. Papers
read at the conference presented material on the optimization of the protective devices of such apparatus. ? A
mathematical model that was proposed enables the probability of a breakdown to be predicted on the basis of
data concerning the failure of individual units. The role was established of radiolysis products (ozone, nitric
oxides) entering the air of working premises during normal operation of high-power radioisotope apparatus
and in breakdown situations. Many years of observation, the results of which were presented at the conference,
show that the design of high-power radioisotope apparatus and shielding systems prevent radioactive materials
from getting into the surroundings and the personnel from being over-irradiated under normal operation. The
optimal level of radiation monitoring was established on the basis of these studies.
At present more than 3000 gamma flaw detectors are in use in the USSR. Therefore, data on experience
in ensuring radiation safety during gamma flaw detection were of particular interest to the conference partici-
pants. Over the past 10 years the individual radiation doses received by defectoscopists decreased more than
six times and amounted to 0.7 rem/yr, going down to 1.5-2 rem/yr in individual cases.
Some papers were devoted to radiation monitoring and its optimal level when using ionizing radiation.
Papers on the achievements in the metrology of ionizing radiation presented data on checking meters used to
measure the equivalent dose of fast neutrons and gave the characteristic of State standards of equivalent dose
of neutron radiation, units of x-ray dose absorbed (20-60 keV), units of brehmsstrahlung energy flux (5-50
MeV), and a special standard of radioactive aerosols.
Considerable attention at the conference was paid to the dosimetry of internal irradiation. Questions
of the dosimetry and evaluation of individual doses of external irradiation have, in principle, been resolved.
However, difficulties are encountered in estimating the individual doses of internal irradiation owing to the
imperfection of methods available for direct determination of the entry of radioactive materials into the body
as well as methods of studying the characteristics of aerosol systems and estimating the doses of radiation
received by critical organs, etc., on the basis of these characteristics.
Papers pointed to the achievements in ascertaining the parameters of various aerosol systems, on the
basis of which it is possible to develop express analyses of internal irradiation. A noteworthy evaluation was
made of the role of the statistical laws governing the ingestion of radioactive materials from the air into the
human organism upon inhalation of aerosols, as well as during their expulsion from the organism.
Of interest are new data about methods of reliably estimating irradiation doses received by the lungs
when radioactive materials lodge in them, methods of radiographic analysis of aerosol samples, and methods
based on multicascade impactors. The characteristics were presented of new fibrous filters based on FP (ab-
sorption filter) type cloth for analyzing and trapping radioactive aerosols, iodine, and mercury in an aerial
environment. Some papers reported on the evaluation of the reliability of measurements of radioactive aero-
sol concentration, on the physicochemical properties of aerosols, and also on the radiation burden when radio-
active materials are inhaled. The conference heard information about new apparatus for monitoring the entry
of radioactive materials and new methods of evaluating the content of radioactive materials in biosubstructures.
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Significant progress has been made in developing methods for mathematically modeling radionuclide meta-
bolism on the basis of miCrochamber models.
Extremely useful and practically important information was given by papers on improvements in methods
of spectrometry of human irradiation which permit direct determination of the content of radioactive materials
in the human body. There have been noteworthy developments in multiwire proportional counters for measur-
ing the 239Pu content in human lungs, spectrometry for determining the total content of y -emitting isotopes in
the human body by longitudinal scanning with four NaI(T1) detectors, as well as methods for directly determin-
ing the decay products of radon in the respiratory organs from the intensity of they radiation emitted.
The conference paid particular attention to the principles for standardizing radiation factors. From
the present concept of the thresholdless effect of ionizing radiation it follows that even with a small dose of
radiation there is a definite probability of adverse results with a stochastic character. In this connection,
the concept of risk occupied a significant place in the discussion.
Some papers contained interesting information about the approach to establishing standards for the joint
action of radiative and nonradiative time factors, as well as about the health of personnel working with radia-
tion sources for a long time.
The conference noted the high level and scale of work in the realm of radiation safety, bringing an im-
provement in the conditions of work with radioactive materials and sources of ionizing radiation. It was also
noted that the experience of atomic science and engineering leads to the introduction of ionizing radiation
sources with new parameters, and this in turn requires new scientific development and research. Attention
was drawn to the need for economic optimization of measures to ensure radiation safety.
The conference adopted recommendations aimed at further improving means and methods of ensuring
radiation safety.
The conference proceedings will be published in the journal "Izotopy U SSSR" (Isotopes in the USSR).
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON THE USE OF
NEUTRONS IN MEDICINE
B. A. Bedrov and V. N. Ivanov
An All-Union conference on "The Use of Neutrons in Medicine," organized by the Scientific-Research
Institute for Medical Radiology, Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR (SRIMR AMS USSR), was held in
Obninsk on May 18-19, 1976. Its program comprised five main sections: the physicotechnical aspects of the
application of neutrons in radiology and medicine, the biological effect of neutrons, the use of neutrons in
clinical practice, the use of methods of neutron activation analysis in the clinic, and ensuring the radiation
safety of the operating personnel and patients.
Up to now, questions of the use of heavy nuclear particles, including neutrons, for beam therapy have
been in the discussion stage. There are three variants of the application of neutron radiation in oncology:
fast-neutron contact radiotherapy and teletherapy, and neutron-capture therapy with intermediate and thermal
neutrons. The latter is a combination of irradiation with external beams of neutrons and the introduction of
special nuclides into the tumor for an intense local attack on the tumor cells.
The best-developed research has been that on contact neutron radiotherapy. The leading oncological
centers in the USSR have beguna clinical study of the transplutonium source 252Cf. A paper by A. G. Sul'kin
(All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Radiation Therapy, ASRIRT) took up questions of technical equip-
ment for contact therapy. Small, manually inserted, pin-type sources (diameter 1.2 mm, active length 10-
30 mm) have been constructed. However, most promise is held out by apparatuses with remote insertion
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 286-287, October, 1976.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
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which are radiation-safest. At the present time a neutron therapeutic apparatus ANE T-1 has been developed
for contact beam therapy; the experience gained from the operation of this apparatus in the Central Institute
of Advanced Training for Doctors (CIATD) was generalized in a paper by A. V. Kozlova et al. The apparatus
is expected to be approved early in 1979 for intratumor irradiation with sources of higher activity. To enhance
the capabilities of contact therapy, work is under way on flexible sources.
The physical characteristics of 252Cf sources were the subject of papers by S. N. Kraitor et al. (Bio-
physics Institute of the Ministry of Health of the USSR) and G. P. Elisyutin and V. Ya. Komar (ASRIRT).
The results of experimental studies on the microdosimetric characteristics of these sources were discussed
by a paper delivered by V. G. Videnskii and V. V. Farnakeev (SRIMR).
An important place in the discussion was taken by questions of dosimetry and radiation monitoring in
contact therapy witha252Cf source. V. N. Ivanov, representing SRIMR, ASRLRT, and the Biophysics Institute
of the Ministry of Health of the USSR, reported on the development of a system of dosimetric and radiation
monitoring, establishing suitable conditions for irradiating patients according too prescribed plan, for analy-
sis of clinical and radiobiological results, as well as personnel monitoring. At present, this system is used
in applicator and intratissue therapy of patients with tumors of the head and neck. The radiation-hygienic
basis for the application of 252Cf in beam therapy was also considered in a paper by A. V. Kozlova et al. The
researchers have used 252Cf for applicator neutron therapy of patients with skin cancer and malignant mela-
noma
Extremely interesting data about radiation monitoring and protection in intracavitary therapy of onco-
logical --gynecological patients were presented by V. D. Abdullaev et al. from the KievRoentgeno-Radiological
and Oncological Scientific Research Institute (KRROSRI). Their research made it possible to draw up norms
for the work of personnel with 252Cf sources, norms which satisfy indispensable requirements. Thus, a mani-
pulation nurse can carryoutnomore than six loadings and unloadings a week, and a doctor, no more than ten.
Dosimetric prerequisites for intracavitary neutron therapy of uterine cancer by the simple overloading princi-
ple were also discussed in a paper by K. N. Kostrominaya et al. (CIATD). On the basis of the experience
gained in employing "Coy-ray sources, the authors studied different geometries for neutron radiation sources.
Great interest was aroused by papers on the first clinical results of the use of 252Cf (B. M. Vtyurin et
al., SRIMR; A. V. Kozlova et al., CIATD; E. S. Kiselev et al., Moscow Oncological Scientific-Research
Institute (MOSRI); and V. D. Abdullaev et al., KRROSRI). Contact therapy was administered to 40 patients in
SRIMR, 13 in CIATD, 12 in MOSRI, and 12 in KRROSRI. The applicationof252Cffor the treatment of radiore-
sistant tumors was found to yield favorable direct results. It was shown that to accelerate the evaluation of
the effectiveness of neutron therapy and to determine its place among other methods ofbeam therapy research
equipment must be improved substantially by increasing the number and assortment of sources.
In appraising neutron teletherapy, the papers dealt primarily with the justification of the medicotechni-
cal need to produce beams of fast neutrons in special-purpose installations and experimental physical appara-
tus adapted for clinical purposes (E. A. Zherbin et al., SRIMR; A. I. Ruderman and G. V. Makarova, Onco-
logical Scientific Center). In her paper, the Oncological Center representative gave data forming the basis
of a project for producing a beam by using the fast pulsed reactor in Dubna. Work has begun in KRROSRI on
producing for therapeutic purposes a beam of fast neutrons in the U-120 cyclotron of the Institute of Nuclear
Research, Academy of Sciences of the USSR (V. N. Letov et al.).
The physicotechnical aspects of neutron-capture therapy employing proton accelerators was considered
in a paper by E. A. Zherbin et al. Unfortunately, there were no papers on the chemical problems involved in
this form of therapy.
Many papers were devoted to the biological effect of neutrons.
The Scientific Council on Roentgenography and Radiology at the Presidium of the Academy of Medical
Sciences of the USSR was authorized to organize work on establishing a scientific ?methodological center for
the coordination of scientific research on the use of neutrons in biology and medicine and the introduction of
the results of scientific work into practice.
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THIRD MEETING OF THE IA TE TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
ON HIGH-ACTIVITY AND a -EMITTING WASTE
Yu. P. Martinov
The Technical Committee meeting in Vienna, Austria, from May 10-14, 1976 was attended by experts
from Britain, India, the USSR, the USA, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, and some inter-
national organizations. The meeting discussed a wide range of topics: national programs, the results of the
May, 1976 symposium on the handling of radioactive waste from the fuel cycle, and methods of handlinga-
emitting waste, means of solidifying waste, and the indices of the relative safety of the waste.
Cooling spent fuel for three years prior to its regeneration and subsequent solidificationofthewastewas
recognized to be optimal for fuel elements of thermal reactors. French and British specialists believe that a
shorter cooling time would be preferable for fast-reactor fuel, whereas in Federal Germany it is suggested
that the same period be retained in this case. There is no consensus as to the necessity of separating trans-
uranium elements from high-activity waste. Many believe that this does not lead to a reduction in the toxicity
of the waste. The question may be resolved after additional information is obtained about the technology of
separation in secondary waste, about the hazards and risk in the processes of separation and burial, about the
uses of transuranium elements, transmutation, etc.
Many countries are continuing to develop methods of processing and burying high-activity and a-emitting
waste. It is considered to be of cardinal importance to ascertain their properties. Methods of reducing bulk
by incineration and leaching are being worked out for a-emitting waste containing plutonium. The possibility
is being investigated of applying cryogenics for plastic and resins. Experiments are being carried out to as-
certain the properties of fuel-element cans, possibilities of deactivating them, reducing the volume occupied,
and obtaining alloys at temperatures which are not high, comparatively speaking.
Most success has been attained in solidifying high-activity waste. Processes of calcination, vitrification,
and incorporation into a metallic matrix are being worked out. Vitrification is at present regarded by all as
the most suitable process for solidification. A plant for vitrifyingwaste is being developed in a number of coun-
tries (in particular, an electromelt furnace in the USSR in which a high output has been attained with a model
solution). France, which plans to conduct active operations in 1977, has come closest to carrying out vitri-
fication on an industrial scale.
Under laboratory conditions, new methods are being used to solidify waste: sintering a pressed mixture
of calcinate and glass-forming additives, and production of "multibarrier" glasses. Work is under way to im-
prove the properties of the solidified waste by employing directional crystallization.
Geological formations are considered to be the most suitable for burial of solidified high-activity and a-
emitting waste. Thus, the United States, e.g., is increasing appropriations for developing methods of final
burial, the increase being from 7-34 million dollars. Of this sum, 95% will be used to check out the possibility
of burying waste in a geological formation on dry land, 5% on burial in the seas and oceans, and 2% on trans-
mutation and ejection into outer space.
An IAEA official, G. Grover, told of plans to establish a committee on the removal, storage, and burial
of gaseous radioactive elements from aerial discharges. The Committee recommended that instead of engag-
ing in work on the development of an index of relative safety, which does not take account of some important
properties of waste and burial conditions, the IAEA should concentrate on elaborating a model of the distribu-
tion of radionuclides from burial sites of radioactive waste.
Since the extremely broad subject-matter of the May symposium did not permit its participants to dis-
cuss some interesting topics, on a motion by the USSR the Committee recommended that a symposium on the
handling of high-activity waste be held in 1980.
Translated from Atomnaya f>ergiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 287-288, October, 1976.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
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5TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON THE DESALINATION
OF SEA AND SALT WATER
0. I. Martynova
The symposium was held in Alghero, Sardinia, on May 16-20, 1976, with 530 delegates from 32 coun-
tries participating. In all, 114 papers were read and 48 others appeared in abstracts. The Soviet delegation
presented 14 papers.
Desalination of sea and salt water in most countries is linked with nuclear power, first because of the
construction of atomic power plants which, in addition to generating electricity, will also desalinate water.
In existing projects employing thermal methods of desalination, provision is made for intensive utilization of
heat from the reactor, i.e., bringing it down to a low potential. Second, methods (both thermal and mem-
brane types, especially the latter) for the desalination of salt water and methods of purifying and concentrating
sewage, including liquid radioactive waste are based on the same technological processes. This generality is
even more manifest in connection with the heightened requirements in regard to protection of the environment.
Papers presented at the symposium discussed in depth the experience gained from the operation of ther-
mal desalination plants as well as the designing and construction of powerful new installations. The largest
installations in operation include a multistage flash evaporation plant at Porto Torres, Sardinia, with an out-
put of 52,800 m3/day and a plant of the same type in Hong Kong (Japanese built) with an output of 180,000 m3/
day. A joint US ?Egyptian paper made a comparative analysis of different sources of energy for desalinating
water from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean and came to the conclusion that it is desirable to use atomic
energy for this purpose, notwithstanding the large oil reserves in the region.
As a whole, the work on thermal desalination of water has left the research and pilot-plant stage and is
being pressed into commercial use.
Much attention is being paid to the effectiveness of the operation of thermal desalination plants: cutting
capital outlays ? especially metal consumption, increasing the specific yield of distillate, using low-potential
heat, and constructing multipurpose installations and increasing their output. Some countries are drawing up
comprehensive national programs for purification of natural saline, brackish water, and sewage.
Special attention is being paid to the development of membrane processes ? electrodialysis, including
processes at 65-70?C, and especially to reverse osmosis. Membrane processes for desalination of water are
preferable to thermal processes and are therefore gradually displacing the latter as a result of lower energy
consumption, lower metal consumption, and greater compactness.
The application of the reverse ?osmosis method for treatment of sea, brackish, and discharged water,
as well as the synthesis of reverse ?osmosis membranes on the basis of cellulose acetate, new polymer
materials, porous glass, etc. were the subject of about half of the papers, which testifies to the great inter-
est in the subject. The Japanese company Kurita Water reported on the start-up of the world's largest re-
verse-osmosis installation with a output of 15,000 m3/day. On January 1, 1975, the United States had
268 such installations with a total output of 150,000 m3/day.
Greatest promise is held out by membranes in the form of so-called hollow fibers. At the present time,
however, spiral modules with flat membranes constitute the principal type. The energy losses in the desalina-
tion of water by the reverse ?osmosis method are 4CC70 below those in distillation, the total expenses involved
in producing fresh water being 20-4G/below the cost of obtaining water in evaporators. It should be noted,
however, that desalination by reverse osmosis requires careful preliminary treatment of the incoming water
so as to prevent "poisoning" of membranes.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, p. 288, October, 1976.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
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BOOK REVIEWS
V. I. Levin
NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND NUCLEAR REACTORS*
Reviewed by V . K. V ikul ov
The book under consideration is a textbook for technical high schools.
The book is based on a course of lectures given by the author in the Obninsk Polytechnic School. The
third edition of the bookattests to its popularity,whichresults from its rather advanced scientific yet under-
standable presentation of the subject.
The first part of the book, "Atomic and Nuclear Physics," comprises ten chapters.
Chapters 1 and 2 present information from atomic physics, the special theory of relativity, and quantum
mechanics.
Chapters 3-5 deal with structure and characteristics of atomic nuclei, the properties of nuclear forces,
and the main models of the nucleus.
In these chapters the reader is acquainted with radioactivity, radioactive materials and their utilization
in the science and industry, the basic laws and types of radioactive decay, and the interaction of ionizing radia-
tion with matter.
In Chapter 6 the most widely used instruments for recording ionizing radiation are considered: Chapter
7 describes the methods of accelerating charged particles and the designation and design of various reactors.
Chapter 8 is concerned with nuclear reactions. The author properly emphasizes the goal of research
on nuclear reactions, energy and momentum conservation laws, and the probabilistic aspect of nuclear reac-
tions. Particular attention is paid to thermonuclear reactions. The conditions required for a self-sustaining
fusion reaction to take place in stars and on the Earth are formulated.
Chapter 9 briefly describes cosmic radiation and gives a classification of elementary particles.
Chapter 10 is a short description of both properties and sources of neutrons, of the principles of neutron
spectrometry, and of the methods of recording neutrons. The interaction of neutrons with matter is considered
in detail. The theory of nuclear fission and neutron multiplication is briefly outlined, but at this point some
remarks should be made. Upon reading ?10.3, the reader has the impression that there exists only, the spec-
troscopy of slow neutrons (of less than 100 eV), which, of course, is not the case.
The setup, the basic scheme, and the classification of reactors, as well as the properties of reactor
materials, are considered in Chapter 11 of the second part, "Nuclear Reactors." The classification of the
reactors is incomplete. For example, heterogeneous reactors (see ? 11.3) must be subdivided into tank and
channel reactors, their advantages and shortcomings must be compared, and the basic possibility of recharg-
ing the fuel during operation of channel reactors should be specifically mentioned. High-temperature reactors
have not been mentioned. It should have been stressed in ? 11.6 that minimal noxious absorption of
neutrons is the main requirement to be satisfied by all reactor materials.
Chapter 12 briefly describes the elementary theory of the criticality of thermal reactors, the neutron
distributions in the various reactor types, and the importance of neutron leakage.
Chapter 13 explains the principles of reactor control, mentions the importance of delayed neutrons and
of the temperature coefficient of the reactivity, briefly discusses the problems of burn-up and nuclear fuel
regeneration and some details of switching-on and switching-off reactors, and gives an idea of the heat-ex-
change problems in reactors.
*Textbook for Technical High Schools, 3rd edition, Atomizdat, Moscow (1975), 18, 34 I., 82 kopecks.
934
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 292-294, October, 1976.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
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But formula (12.1) for the utilization coefficient of thermal neutrons (? 12.1) is not correct, because
the formula is excessively simplified without the required explanations. The Doppler effect and its impor-
tance for reactor control were disregarded.
Chapter 14 is a review of nuclear power generation in the USSR. The text mentions the capital expen-
ditures and the cost of electric power generation by nuclear power plants, and describes the characteristics
and design details of research reactors, experimental reactors, and reactors for power generation. It should
be noted that some errors have been made in ? 14.4. In particular, the possibility of replacing the graphite
moderator by heavywater has not been provided in the design of the RBMK reactor; the fuel element shells of
this reactor have a thickness of 0.9 rather than 0.45 mm; and outdated data were used to describe the Beloyarsk
Nuclear Electric Power Station.
However, these shortcomings are immaterial and do not reduce the good overall impression which the
book provides.
The main advantages of the book are its methodological uniqueness and its understandable presentation.
It is important for a textbook that it includes data from the history of the respective fields of science and tech-
nology, examples for solving certain problems, and handbook data.
The book should be interesting and useful not only for students of technical high schools but also for
students of colleges and for young specialists of other fields than engineering and physics.
R. M. Kogan, I. M. Nazarov, and Sh. D. Fridman
PRINCIPLES OF THE y SPECTROMETRY
OF NATURAL MEDIA,K
Reviewed by E . M. Filippov
The book is devoted to one of the important problems of nuclear geophysics. The utilization of y spec-
trometry in daily work has greatly expanded the possibilities of radiometric investigations. Gamma spectrom-
etry has made it possible to determine not only the distribution of the natural radioactive elements in natural
beds but also the contamination of the earth's surface with the products of nuclear explosions.
The second edition of the book was prepared by authors who in our country were the first touse y spectrom-
etry for aerometric and autoradiometric surface surveying. In this section of radiometry they significantly
contributed to the development of the theory, methodology, and applications.
The book comprises two sections with 11 chapters. )
The physics of the y spectrometry of natural media is considered in the first section which consists of
five chapters. This part of the book provides information on the radioactivity of natural media according to
the most recent data; natural and artificial radioactive isotopes and the radiation emitted by them are con-
sidered. particular attention has been paid to describing the y-radiation field in terms of mathematics. The
principles of the theory of measuring y fields, the determination of the source parameters of y radiation and
of the absorption of a medium from measured y spectra, and the practical application of y spectrometry are
described in detail. The authors considered the sources of errors in measurements and data evaluation.
Spectrometry with semiconductors is considered in addition to scintillation spectrometry.
The second section of the book relates to the y spectrometry of natural formations (soils, deserts, and
magmatic rocks) and describes specific examples. The authors describe the utilization of y spectrometry in
the search for sites of radioactive ore, oil-carrying beds, rare metals and nonferrous metals, and agronomi-
cal ore. Apart from this, the book tells of the use of y spectrometry in investigations of the global
* A tomizdat, Moscow (1976), 367 pp. 2 figures, 53 kopecks.
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contamination of the natural environment by nuclear explosions, and in measurements of the water reserves
in the snow cover and of the soil moisture with the aid of aerial surveying. The last chapter deals with the
y spectrometry of planets and meteorites.
However, when the authors describe the practice of -y spectrometry in nuclear-geophysics research
performed in boreholes which were drilled in search and exploration work related to minerals, the authors
restrict the considerations to some examples of uranium and thorium determinations. They have completely
omitted the principles of the theory of spectral y logging. In the last few years y spectrometry has been em-
ployed in investigations of ocean-bottom sediments and in determinations of potassium in seawater in in situ
measurements, of 137Cs, and of nuclear-explosion products which have entered the seas and oceans. Hydro-
physicists use the distribution of these elements in the water to draw conclusions concerning the transfer of
water masses in the seas and oceans. These problems have been completely disregarded by the authors of
the monograph.
These are very private remarks which shall not reduce the good overall impression provided by the
book. The presentation is on a high scientific level. The book will be useful for a large number of specialists:
scientists, candidates, and engineers. The book can also be used as a textbook for students who specialize in
nuclear geophysics.
V. A. Bobrov, F. P. Krendelev, and A. M. Hofman
THE y -SPE C TR OME TR IC ANALYSIS IN A
CHAMBER WITH LOW BACKGROUND*
Reviewed byE M. Filippov
This book deals with the improvement of y-spectrometric analysis performed on various samples with
low concentrations of natural radioactive elements which are important for solving geological, geochemical,
and biological problems.
The book consists of an introduction, six chapters, and a list of references.
The first section refers to the y radiation of the elements of the uranium and thorium series; the contri-
bution of fluorescence radi-ation, measured with a germanium ?lithium detector of 20.5-cm3 volume, to the
total -y-radiation spectrum is estimated.
For the purpose of measuring low concentrations of rare elements in natural media, the Institute of
Geology and Geophysics of the Siberian Division of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR has built a unique
low-background chamber described in the second section of the book. The third section describes spectro-
metric measurements performed on various objects with the aid of single,-, double-, and triple-crystal detec-
tors.
The fourth and fifth sections are concerned with the method of measurin,q, single-, double-, and triple-
crystal spectra and the analysis of various factors influencing determinations made in sample of rare elements.
The sixth section pertains to determinations of rare elements in samples and provides information on
the accuracy of measurements and on the sensitivity threshold of the equipment used.
When samples with a mass of 1.5 kg were measured in a single-crystal spectrometer with a 150 x100-
mm crystal (duration of a measurement 1 h), the following sensitivity thresholds, expressed in percent of the
mass, were obtained: 7 ? 10-6for uranium (determined via radium), 1.6 ? 10-5 for thorium, and 0.02 for potas-
sium.
*Transactions of the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of the Siberian Division, Academy of Sciences of the
USSR, No. 329, Nauka, Novosibirsk (1975), 60 p., 37 kopecks.
This material is protected by copyright registered in the name of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $7.50.
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Some remarks on the book must be made. The authors determine uranium in samples only via radium.
But in natural objects the equilibrium between the rare elements can be disturbed; the book does not mention
this point.
Unfortunately, spectrometry with semiconductors was disregarded, though the advantages of semiconduc-
tor instruments over scintillation detectors in measurements of low-energy radiation were mentioned in the
first section. But the authors have shown that by measuring the 3-keV radiation one can determine 238U in
samples with a threshold sensitivity of 2 ? 10-570 [see Geologiya i Geofizika, No. 7, 118 (1971). Furthermore,
semiconductor detectors can be used to determine uranium from the 63.3-keV 'y radiation in samples [see At.
Energ., 35, No. 5, 352 (1973)].
All these problems should have been treated or at least listed in the book.
Despite these shortcomings the book has been written on an advanced scientific level and will certainly
be useful for specialists working on the analysis of natural and artificial radioactive elements in various sam-
ples.
A. S. Serdyukova and Yu. T. Kapitanov,
THE ISOTOPES OF RADON AND ITS DECAY PRODUCTS IN NATURE*
Reviewed by E. M. Filippov
The book is on the distribution of radon and its decay products in nature.
The book comprises nine chapters and a large bibliography.
In Chapters 1-3, the formation of gaseous products (emanations) in the radioactive decay of the elements
of the uranium and thorium series, the physical and chemical properties of these products, their spread and
transfer in nature, and the existing forms and concentrations in various media are considered.
Chapter 4 gives data on the radon concentration in living organisms and describes the biological effects
of radiations and radiation safety standards.
Chapters 5-7 describe methods of determining the emanating coefficients and the amounts of emanations
from rocks, water, and air. The dosimetric monitoring of individuals is considered too.
Chapter 8 describes measures for protecting personnel working under conditions of increased concentra-
tions of emanations and their decay products in air.
Chapter 9 describes the utilization of emanation?measuring methods for the detection of sites with
radioactive or nonradioactive minerals, for geological mapping, and for research on atmospheric phenomena
and in medicine.
The biological effects of ionizing radiation, the radiation safety standards (Chapter 4), the dosimetric
monitoring of individuals (Chapter 7), and the measures for protecting personnel working under conditions of
increased concentrations of emanations and their decay products (Chapter 8) should be treated at the end of
the book. The book would benefit from such a rearrangement. ?
The authors described in detail the determination of radon in friable geological deposits and the use of
the emanation method for solving geological problems. The book should therefore include a description of the
field emanation meters which are supplied by the Russian industry. The book then would give the impression
of greater comprehensiveness. But these shortcomings concern only particular aspects.
The book has been written on an advanced scientific level and will be useful for a large number of read-
ers - geophysicists, geologists, and other specialists. The book can serve as a textbook for post-graduate
students and students specializing in the application of radiometric techniques to searching for several solid
minerals.
*2nd edition, Atomizdat, Moscow (1975), 16, 15 1., 1 rouble 78 kopecks.
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Plenum Publishing Corporation
227 West 17 Street
New York, New York 10011
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/23: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700080004-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/23: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700080004-6
engineering
science
continued
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Plenum Publishing Corporation
'Plenum Press ? Consultants Bureau
?
IFI/Plenum Data Corporation
227 WEST 17th STREET
NEW YORK, N.Y. 10011
United Kingdom: Black Arrow House
2 Chandos Road, London NW10 6NR England
Title
Metallurgist
Metallurg
Metal Science and Heat Treatment
Metallovedenie i termicheskaya
obrabotka metallov
Polymer Mechanics
Mekhanika polimerov
Problems of Information Transmission
Problemy peredachi informatsii
Programming and Computer Software
Programmirovanie
Protection of Metals ?
Zashchita metallov
Radiophysics and Quantum Electronics
(Formerly Soviet Radiophysics)
lzvestiya VUZ radio fizika
Refractories
Ogneupory.
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Osnovaniya, fundamenty i
mekhanika gruntov
Soviet Applied Mechanics
Prikladnaya mekhanika
Soviet Atomic Energy
Atomnaya energiya
Soviet Journal of Glass Physics and Chemistry
Fizika i khimiya stekla
Soviet Journal of Nondestructive Testing
(Formerly DefectoseoPY)
Defektoskopiya
Soviet Materials Science
Fiziko-khimicheskaya mekhanika
materialov
Soviet Microelectronics
Mikroelektronika
Soviet Mining Science
Fiziko-tekhnicheskie problemy
razrabotki poleznykh iskopaemykh
Soviet Powder Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics
Poroshkovaya metallurgiya
Strength of Materials
Pro blemy prochnosti
Theoretical Foundations of
Chemical Engineering
Teoreticheskie osnovy khimicheskoi
tekhnologii
Water Resources
Vodnye Resursy
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/23: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700080004-6
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Title
Subscription
#of Issues Price
Automation and Remote Control
Avtomatika i telemekhanika
Biomedical Engineering
Meditsinskaya tekhnika
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering
Khimicheskoe i neftyanoe mashinostroenie
Chemistry and Technology of Fuels and Oils
Khimiya i tekhnologiya topliv i rnasel
Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves
Fizika goreniya i vzryva
Cosmic Research
(Formerly Artificial Earth Satellites)
Kosmicheskie issledovaniya
Cybernetics
Kibernetika
Doklady Chemical Technology
Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR
Fibre Chemistry
Khimicheskie volokna
Fluid Dynamics
lzvestiy.a Akademii Nauk SSSR
mekhanika zhidkosti i gaza
Functional Analysis and Its Applications
Funktsional'nyi analiz i ego prilozheniya
Glass and Ceramics
Steklo i keramika
High Temperature
Teplofizika vysokikh ternperatur
Industrial Laboratory
Zavodskaya laboratoriya
Inorganic Materials
lzvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya
neorganicheskie materialy
Instruments and Experimental Techniques
- Pribory i tekhnika oksperimenta
Journal of Applied Mechanics and
Technical Physics
Zhurnal prikladnoi mekhaniki i
tekhnicheskoi fiziki
Journal of Engineering Physics
Inzhenernb-fizicheskii zhurnal
Magnetohydrodynamics
Magnitnaya gidrodinamika
Measurement Techniques
lzmeriternaya tekhnika
24
6
12
12
6
6
6
2
6
6
4
12
6
12
12
12
6
12
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continued on inside back cover
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/23: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700080004-6