SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY VOL. 40, NO. 1

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 124
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 10, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: July 1, 1976
• Content Type: REPORT

_ __.1.-.Awrisk111111111t
? Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
4 ,e"
3
Russian Original Vol. 40, No. 1, January, 1976
b)
July, 1976
SATEAZ 40(1) 1-118 (1976)
SOVIET
ATOMIC
ENERGY
ATOMHAll 3-HEP11411
(ATOMNAYA kNERGIYA)
TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN
CONSULTANTS BUREAU, NEW YORK
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10 CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
SOVIET
ATOMIC
ENERGY
Soviet Atomic Energy, is abstracted or in-
dexed in Applied Mechanics Reviews, Chem-
ical Abstracts, Engineering Index, INSPECT
Physics Abstracts and Electrical and Elec-
' tronics Abstracts; Current Contents, and
Nuclear Science Abstracts.
-/-
Soviet Atomic Energy is a cover4o-cover translation of Atomnaya
tnergiya, a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
An agreement ,with the Copyright Agency of the USSR (VAAP)
makes available both advance copies 'of the Russianlournal and
originsl glossy photcigraphsland artwork. This serves to decrease
the necessary, time lag between publication of the original and
publication of the translation and helps-to improve the quality
of the latter. The translation began with the first_ issue of the
Russian journal.-
Editorial Board of Atomnaya Energia:
Editor: M. D. Millionshchikov
?
Deputy Director
1. V. Kurchetov Institute of Atomic Energy
Aced?my of Sciences of the USSR
Moscow, USSR
? Associate Editor: N. A. Vlasov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal'
- V. S. F6rsov
I. N. 091ovin
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
V. V: Matveev
M. G. MeshcherySkov
V. B. Shevchenko
V. I. Smirnov
A. P. Zefirov
-,Copyright ? 1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York.
-N.Y. 10611.- All rights reserved. No article contained herein may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written
permission of the publisher. .
Consultants Bureau journals appear _about six months after the publication of the
original Russian-,issue. For bibliographic'-accuracy,- the English issue published by
Consultants Bureau -carries the same number and date as the original Russian from
which it was translated. 'For example, a ,Russian issue published in 'Deeember will
appear in a Consultants Bureau English translation about the following June, but the
trAnslation issue will carry the December date. When ordering any volume or particu-
lar issue of a Consultants Bureau journal, please. the date and, where appli-
cable, the volume and-issue numbers of the original' Russian. The material you will
receive will be a translation of that Russian volume or issue.
Subscription
$107.50 per volume (6 'Issues)
2 volumes per year _
Prices somewhat higher outside the United States.
Single Issue: $50
Single Article: -$15
_CONSULTANTS BUREAU, NEW YORK AND LONDON
227 West 17th Street
New York, New York 10011
Published monthly. Second-class postage paid at Jamaica, New 'York 11431.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: 6IA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of Atomnaya Energiya
July, 1976
Volume 40, Number 1 January, 1976
CONTENTS
ARTICLES Engl./Russ.
Role of Gas as a Coolant in the Development of Nuclear Power Stations
? E. P. Anan'ev and G. N. Kruzhilin
Experience in the Use of a Nuclear Reactor in the Noril'sk Mining-Metallurgical
Complex ? V. N. Nikitin, V. N. Pavlova, A. I. Petrov, and A. M. Shchetinin.
Testing of Experimental BN-600-Type Fuel Elements in the BOB-60 Reactor up to
Different Burnups ? M. M. Antipina, Yu. K. Bibilashvili, I. S. Golovnin,
V. M. Gryazev, E. F. Dyvydov, G. V. Kalashnik, A. V. Medvedev,
T. S. Men'shikova, V. S. Mukhin, A. A. Petukhov, A. V. Sukhikh,
V. N. Syuzev, L. I. Sytov, and V. L. Timchenko
Predicting the Efficiency (Serviceability) of Oxide Fuel Elements for Fast Sodium
Reactors ? I. S. Golovnin and Yu. I. Likhachev
In-Reactor Measurements of the Modulus of Elasticity of Uranium Dioxide
? V. M. Baranov, Yu. K. Bibilashvili, I. S. Golovnin, V. N. Kakurin,
T. S. Men'shikova, Yu. V. Miloserdin, and A. V. Rimashevskii
Hydrogen Embrittlement of Vessel Steels ? V. V. Gerasimova and E. Yu. Rivkin. . .
Nonsteady-State Space-Energy Spectrum of Neutrons in a Heavy, Weakly Inhomogeneous
Medium, Allowing for Neutron Capture ? E. V. Metelkin
Experiments on Cooling by Electrons ? G. I. Budker, Ya. S. Derbenev,
N. S. Dikanskii, V. I. Kudelainen, I. N. Meshkov, V. V. Parkhomchuk,
D. V. Pestrikov, A. N. Skrinskii, and B. N. Sukhina
The Use of Microwave Methods in the Dosimetry of Impulse Fluxes of Ionizing
Radiation ? Yu. A. Medvedev, N. N. Morozov, B. M. Stepanov,
and V. D. Khokhlov
DEPOSITED PAPERS
Universal Absorption Curves for a Sinusoidally Modulated Electron Beam
? R. Ya. Strakovskaya, I. R. Entinzon, and G. N. P'yankov
Dosimetry on an Object Rotating in an Electron Beam ? B. Ya. Strakovskaya,
G. N. Pyankov, and Yu. F. Golodnyi
Calculations on Weakly Interacting Systems ? V. P. Ginkin
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Self-Acceleration Experiment of a Strong Electron Beam in a Ferrite Accelerating
Structure ? V. V. Zakutin, N. N. Nasonov, A. A. Rakityanskii,
and A. M. Shenderovich
Determination of the Half-Life of 238PU ? V. G. Polyukhov, G. A. Timofeev,
P. A. Privalova, V. Ya. Gabeskiriya, and A. P. Chetverikov
The High-Temperature Thermal Diffusivity and Electrical Resistivity of Yttrium and
Gadolinium ? I. I. Novikav and I. P. Mardykin
Effect of Implanted Space Charge on Particle Range Distribution ? V. S. Remizovich
and A. I. Budenko
1
3
9
11
14
16
26
27
37
37
40
40
45
45
50
49
55
53
59
56
60
57
62
57
63
59
66
61
69
63
72
64
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Yields of 99mTc, 96Tc, and 971nTc from Irradiation of Molybdenum and Niobium
? P. P. Dmitriev, G. A. Molin, Z. P. Dmitrieva, and M. V. Panarin
Stimulating Isotopically Selective Heterogeneous Reactions with Laser Light
? V. D. Borman, B. I. Nikolaev, and V. I. Troyan
Efficiency for Conversion of Electrons into Positrons at 20-70 MeV
CONTENTS
(continued)
Engl./Russ.
75 66
78 69
? V. A. Tayurskii
80
70
Dependence of Asymmetry in the Photofission of 233U and 239Pu on the Maximum
Bremsstrahlung ? M. Ya. Kondrat'ko, V. N. Korinets, and K. A. Petrzhak
83
72
Synthetic Pitchblende: Composition, Structure, and Certain Properties
? V. A. Alekseev and R. P. Rafal'skii
85
73
Measurement of the Energy Dependence of 71233U in the 0.02-1-eV Region
? V. A. Pshenicluiyi, A. I. Blanovskii, N. L. Gnidak, and E. A. Pavlenko . ? ?
89
76
INFORMATION
Next Problems in the Development of Oxide Fuel Elements for Fast Power Reactors
? I. S. Golovin
91
78
CONFERENCES AND SYMPOSIA
Third Conference on Neutron Physics ? A. I. Kal'chenko, D. A. Bazavov,
B. I. Gorbachev, A. L. Kirilyuk, V. V. Kolotyi, V. A. Pshenichnyi,
A. F. Fedorova, and V. D. Chesnokova
94
80
Scientific Seminar on the Complex Optimization of Power Installations
? Yu. I. Koryakin
98
82
Soviet?American Seminar on Fast-Breeder Reactors ? E. F. Arifmetchikov
101
84
All-Union Conference on "Development and Application of Electron Accelerators"
? A. N. Didenko and V. K. Kononov
104
85
7th International Conference on Cyclotrons and Their Applications ? N. I. Venikov.
107
87
Conference on Laser Engineering and Applications ? V. Yu. Baranov
and N. G. Koval'skii
1.10
89
Soviet?American Working Meeting on Open Traps ? D. A. Panov
113
90
International Congress on Engineering Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, and
Seventh All-Union Conference on Scintillation Technology-- O. P. Sobornov
115
92
International Congress on Engineering Chemistry, Chemical Engineering, and
Automation ? V. N. Koshkin
116
92
REVIEWS
V. I. Sidorov, N. I. Loginov, and F. A. Kozlov ? Fundamentals of Heat Physics in
Atomic Power Installations ? Reviwed by M. Kh. Ibragimov
117
94
L. S. Sterman, L. T. Sharkov, and S. A. Tevlin, Thermal and Nuclear Power Stations
? Reviewed by Yu. I. Klimov
118
94
The Russian press date (podpisano k pechati) of this issue was 12/23/1975.
Publication therefore did not occur prior to this date, but must be assumed
to have taken place reasonably soon thereafter.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
ARTICLES
ROLE OF GAS AS A COOLANT IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS
E. P. Anan'ev and G. N. Kruzhilin UDC 621.039.524.46.034.3
Gas-cooled reactors, of both the thermal and fast varieties, are again exciting considerable interest.
Gas cooling in general, and helium cooling in particular, is in fact now being considered and developed as
a technical alternative to cooling with molten sodium in fast reactors, since as regards the breeding of
plutonium and the generation of water vapor for the power cycle the parameters of the two coolants are
sufficiently close to make no practical difference. Such difference as exists is mainly of a technological
character. There is of course a considerable difference in the arrangements for the cooling of the active
zone in any hypothetical emergency, since the heat capacity of the gas in this zone is quite negligible com-
pared with that of sodium.
As regards thermal reactors, helium cooling appears to be quite a promising solution; in this case
the temperature of the gas at the outlet from the reactor may extend to 750-850?C or even higher. There
is thus a real possibility of generating steam at high temperatures and pressures, such as those charac-
teristic of modern thermal power installations, giving a power cycle efficiency of 41-42% as compared
with 30-34% in the case of the saturated-vapor cycle obtained in installations with water-cooled reactors.
Clearly, if we take no account of the possible nuclear superheating of the steam in certain types of reac-
tors, this effect will be of no great importance in view of the low fuel component of the cost of electrical
power in nuclear power stations with saturated-vapor cycles. Nevertheless, the degree of use of the
nuclear fuel improves in the presence of a high efficiency factor and the ejection of heat through the con-
denser into the cooling water diminishes, i.e., the "thernial contamination" of the water and the corre-
sponding harmful effect on Nature is reduced.
Considerable interest also arises in relation to high-temperature helium coolants at the present
time in view of the special requirements of a number of branches of industry (metallurgical, chemical,
etc.) for high-temperature heat; these are branches which at present consume some 25% of recoverable
organic fuel. One of the most important problems facing the power industry will be that of directing
nuclear power into the multipurpose complex production of electrical power and other types of product
[1]. Here we have a real prospect of using high-temperature gas heated in a nuclear reactor for indus-
trial purposes.
It is interesting to consider gas-cooled reactors of the kind which have been developed most exten-
sively in Britain and France. The development of a gas reactor was started in the USSR even at the end
of the 40's. However, only a nuclear power station with an electrical power of 150 MW (incorporating a
gas-cooled reactor using natural uranium with a heavy-water moderator), built in Czechslovakia, was in
fact fully developed.
The first British nuclear power station with a gas reactor (essentially a demonstration model) was
started in Calder Hall in 1956 (power 42.0 MW) [2]. The reactor in this power station uses natural uran-
ium and has a graphite moderator situated in a steel housing 11.2 m in diameter with a wall thickness of
50 mm. The cooling gas is CO2, the fuel elements are metallic uranium (cylindrical elements with a core
diameter of 29.6 mm) covered with a magnesium alloy (Magnox) can. Since the melting point of Magnox
is 640?C, the maximum temperature of the fuel-element can is only ?450?C, and correspondingly the tem-
perature of the cooling gas at the reactor outlet is 345?C. The reactor has four loops with a pipe diameter
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 3-11, January, 1976. Original article
submitted April 9, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, IV. Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
of 1370 mm; the gas coolant circulates through these at a pressure of 7.8 atm. Each loop has a gas
blower with a power of 1500 kW and a steam generator (boiler) which produces superheated water vapor
at a pressure of 14 atm and a temperature of 320?C. The steam generator is placed alongside the reactor
in a vertical steel housing of diameter 5.5 m and is furnished with a drum separator. Repeated circula-
tion of the water in the boiler is effected on the La Monte forced-flow principle. The efficiency of the unit
is 19.2%.
In order to intensify heat transfer, the fuel-element can is ribbed transversely with a rib height of
12 and a step of 7 mm. This ribbing is certainly very original, since the gas flows longitudinally around the fuel
elements in the graphite stack. The mean thermal loading is 1.65 MW/ton of U, or 0.19 .106 kcal/m2?h
referred to the surface area of the uranium cores.
The groups of boiler tubes are flushed transversely by the gas. In order to intensify heat transfer,
these tubes (carbon steel, 51 mm in diameter) also have transverse ribbing. This configuration is pro-
duced by the automatic welding of sector ribs on to the tube, the weld contour amounting to 1/3 of the
length of the outer circumference of the tube cross section. The total surface of the rib is thus roughly
four times greater than that of the outer surface of the tube.
Clearly the ribbing of the fuel elements and boiler pipes is in this case perfectly acceptable, since
the circulating gas does not contain any particles such as might become deposited on the pipes and ribs in
the manner of, for example, coal installations.
After the British nuclear power station in Calder Hall had been tested, a number of industrial nuclear
power stations were built with analogously constructed uranium-graphite gas reactors using fuel elements
of natural uranium and Magnox cans; reactors of this kind have become known as the "Magnox" type [2].
Eighteen industrial power units with a total power of 5000 MW have been constructed in Britain. The unit
electrical power of these installations has gradually increased from 138 to 590 MW, with a parallel rise
in efficiency from 24.6 to 33.6%. These indices were largely achieved by correspondingly enlarging the
active zone, raising the pressure.of the cooling gas in the circuit to 27 atm, and increasing the gas tem-
perature at the reactor outlet to 410?C, and also by providing for a corresponding rise in boiler steam
temperature and pressure, namely, superheating to 393?C and 100 atm. Another important feature was
a further improvement to the fuel-element ribbing, in that the transverse ribs were replaced by an opti-
mum configuration of inclined ribs (chevrons). The diameter of the fuel-element core was also reduced to
28 mm. Altogether the mean thermal loading of the fuel elements was increased to 3.15 MW/ton of U or
0.35 .106 kcal/m2.h.
The increase in the dimensions of the active zone resulted in a corresponding increase in the size
of the reactor vessel. This latter increment, together with the rise in circuit gas pressure, necessitated
an increase in reactor wall thickness. The nuclear power station in Sizewell, in which the unit power is
290 MW and the gas pressure 18.56 atm, has the largest steel spherical vessel, 19.4 m in diameter, with
a wall thickness of 105 mm. Vessels of this kind are made directly on the site in the form of individual
sheets welded together manually. This extremely laborious work is executed by hundreds of welders over
several months.
Under the conditions existing on the building site severe difficulties were encountered in ensuring a
metal temperature sufficient for welding and subsequent heat treatment. Such difficulties increased with
vessel wall thickness. The next British gas reactors with higher cooling gas pressures were therefore
made not of steel but of prestressed reinforced concrete.
The first reinforced-concrete vessel was made for the nuclear power station in Oldbury. This cy-
lindrical vessel (internal diameter and height 23.5 and 18:3 m, wall thickness 4.5 m) was designed for a
pressure of 24.6 atm. The second was a spherical vessel for the Magnox reactor of the nuclear power
station in Wylfa, designed for a unit having an electrical power of 590 MW with an internal diameter and
wall thickness of 29 and 3.36 m and a gas pressure of 27 atm. In both reactors the boilers and gas
blowers are sited in chambers inside the walls of the concrete reactor vessel, and in this sense the com-
position of the equipment may be regarded as integrated.
Such a compact arrangement is undoubtedly economical and also entirely reasonable from the point
of view of ensuring more reliable hermetization of the circuit.
An important technological characteristic of the British Industrial Magnox reactors is the method of
fuel recharging, which ensures a high use coefficient and improves the physical characteristics of the fuel
cycle.
2
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
The Magnox reactors were constructed and are being used on a
two-purpose principle: for breeding plutonium and for producing
electrical power. The fuel consumption is accordingly relatively
small and amounts to 3000-3600 MW ? day/ton of U. The campaign of
the fuel elements in the reactor lasts up to six years [3]. Reliable
hermetization of the fuel elements is required for such a long cam-
paign. In the few cases in which the hermetization of the fuel ele-
ments is breached, the release of the carbon dioxide is quite a slow
process. There is accordingly no need for any urgent discharging,
and the recharging is planned as an ordinary operation.
Up to 1971 there had been only one emergency in Magnox reac-
tors involving the melting of the fuel elements in one channel of the
Chapel Cross reactor, probably due to the breakdown of a graphite
bushing, with the partial closing of the channel cross section. An
important point noted in 1968 was the considerable corrosion of the
carbon steel in the CO2 atmosphere [3]. It was found that this gas
had no effect on the open surfaces, including the vessel and the boiler pipes, but that serious corrosion
took place at the contacts between nuts and bolts. Magnetite (Fe304) was formed in volumes two or three
times greater than the volume of the actual metal, and in some cases this led to the fracture of the bolts.
Carbon steel bolts are used for fixing purposes in the reactors and boilers of all Magnox nuclear power
stations. It was therefore decided in 1969 to reduce the pressure at the reactor output to 360?C, and this
reduced the power of these nuclear power stations by 20-25%, i.e., to a total value of about 1000 MW.
The considerable experience gained in the building and practical exploitation of the British Magnox
reactors formed a basis for the manufacture of improved powerful gas reactors of the AGR series, using
enriched uranium. The planned cost of electrical power in nuclear power stations using these reactors
was estimated as being 40% below the best nuclear power stations with Magnox reactors and 10% below
power stations using organic fuel. Typical of this series is the AGE reactor in the Hinckley Point B
nuclear power station with a unit power of 660 MW, and cylindrical fuel elements 1016 mm long made of
enriched (2.06-2.57% [4]) uranium dioxide (core diameter 14.5 mm). The mean depth of burn-up is 18,000
MW ? days/ton of U. The cooling gas (CO2) circulates at a pressure of 43 atm. The gas temperature at
the inlet into the active zone is 282?C and at the outlet 665?C. As a result of this the boilers produce
superheated steam at 170 atm and 540?C; secondary superheating of the steam is also effected at 41 atm
and up to 540?C. The turbine operates with a condenser pressure of 0.041 atm with a cooling water tem-
perature of 12?C. The efficiency is 41.7%.
It follows from Fig. 1 that the rod-type fuel elements are assembled in a cassette with a cylindrical
graphite housing having internal and external diameters of 190 and 238 mm. The cassette contains 36
fuel elements. Eight cassettes are connected together vertically, using a special suspension, and the
group is let down into the channel of the graphite stack through a special adjusting tube. The diameter of
the channel is 263 mm, the gap between the channel and the graphite casing of the cassette 12.5 mm, so
that the cassette passes freely into the channel. Mounted on the suspension are biological shieding units,
sensors measuring the temperature at the outlet from the channel, and a mechanism for changing the flow
of gas through the latter. Altogether there are 308 channels; the average electrical power of one channel
is 2.13 MW. The step between the channels is 460 mm.
The average thermal loading of the fuel elements is 12.2 MW/ton of U (0.67.106 kcal/m2.h). The
maximum temperatures in the center of the fuel element and on the can are 1500 and 800?C. These tem-
peratures are reached in approximately the middle cross section of the channel, at which the gas tempera-
ture is ?480?C, so that the can/gas temperature drop is ?320?C. Taking account of this, we may consider
that the heat-transfer coefficient from the can to the gas averages ?2100 kcal/m2.h ? ?C. This large value
for the gas coolant is achieved by circulating the gas under high pressure (43 atm at a mean velocity of
12 m/sec) and by creating artificial roughness on the fuel-element can, in the form of a fine rectangular
thread with a pitch of 2 mm.
The reactor vessel is cylindrical, made of prestressed reinforced concrete with an internal diameter
of 18.9 m. The boiler and gas blower are integrated, as in the Oldbury power station. The four direct-
flow boilers associated with each reactor are sited in individual chambers, the gas circulation through
each being effected by means of two gas blowers. The eight gas blowers ensure a gas circulation with a
Fig. 1. Cross section of a
fuel cassette in the Hinckley
Point nuclear power station.
3
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
5 2 3 total flow rate of 3512 kg/sec for a pressure drop of 2.5 atm. The gas-
blower power is 3.5 MW (28 MW for all eight) amounting to 4,1% of the
power of the whole unit.
The heating surface of the direct-flow boiler is made of three kinds
of steel. The economizer part is made of mild carbon steel tubes, in
view of the fact that their surface temperature will never exceed 350?C
(this is based on corrosion considerations). The evaporating part of the
boiler is made of chromium steel tubes with a chromium content of 9%.
In the steam-generating part, austenitic chromium-nickel steel tubes are
employed. From considerations of the strength and welding requirements,
transitional sections of Nicone1-600 are placed between the chromium and
austenitic steel tubes; if the tubes were welded directly there would be
harmful effects associated with their different thermal expansions and
also with carbon diffusion. In order to avoid stress corrosion moisture
must be prevented from falling into the austenitic steel tubes. In order
to intensify heat transfer the first two kinds of tube are provided with dif-
ferent transverse ribbing. No ribbing is provided on the austenitic steels.
It is interesting to note that the temperature difference between the gas
leaving the reactor and the superheated steam in nuclear power stations
of this type is ?130?C, while in Magnox power stations, in which the
boilers are made of ribbed carbon tubes, this difference is only 17?C.
The temperature of the graphite stack in reactors of this type is under
500?C. This limit is chosen because at higher temperatures the graphite starts oxidizing seriously as a
result of interaction with the oxygen released by the decomposition of the CO2 (partly due to radiation). In
addition to this, methane is added as an inhibitor to retard the oxidation of the graphite. In order to en-
sure the required temperature the graphite is gas-cooled. Hence after leaving the gas blower at a tem-
perature of 200?C the gas first pagses through the graphite stack, including the annulae gaps between the
channels in the stack and the graphite housings of the fuel cassettes. Then the gas passes through the
fuel-element cassettes, in which it is heated to 670?C.
The reinforced-concrete reactor vessel is cooled with water passing through a special tube system,
the temperature of the concrete being held below 70?C. The construction of the vessel is quite specific
owing to the large number of metal tubes with wire cables ?100 mm in diameter passing through them, the
tension in these creating the stressed state of the vessel. The calculated tensile-strength reserve factor
is taken as three. When testing model vessels on 1/8 and 1/5 scales, the maximum loads were applied to
the models. When the pressure rises in the vessel, cracks start propagating, and the rupture process is
of a completely different character from that in which walls made of brittle materials fracture. It is
therefore quite reasonable to assume that a hypothetical accident (with the swift collapse of the vessel and
a total loss of coolant) is much less likely in this case than in that of a system with a steel vessel.
As far as radiation safety is concerned, it is especially important to consider the problem of pre-
venting the active zone from melting. In reactors of this series, this requirement is chiefly guaranteed
by the low temperature of the active-zone graphite. Thus if the gas circulation ceases as a result of (for
example) accidental disconnection of the gas blower (when emergency shielding also comes into action) the
remaining heat evolution of the fuel elements will be largely carried out into the "cold" graphite stack as
a result of radiant heat transfer. According to calculations, in this emergency situation the fuel element
can will only rise to 1000?C after 4 h (at which point it may well break down, although its melting point is
actually 1400?C). In this time it should be possible to correct the fault in the electrical supply system
which caused gas circulation to cease.
It is interesting to note that during the development of nuclear power stations containing AGR reac-
tors the boiler tubes vibrated; this was prevented, after certain experiments, by appropriate clamping
of the tubes. The vibrations arose both from the mechanical pressure of the dense gas on the tubes and
from acoustic resonance in the gas itself. In view of the latter the number of gas blowers had to be in-
creased to eight (3.5 MW each as in the Hinckley Point station). Even so during tests on the first unit of
this nuclear power station the severe noise from the gas blowers gave serious problems; The regulating
valves at the outlet from the gas blowers were damaged and severe vibrations of the adjusting tubes took
place. It was indicated in August 1974 [5] that because of this the initiation of the unit would be delayed
for 20 weeks. So far nothing further has been said about this.
//
0
P,3
4
Fig. 2. Block-type fuel
element of the reactor in ?
the Fulton nuclear power
station.
4
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
TABLE 1. Basic Characteristics of Certain Reactors with Gas Cooling
Indices
Peach Bottom,
USA
Fort St. Wrayne,
USA
Fulton, USA
Hinckley Point,
Britain
Coolant
Power, MW:
thermal
electrical
Efficiency, %
Temperature, ?C:
at the inlet
at the outlet
Height of active zone, m
Diameter of active zone, m
Internal diameter of vessel, m
Gas pressure, atm
Helium
115
40
35
340
715
2,28
2,79
?
24
Helium
842
330
39
405
780
4,75
5,94
?
49
Helium
3000
1160
38,6
318
740
6,34
8,47
?
51
CO2
1500
625
41,7
282
665
?
18,9
43
Earlier it was indicated that the AGE reactor (unit) Dungeness B would be first to start (in 1970).
Then in 1972 it was proposed to start the reactor of the Hinckley Point nuclear power station and later to
initiate other AGE reactors. According to the data of the International Agency on Atomic Energy [6],
however, all the AGE reactors will only just now have started operation; this implies a delay of 5-6 years,
involving direct economic losses and certain difficulties in estimating the prospects of such reactors.
This is why the discussions regarding future nuclear-power developments held in Britain in 1973-1974
were so acrimonious and prolonged. Itwas pointed out [7] that the main reason for the delay in starting the
AGE was the necessity of replacing certain carbon steel parts in these reactors. A number of the first
reactors of this series were already largely completed as regards the construction of the reinforced con-
crete vessels when it became known that dangerous corrosion of carbon steel took place in Magnox reac-
tors working in an atmosphere of CO2 at 360?C. The carbon steel therefore had to be replaced by more
heat-resistant varieties in the already completed structures, a task by no means simple.
In addition to this [8] difficulties arose with the fuel-element cassettes, since earlier tests on these
in the experimental Windscale AGR reactor did not entirely correspond to the operating conditions of in-
dustrial reactors in the power system. Subsequently further tests were made, the thermal loads being
varied cyclically from 40 to 100%. The tests showed that, under these conditions, and subject to high
fuel burn-up values, the uranium dioxide fuel-element cores swelled. However, fuel-element cores with
a central aperture swelled in the direction of the aperture and may therefore be regarded as more prom-
ising than solid versions. The aperture in the core promotes a more vigorous diffusive evolution of
gaseous fission products from the fuel; this might be compensated by changing to coarser 1302 granules
in preparing the cores by the sintering method. These tests also showed that carbon was deposited on the
fuel-element cans. This is an undesirable feature, since under nominal loads the can temperature may
rise to 800?C.
In the opinion of the former Director of the British Atomic Energy Authority Sir Christopher Hinton
it will be necessary to reduce the gas temperature and pressure very considerably in the AGR reactors,
reducing the power to some 60% of the original plan [9]. Naturally this raises the question as to whether
it might not be better to use helium as a reactor coolant [10], a possibility not seriously considered before
on account of the difficulty of making a circuit with a reinforced-concrete vessel sufficiently gastight.
Thermal reactors with helium cooling are intended to heat the gas to higher temperatures than AGE
reactors. This leads to a considerable contraction in the heating surface of the boilers, which is quite
substantial and expensive when using gas coolants. An increase in the gas temperature also means an
increase in the temperature of the fuel elements. Thus in high-temperature reactors fuel elements with
stainless steel coatings (as employed in the AGE) cannot be used; for these reactors fuel elements of a
special construction with graphite coatings have been developed, and the temperature of such coatings may
exceed 1000?C. This means that CO2 cannot be used as a coolant, since it reacts vigorously with graphite
even at under 500?C. Hydrogen cooling is also impossible, since at temperatures above 700?C it starts
reacting with carbon to form hydrocarbons. Thus helium cooling of the high-temperature reactor is the
most favorable method. However, even helium has to be purified from H2, CO, and CO2, since these
gases appear in the coolant, for example, when water leaks out of the boiler.
Helium is a comparatively rare gas and quite expensive. It is therefore very important to prevent
losses such as might occur if the circuit is not hermetized and leaks occur. We may note that the rein-
forced-concrete vessel of the Magnox reactor in Oldbury, for example, gave a CO2 leakage of about 1000
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
C_ (TA
,250?C
J
kg per day at the very beginning, [11], which later of course increased.
For helium cooling this is quite unacceptable.
Some interesting developments were started by S. M. Feinberg in
cooperation with other scientists on a helium breeder reactor of module
construction [12].
Helium-cooled reactors have perhaps been most persistently de-
veloped in the United States (Table 1). An experimental helium reactor
with a power of 40 MW (electrical) was constructed and started in 1966
in Peach Bottom. Then a demonstration helium reactor with an elec-
trical power of 330 MW was constructed in Fort St. Wrayne, being in a
state of imminent operation in 1974 [10]. Recently the design of a large
power reactor with helium cooling and an electrical power of 1160 MW
was completed for the Fulton nuclear power station; construction is
expected to be complete in 1982 [13].
According to design the Fulton nuclear power unit will have six
direct-flow boilers (steam pressure 177 atm, temperature 513?C) and
two turbogenerators of 600 MW each. It is well known that US industry
already produces turbogenerators of 1300 MW with high steam param-
Fig. 3. Construction of eters. In the Fulton nuclear power station design we thus see a clear
a fuel element for a high- departure from the principle of the monolithic unit hitherto ruling in
temperature helium-cooled United States nuclear power.
reactor.
In the Fulton nuclear power station (as in Fort St. Wrayne) the
fuel elements are made of a graphite block of hexagonal cross section
with gage dimensions of 359 mm and a height of 793 mm (Fig. 2). A block-type fuel element of this kind
contains 128 channels 16 mm in diameter accommodating the fuel 1, and 72 open channels 21 mm in diam-
eter through which the helium passes 2. In addition to this there are six channels 12.7 mm in diameter,
containing burning-out absorbent. Eight such fuel elements are arranged over the height of the active
zone in the Fulton nuclear power station. These are joined by means of projections 3 and corresponding
depressions 4. The central upper depression 5 serves for taking hold of the block when recharging.
The fuel employed comprises UC and ThC granules ?0.8 mm in size coated successively with layers
of pyrolytic graphite and silicon carbide to a total thickness of ?0.2 mm. The granules are mixed with
graphite and resin and pressed into rods 16 mm in diameter and 6 cm long, which are then loaded into the
channels of the graphite block.
The coating of the granules with layers of graphite and silicon carbide fails to make them completely
hermetic; some of the fission fragments diffuse into the coolant, which becomes radioactive. In order to
reduce the radioactivity, devices are incorporated to trap the radioactive contaminants with activated char-
coal, in con junctionwith cryogenic traps. According to experience gained in the use of this experimental
type of reactor, the total radioactivity of the gas in the circuit stabilizes at a level of 20-30 Ci.
This indicates that no developing discontinuities occur in the layered can for burn-ups of up to 100.103
MW .day/ton of U, and in this case the cans operate reliably for the temperatures indicated in Table 1.
This is an extremely important and favorable result.
At higher temperatures, however, when the diffusion of the fission fragments through the solid wall
becomes substantial, the radioactivity of the helium in the circuit will be higher. A rise in temperature
may also lead to damage in the fuel-element cans. These circumstances (especially the second) prevent
increasing the gas temperature when using such fuel elements. The new type of fuel-element construction
illustrated in Fig. 3 is perhaps a more promising version; in this the fuel gx:anules are placed in protec-
tive graphite cans over the height of the fuel elements in the form of free layers, having the high porosity
characteristic of a layer filling. The fuel element is cooled by gas passing through the layers of granules,
there being a relatively low temperature difference between the gas and the can. Hence the gas tempera-
ture may lie close to the permissible can temperature, exceeding 1000?C. Unfortunately fuel elements of
this kind have not yet been developed. However, it is easily seen that the construction will not be a simple
matter, since in view of the high gas temperature the housing of such a fuel element will have to be made
of heat-resistant ceramic. The development of such fuel elements will take time and effort. No experi-
mental data have yet been obtained as to the permissible upper temperature of the can.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
ID 77 Attention should also be paid to certain other characteristics of high-
temperature gas reactors. In particular, the motion of the gas from bottom
to top used for the active zones of the Magnox and AGR reactors must now
be replaced by motion from top to bottom, since if the gas in the active zone
moved from bottom to top and had an outlet temperature of 750?C the current
015
servicing of the upper part of the reactor, the recharging of the fuel elements,
the functioning of the control and safety-rod system, and the regulation of
the gas flow along the channels would be very difficult.
One interesting feature is the transition to a new, compact construc-
tion of the direct-flow boiler in the Fulton station. The power-station unit
provides for six boilers, each producing ?600 tons/h of steam. The total
boiler heating surface is therefore very large. The over-all dimensions
nevertheless have to be limited, since the whole equipment of the circulating
circuit is made in integrated form in a common prestressed-concrete
housing. According to design the boiler will therefore be made from coils
wound around a cylindrical surface. In the concrete reactor vessel, this
fairly powerful boiler is to be sited in a cylindrical cavity only 3.2 m in
diameter. It would thus be very difficult to repair the boiler if any leaks
developed. In the majority of cases it would be necessary to extract the
whole boiler and spend a great deal of time on servicing. It is therefore
vital that the boiler should be made as reliable as possible.
The question of radiation hazard is especially important, since the cooling gas of these reactors
contains fission fragments diffusing through the cans of the fuel granules. This complicates operations in
the recharging of the fuel, and also repair operations within the circuit. Problems of general safety are
here approximately the same as in the AGR reactors. There is also a great deal of graphite in the active
zone of these reactors. Hence if the gas circulation is accidently cut off the residual heat will pass into
the graphite stack without damaging the granule cans for some considerable time. The systems are also
provided with special emergency cooling systems.
Fast helium-cooled reactors with a prestressed reinforced concrete vessel are also planned. These
also envisage integrated construction, i.e., all the equipment resides inside the reinforced concrete ves-
sel. Owing to the absence of a moderator the active-zone dimensions of a fast reactor are much smaller.
In the design for the fast helium reactor GBR-4 with an electrical power of 1200 MW [14] the diameter and
height of the active zone are 4 and 1.4 m. The fuel elements are cylindrical, the can is of stainless steel
7.7 mm in external diameter. As indicated in Fig. 4, the outer surface of the fuel-element can has a fine
rectangular thread to intensify heat transfer. Such fuel elements are assembled in a hexagonal cassette
with a gage dimension of 213 mm and are arranged in a triangular lattice with a step of 11.65 mm, i.e.,
with a gap of about 4 mm. Altogether the cassette contains 321 fuel elements.
It is well known that the main characteristic of a fast reactor is its extremely high thermal loadings.
In the GBR-4 reactor the maximum loads are about 400 MW/ton of U or 1.5 -106 kcal/m2-h of the surface
of the fuel element. In view of this the problem of cooling the active zone in the case of an accidental dis-
connection of the gas blowers is extremely vital. In the reactor design this problem is intended to be
solved by means of three loops capable of operating with natural circulation of cooling water and cooled
gas. When an emergency stoppage occurs lathe gas blower, the reactor is protected by continued circula-
tion of the gas through the active zones, promoted by the difference between the densities of the gas in the
active zone and the sets of tubes forming the emergency loop. For the normal gas pressure in the circuit
(90 atm) this gas circulation is sufficient to prevent melting of the active zone, at least for a while, so
giving time to restore the gas circulationby means of the gas blowers [14]. In addition to this, these emer-
gency loops have their own gas blowers, driven by emergency Diesel generators, which may be automati-
cally brought into action at short notice. With this arrangement the chief danger clearly arises in the very
first moments, in which the residual heat has to be carried away by natural gas circulation.
Another original feature of the design is the fact that the lower part of the fuel-element assembly is
filled with activated charcoal, designed to absorb gaseous fission fragments. In addition to this, in a fast
gas-cooled reactor it is desirable to use fuel elements made from granules with a graphite can (Fig. 3).
The search for other coolants (apart from those already known) to be used in fast reactors has so
far met with little success. As an alternative it has been proposed to use dissociating nitrogen tetroxide
Fig. 4. Longitudinal
section of the fuel-ele-
ment can of a fast
helium-cooled reactor.
7
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
N204 [15]. According to A. K. Krasin et al., a reactor with a coolant of this kind may provide a doubling
time equivalent to that of sodium reactors.
Thus it may now confidently be stated that gas-cooled reactors will shortly be capable of effective
use not only in nuclear power stations but also as sources of high-temperature heating for technological
processes in industry. The development of the latter aspect has only just started, and cannot of course
be very rapid, since it depends on both reactor development and special technologies. Nevertheless, it
is becoming more and more evident that nuclear reactors are excellently suited to high-temperature gas
heating. It should furthermore be noted that extremely heat-resistant materials (molybdenum, niobium,
tantalum, and their alloys) may also find employment in future high-temperature reactors. It may well
be that these new materials will be required for the heat exchangers, in which high-temperature helium
from the reactor will heat the gas directly used in the technological process.
Finally it is appropriate to note that, in the possible development of the technological aspect, there
is yet another specific limitation which has to be taken into account; namely, that arising from radioactiv-
ity; it is accordingly essential to ensure that the practical exploitation of the nuclear reactor should be
characterized by great efficiency and reliability. It is reasonable to assert that there should not be too
many technological undertakings with nuclear reactors, and the latter should therefore have a very high
unit power, or a correspondingly high thermal power, at least of the order of 1000 MW. The technological
undertakings should be correspondingly powerful.
LITERATURE CITED
1. A. P. Aleksandrov, At. nerg., 25, No. 5, 356 (1968).
2. Brit. Nucl. Export Executive Rev., No. 1 (1966); No. 2 (1967); No. 3 (1968).
3. R. Kutter, Fourth Intern. Conf., Geneva (1971), Rep. 49/p./468.
4. Nucl. Engng. Intern., 20, No. 229, 412 (1975).
5. Nucl. Engng. Intern., 19, No. 219, 623 (1974).
6. Power and Research Reactors in Member States, IAEA, Vienna (1974).
7. Appl. Atomics, No. 857 (1972); No. 936 (1973).
8. Nucl. Engng. Intern., 19, No. 220, 689 (1974).
9. Electr. Rev., Feb.8 (1974); Electr. Rev., Oct. 25 (1974).
10. J. Nucl. Energy, 26, No. 1, 49 (1972).
11. Brit. Nucl. Export Executive Rev., No. 3, 75 (1968).
12. S. M. Feinberg, At. Energ., 37, No. 1, p. 3.
13. V. Boyer and J. Gibbons, Nucl. Engng. Intern., 19, No. 219, 635 (1974).
14. Nucl. Engng. Intern., 19, No. 218, 566 (1974).
15. A. K. Krasin et al., 4th Geneva Conf., Soviet Paper No. 431 (1971).
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
EXPERIENCE IN THE USE OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
IN THE NORIL'SK MINING-METALLURGICAL COMPLEX
V. N. Nikitin, V. N. Pavlova, UDC 621.039
A. I. Petrov, and A. M. Shchetinin
The diverse analytical problem in the practical training of the Norilisk mining-metallurgical complex
requires constant development, modernization, and unrestricted industrial application of the most modern
chemical, physicochemical and physical methods for investigating the elementary composition of the nat-
ural raw material and the products of its technological processing. The correct technology for process-
..ng the raw material and for the extraction of metals depends on the speed and quality of the analysis,
and the detection and elimination of channels of loss of industrially valuable elements depends on the sen-
sitivity of the methods [1].
Among the physicochemical and physical methods which have become classical, activation analysis
possesses a number of additional potentialities with respect to sensitivity, rapidity and efficiency. There-
fore, an activation analysis laboratory was built in the complex with an RG-1M research nuclear reactor
[2,3], which in the first place should solve the problems of the high-sensitivity determination of the con-
tent of metals of the platinum group and the rare elements, should ensure a higher efficiency for the
analysis of geological and technological materials in nonferrous and rock-forming elements and should
carry out radioisotopic investigations of technological processes.
The thermal-power design of the reactor (5 kW) was increased during the start-up adjustment period
to 30 kW [4, 5] and in April 1970 the RG-1M reactor was brought on stream. As a result of redesign after
two years of operation and after the investigations carried out, simultaneously with the installation of a
five-channel pneumatic rabbit system a further increase of its power was achieved [6]. The thermal neu-
tron flux at the center of the reactor core is now 2.7.1012 n/ (cm2. sec) and, by using a neutron trap, it is
doubled.
The heterogeneous RG-1M reactor, of the swimming-pool type, has 11 vertical experimental chan-
nels in ten of which the thermal neutron flux amounts to 0.4 to 2.7.1012 n/ (cm2. sec) and in one channel the
fast neutron flux (energies greater than 5 MeV) has a value of 108 n/ (cm2 ? sec). Five channels are equipped
with a pneumatic rabbit system for transporting samples into the reactor and out of the reactor to the
store position after irradiation or measurement. The times of irradiation, holding and address for con-
veyance of the samples in ampoules are provided automatically. The pneumatic rabbit equipment, de-
veloped and manufactured in the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Reactor Technology, has shown
high operating qualities during two years. The magnitude of the neutron flux in the reactor channels and
the pneumatic rabbit equipment permit neutron activation analysis to be carried out with a sensitivity and
accuracy, satisfactory for industrial requirements, in two alternatives: radiochemically with the use of
long- and average-life isotope-tracers and nondestructively with the use predominantly of short-lived
activities. Single-shift operation of the reactor was found to be sufficient for the irradiation of samples
being analyzed according to a manufacturing scheme.
The activation analysis laboratory has six work points for radiochemical treatment of irradiated
samples, in combination with two scintillation spectrometers based on multichannel pulse analyzers AI-
128 and USD-1 universal scintillation data units, and two industrial facilities for instrumental activation
analysis, including NTA-512 and LP-4840 multichannel pulse analyzers with a bank of scintillation and
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 11-16, January, 1976. Original article
submitted March 3, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
9
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
TABLE 1. Characteristics of Radioactiva-
tion Analysis Procedures
Element
determined
Thresh.
of sen-
sitiv. for
5-h ir-
ad., 10
No. o
Wt. of sam-
sample pies
to beak in sin
alyzed, g gle
batch
Time of
analysis
of single
batch, h
Sample
output
per
week
Radiochemical version
Au
10-7
0,5--1,0
18
18
36
Pt
5.10-5
0,2--0,5
6
18
12
Pd
2.10-6
0,2--0,5
6
18
12
Jr
2-10-7
0,5--1,0
20
36
20
Ru
2.10-6
0,5--1,0
20
36
20
Os
5.l0-
0,5--1,0
20
36
20
Re
10-6
0,1--1,0
24
36
24
Ag
10-4
0,1--1,0
30
36
30
Instrumental version
Cu (in core
samples)
10-2
up to 200
1-2
0,15
up to 200
Co(6?Co)
2-10-5
1-2
40-50
168-336
200-250
Co("mC0)
10-3
0,2-1
2
0,18
200
Si
10-4
0,5-1
2
0,18
200
Al
10-2
1-2
1-2
0,15
240
Au
10-4
1-5
40-50
72-120
200-250
Ir
10-5
1-5
40-50
168-240
200-250
semiconductor Ge (Li) detectors. In addition to this, the
laboratory is equipped with an AI-4096-3M amplitude?time
analyzer, an "Angara" coincidence spectrometer, an MIR-1
electronic computer, and a satisfactory amount of electronic
?physical, radiometric, and dosimetric equipment.
Considerable assistance in equipping the laboratory
with modern equipment and plant was afforded by the com-
bine of the organization GKAE (State Committee for the
Utilization of Atomic Energy) of the USSR, treating the acti-
2 7 ? vation analysis laboratory of the Noril'sk Mining-Metallurgi-
cal Complex as an experimental-industrial proving ground
for the application of achievements in the field of applied
nuclear physics to the national economy. Many instruments
19 74 and methods, developed in the All-Union Scientific-Research
Institute for Reactor Technology (VNIIRT), are introduced
and used in the Noril'sk Mining-Metallurgical Complex, and
joint scientific-research and systematic work are undertaken.
About 20 procedures have been developed and intro-
duced into analytical practice in the laboratory during a
year of experimental-industrial operation (industrial since
1972). The characteristics of the continuously used procedures are given in Table 1. When solving ana-
lytical problems by radioactivation analysis methods, the requirement for high sensitivity was taken into
account (especially when determining the content of metals of the platinum group and of the rare elements),
which was lacking in the methods previously used. Radioactivation analysis provides better characteristics
of productivity and rapidity and replaces the more laborious classical methods of analysis. As a result of
this, the accuracy of the analysis is increased, especially for industrial products, by which a technological
balance is set up. Only the use of this method makes it possible to determine the content of elements in
samples of very small weight, in unique samples or in undisintegrated samples, when the use of other
methods is impossible; moreover, the list of elements being determined is supplemented.
The advantages of activation analysis in sensitivity and productivity in comparison with chemical
methods have permitted two fields of its industrial application to be defined; for determining the content
of microquantities of elements of the platinum group and the rare elements in so-called low-grade pro-
ducts [7,8] and for the bulk analysis of geological specimens and products of the average monthly techno-
logical assay on the content of ferrous metals and certain elements of the silicate group. Thus, the
1970 1971
1972 1973
Fig. 1. Radioactivation analyses by
means of the RG-1M reactor (thousands
of element-determinations). 0) Radio-
isotope analysis; ?) instrumental acti-
vation analysis.
10
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Fig. 2. The RG-1M reactor building of the Noril'sk complex.
TABLE 2. Economical Efficiency of Exper-
iments Carried Out on the RG-1M Nuclear
Reactor, Thousands of Rubles
Type of expts.
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
Radiochemical analyses
2,0
4,8
31,9
33,0
39,0
Instrumental activation
analyses
--
2,8
4,5
6,5
18,0
Reduction of sample ir-
--
--
36,0
48,0
-
67,0
introduction of procedures for the radiochemical deter-
mination of the Ir, Os, Ru, and Re content has signifi-
cantly supplemented the capabilities for the analytical
service of the complex, and the use of instrumental
activation analysis of ores and industrial products for
the content of cobalt and aluminum has increased sig-
nificantly the productivity of the analytical operations,
has increased their quality, ,andhas shortened the times.
The determination of the microelemental composi-
radiation cost
tion of the environmental contamination, the analysis of
dust samples and of certain industrial solutions, the
Total 2,0 7,6 72,4 87,5 124,0
nondestructive analysis of large bulk-samples, etc., il-
lustrate the merits of this method. Problems of deter-
mining the degree of contamination of the environment,
the effects of copper? nickel production waste on the plant and animal world of Zapolyar'ya atthe present
time are acquiring particular importance in connection with the increase of the volumes of industrial output. The
capabilities of activation analysis are of great importance in these investigations. A series of analyses
of the snow cover, selected in the Noril'sk region, carried out by the method of nondestructive multiele-
mental analysis using Ge (Li) detectors with a volume of 60 cm3 and a resolution of 3 to 4 keV, permitted
the content of more than 20 elements to be estimated quantitatively, including Hg, As, Se, Te, Go, NI,
Cu, Fe, Cr, etc.
The instrumental determination of the content of native copper in core samples with a weight of up
to 200 g permitted the error, due to the nonrepresentativeness of the balance used in chemical and x-ray
spectral methods, and losses of metal on grinding the samples to be reduced.
The use of both versions of the neutron-activation method in analytical practice of the Norirsk com-
plex is shown by the histogram (see Fig. 1) and at the present time an increase is being restrained only by
the shortage of laboratory accommodation. By means of radioactive isotopes, it has become possible to
use successfully the two versions of radioisotopic investigations: the introduction of labelled materials
Into a production process with the subsequent removal of technological samples for measurements under
laboratory conditions and radiometric measurements directly on industrial plants.
The first method was used to investigate the depletion process of converter slags and the behavior of
the noble metals during the conversion of nickel-containing white matte, when the compounds being studied,
11
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Fig. 3. The reactor hall.
Fig. 4. Reactor control desk.
labelled with short-lived radioactive isotopes of Cu, Co, Ni, Au, Pt, Pd, Os, Se, and other elements,
were introduced into materials being processed in the industrial plants. Analysis of selected samples
assisted in drawing the appropriate conclusions concerning the distribution of these metals in the metal-
lurgical products [9].
In the second case, direct examination was accomplished without sampling of the calcination of
nickelous oxide in rotating tubulai furances and recommendations have been made for the optimization of
this technological process. Similar investigations are being planned for the future.
The first stage for the introduction into industry of applied methods of nuclear physics and equip-
ment, combined with overcoming difficulties of an organizational-technical and psychological nature, can
be assumed to have been completed successfully. In making an attempt to assess the economical efficiency
of the all-round utilization of a nuclear reactor (Table 2), it is still not possible to talk about the consider-
able achievements which, to a known degree, are explained by the insufficiently complete utilization of all
its capabilities and the mass use of activation analysis first of all because of the absence of an industrial-
experimental basis. The fraction of activation analyses (about 20 thousand elemental-determinations per
year) in comparison with the total volume of the annual analytical operations of the complex (more than 2
million element-determinations) amounts to about 1%; even among similar operations carried out by other
? methods, this contribution still amounts to 5-6%. Clearly, tendencies are seen to increase the quantity
and efficiency of the operations carried out by means of a reactor, to approach self-repayment of the
annual costs on the content of the laboratory which, according to our forecasts, will be reached in 1976.
Over 5 years, more than 36 thousand element-determinations have been carried out. A further increase
? of the volume of activation analyses by a factor of ten may even give an annual economy of about 0.5 million
rubles.
A new stage of development of activation analysis and radioisotpe investigations at the Norirsk Mining-
Metallurgical Complex using the RG-1M nuclear reactor provides for a widening of the circle of industrial
materials to be analyzed (including solutions) and an increase of the number of elements to be determined;
the mass use of the procedures introduced; the development partially or completely of automated analytical
cycles with data processing on a computer and, in the first place, of the multielement instrumental version
of analysis; the application of activation analysis for investigating plant samples, animal tissues and other
biological items; the carrying out of analyses for ecological investigations; the expansion of radioisotope
investigations of technological processes for their optimization and the reduction of the loss of valuable
metals, etc. [101.
Five years of industrial operation of the research nuclear reactor at one of the largest-scale mining-
metallurgical plants of the country and the experience built up permit a positive conclusion to be drawn
concerning the prospects for further extension of operations by means of nuclear-physical methods of in-
vestigation in-the application to problems of nonferrous metallurgy and of the mining industry, and give a
12
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
basis for optimistic conclusions concerning their increasing industrial-practical importance.
LITERATURE CITED
1. B. I. Kolesnikov, in: The State of Technology for the Extraction and Analysis of the Content of
Metals of the Platinum Group in the Process for the Concentration of Copper ? Nickel Ores [in
Russian], Izd. TsNIIinformtsvetmet, Moscow (1967), p. 3.
2. Yu. M. Bulkin et al., At. Energ., 21, No. 4, 319 (1966).
3. A. S. Shtani, At. Energ., 33, No. 4, 858 (1972).
4. V. I. Alekseev et al., At. Energ., 32, No. 4, 315 (1972).
5. A. M. Benevolenskii, V. T. Shentsev, and A. M. Shchetinin, in: Collection of Scientific Proceed-
ings of NVII No. 15. Physicotechnical Issue [in Russian], Izd. Krasnoyarsk Polytechnical Institute,
Krasnoyarsk (1973), p. 5.
6. A. M. Shchetinin et al., At. Energ., 38, No. 2, 97 (1975).
7. V. N. Pavlova et al., Zh. Analit. Khim., 29, No. 11, 2088 (1974).
8. V. P. Razhdaev and V. N. Nikitin, Zh. Analit. Khim., 29, No. it, 2172 (1974).
9. The Use of Isotopes and Ionizing Radiations in the National Economy of the Urals. Data for Reports
at the 3rd Zonal Conference on the Use of Isotopes in the National Economy of the Urals (Thesis of
Reports) [in Russian], Sverdlovsk (1973).
10. V. N. Nikitin, in: The 9th All-Union Conference on the Chemistry, Analysis, and Technology of the
Noble Metals (Thesis of Reports) [in Russian], Krasnoyarsk (1973), p. 183.
13
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
TESTING OF EXPERIMENTAL BN-600-TYPE
FUEL ELEMENTS IN THE BOR-60 REACTOR UP
TO DIFFERENT BURNUPS
M. M. Antipina, Yu. K. Bibilashvili,
I. S. Golovnin, V. M. Gryazev,
E. F. Dyvydov, G. V. Kalashnik,
A. V. Medvedev, T. S. Men'shikova,
V. S. Mukhin, A. A. Petukhov,
A. V. Sukhikh, V. N. Syuzev,
L. I. Sytov, and V. L. Timchenko
UDC 621.039.542.342:621.039.548
Tests in the BOR-60 of experimental fuel elements ? prototype fuel elements for high-capacity
power reactors ? complete the work on the creation of a fuel-element design. These tests and post-ir-
radiation investigations permit the operating qualities of the design to be analyzed, the assumed design
and technological solutions to be refined or confirmed, and also the route for further optimization of the
fuel element to be designated.
In this present paper, the generalized results are given of an investigation of three experimental
bundles, with fuel elements based on oxide fuel, which were irradiated in the BOR-60 reactor to burnups
of 4.3, 8, and 10.3% of heavy atoms.
The principal structural and thermal parameters of the fuel elements did not differ from the working
parameters of the BN-600 fuel elements. However, the neutron fluence for the claddings of the experi-
mental fuel elements are lower than is required for the BN-600 fuel elements (-7.5.1022 instead of -3.5.
1023 n/cm2). This difference is quite significant and must be taken into account in the analysis of the re-
sults of the tests. All the experimental fuel elements achieved the stated burnup without damage to the
completeness of the cladding and loss of hermiticity.
The results of the post-radiation investigations permitted the degree and nature of the chemical in-
teraction of the cladding and the fuel with the fission fragments to be estimated, the magnitude of the de-
formation stored up after the run as a result of the mechanical action of the fuel core and swelling of the
steel, and it permitted the gas release from the fuel to be measured and the structural changes in the core
?
to be determined.
Structure and Manufacturing Technology of the Fuel Elements. In the principal structural character-
istics (diameter and thickness of the cladding, pitch of positioning in the bundle, effective fuel density and
density of the sintered pellets, the cladding-fuel gap), the experimental fuel elements irradiated in the
BOR-60 reactor are similar to the regular fuel elements of the BN-600 reactor [1].
The structure of the experimental fuel element is shown in Fig. 1. The outside diameter of the
cladding, ofOKH16N15M3B steel from electroslag remelting, is 6.9 mm and the wall thickness is 0.4 mm.
In the single cladding are located the active section and the upper and lower reflectors. The length of the
core of the active section, in the form of sintered sleeved pellets of 90% enriched uranium dioxide, is
500 mm. The density of the pellets is 10-10.6 g/cm3. The nominal value of the effective fuel density in
the fuel element is 8.25 g/cm3. The upper and lower reflectors, with a length of 50 m, are made from de-
pleted uranium dioxide with a density of not less than 10 g/cm3 and directly touch the core of the active
section.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 16-27, January, 1976. Original article
submitted April 28, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
14
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Deformation
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
2
50
500 A
50
1100
7
421
0178
A?A
44
B?B
Fig. 1. Structure of an experimental fuel element of the BN-600 reactor; 1) upper
cap; 2) spring; 3) reflector; 4) spacer band; 5) active section of fuel element; 6)
sleeve; 7) fuel element cladding; 8) lower cap.
2000 4000 6000 8000 1000 1200
Time, h
Fig. 2. Nature of change of mechanical
deformation over the run in the average
cross section of the fuel element (375 mm
from the lower end of the cap) on the time
of operation at nominal power when y0 =
10.3 g/cm3; 1,2,3) fuel elements of Type
I and II (see [2]) zones of high enrichment
and zone of low enrichment, respectively.
The pellets are prepared by a cold pressing method,
using a rotary automatic press, and with subsequent sin-
tering at a temperature of 1650?C during 3 h in metal
heater furnaces. Before loading the pellets in the fuel
element cladding, chemical, x-ray and metallographic
analysis was carried out in order to determine the con-
tent of uranium, oxygen and other admixtures. The char-
acteristics of the pellets are as follows; the content of
fluorine, carbon and other admixtures to a total of 1100?K.
These investigations were prompted by the small number of published data, their large discrepan-
cies, and the narrowness of their temperature range.
The thermal diffusivity was measured by the method of radial temperature waves based on one
variety of regular thermal field of the'third order. The thermal diffusivity can be determined either by
means of the phase of the first harmonic of the temperature oscillations, or by means of the difference
between the times corresponding to the maximum temperature and the moment of switching on the periodic
electronic heating of the specimen [2].
We investigated yttrium of 99.8% purity and gadolinium of 99.75% purity, in the form of hollow cy-
linders 7 cm long with external diameters of 15 mm and internal diameters of 6 mm. The impurity con-
tent of the yttrium was as follows (in percent): Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho < 0.1; Fe < 0.01; Ca < 0.03; Cu < 0.05;
Ta 0.06; that of the gadolinium was: Y ? 0.08; Tb 0.07; Eu 0,04; Cu ? 0.025; Fe ?-? 0.02; Ca <
0.004. The systematic error of the resits on the thermal diffusivity was about 5%.
Data on the dc electrical resistivity P were obtained by the four-probe method. We used heating by
electron bombardment of the internal surface of the hollow cylindrical specimens (external diameter 15
mm, internal 6 mm, length 7 cm). We also measured p by heating in a resistance furnace on solid cylin-
ders, 6 mm in diameter and 7 cm long [3]. The systematic error of the results on p was about 2% for the
solid phase and about 3% for the liquid.
Figure 1 plots the results of measurements of the thermal diffusivity of yttrium and gadolinium be-
tween 1100 and 1700?K. The rms deviation of the individual points from the smoothed values is about 3%.
The results for Gd are close to those in [4]. The discrepancy is about 6% at T 1400?K or higher,
i.e., close to the total systematic error.
TABLE 1. High-Temperature Thermal Con-
ductivities of Y and Gd [A ? 102 W/(m ? deg K)]
Element T,*IC
Gd
1100 1300 1500 1700
0,17 0,18 0,19 0,20
0,17 0,19 0,21 0,20*
Estimated from data for p on the basis of the
Wiedemann?Franz law.
Translated from Atomnaya fnergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 63-64, January, 1976. Original article
submitted March 31, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
69
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
o 012
;;-?
0,1f
0710
0,09
1000 1200 1400
1600 T, ?K
210
? 200?
a
180
I
1000 1200 1400
1600
T, ?K
Fig.1 Fig. 2
Fig. 1. High-temperature thermal diffusivity of Y and Gd. 0) Yttrium; 0) gadolin-
ium.
Fig. 2. High-temperature electrical resistivity of Gd. A) Data from [4]; ?) data from
[5]; 0) present authors' data for solid cylinders; 0) for hollow cylinders.
The results of measurements of the electrical resistivity of gadolinium are plotted in Fig. 2. Be-
tween 1100 and 1500?K they are comparatively close to the data in [4, 5].
At the phase transition point Ta ?i3= 1537?K [5], the structure of gadolinium changes from hcp to
bcc, but there is little change in the electrical resistivity. According to Dennison et al. [6] there is a
marked change in the specific heat.
For the 13 phase, p - 200 p.,2 ? cm. The random errors are rather larger than for the a phase at
T 1500?K, so that one could only conclude that there is a singularity in the behavior of p in this region
after a marked improvement in the accuracy. We can note a deviation from linearity in pa) which is
typical of the lanthanides [3].
The electrical resistivity of liquid gadolinium is about 205 ?2 ? cm, and between the meltingpoint Tmp
and 1800?Kit is independent of the temperature, pi /ps - 1.04. A slight change of p on melting has been ob-
served [7] for transition metals.
The data in [1] on the volumetric specific heat of gadolinium and yttrium, together with our results
on the thermal diffusivity, were used to obtain values for the thermal conductivities of these elements
(Table 1).
The published information on the thermal conductivities of y and Gd at about 1200?K or higher is
very limited; we know only the results in [4, 8] on the thermal conductivities of Y and Gd at 900-1500?K,
and the data given in [9] concerning the thermal conductivity of Y at 350-1150?K. It is difficult to compare
these results, because the thermal conductivity of Y depends on the hydrogen content [9].
The thermal conductivites of Y and Ga increase with rise of temperature. The data obtained for P
and A were used to estimate the Lorenz numbers L. The results for L are higher than the theoretical
values, possibly owing to the phonon contribution to the thermal conductivity. A high value of this compo-
nent is one feature of the lanthanides. Using the data in [10] between 90 and 310?K and in [4] between 900
and 1400?K, as a result of our experiments we can infer that there is a monotonic rise in the thermal con-
ductivity of gadolinium in the paramagnetic region (270-1500?K). Similar inferences were drawn for the
specific heat and electrical resistivity. Similar behavior of the thermal properties was noted for yttrium
[1,8].
Our discussion of the data on p was based on the assumption that elastic scattering processes play a
leading role above the Curie and Wel points (and the Debye temperature), and that Matthiessen's rule
applies. The observed behavior of p in the paramagnetic region is largely governed by scattering of elec-
trons by disordered spins [11].
Analysis of the thermal conductivity is based on the assumption that the Wiedemann? Franz law
holds and that the thermal conductivity can be expressed in the form of a sum of the phonon and electron
components. This approach to the transition elements meets objections in [12].
We must also reckon with the existence of other contributions to the thermal conductvity [10], in-
cluding that of magnetic ordering in the high-temperature region.
A complete examination of the behavior of the properties of the lanthanide elements is made difficult
by the lack of complete information on the structures and energy spectra of these elements.
70
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
LITERATURE CITED
1. I. I. Novikov and I. P. Mardykin, At. nerg., 37, No. 4, 348 (1974).
2. L. P. Filippov, Investigation of the Thermal Properties of Solid and Liquid Metals at High Tempera-
tures [in Russian], Izd. MGU (1967).
3. I. P. Mardykin, Teplofiz. Vys. Temp., 13, No. 1, 211 (1975).
4. V. E. Zinov'ev et al., Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 14, 2747 (1972).
5. F. Spedding, J. Hanak, and A. Daane, J. Less.Comm.Met., 3, 110 (1961).
6. D. Dennison, K. Gschneidner, and A.Daane, J. Phys. Chem., 44, 4273 (1966).
7. A. R. liege'', in: The Structures and Properties of Liquid Metals [in Russian], Izd-vo Akad. Nauk
SSSR, 3 (1959).
8. V. E. Zinov'ev and P. V. Gel'd, Fiz. Tverd. Tel., 13, 2261 (1971).,
9. Y. S. Touloukian (editor), Thermophysical Properties of High Temperature Materials, Vol. 1,
Macmillan, New York? London (1967).
10. D. Chuah and R. Ratnalingam, J. Low Temper. Phys., 14, 257 (1974).
11. T. Kasuya, Progr. Theor. Phys., 16, 45 (1956).
12. M. Laubitz, High Temper. ?High Press., 4, 379 (1972).
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
71
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
EFFECT OF IMPLANTED SPACE CHARGE ON
PARTICLE RANGE DISTRIBUTION
V. S. Remizovich and A. I. Rudenko UDC 539.124.17
If the thickness of a layer of matter is sufficiently great, heavy charged particles (ions, protons)
are decelerated because of interactions with atoms of the material and then are stopped, forming a dis-
tributed space charge. The amount of this charge increases as the radiation time increases and the in-
tensity of the electric field created by the implanted charge can reach significant values (of the order of
106 V/cm) [1]. There is evidence [2, 3] that the macroscopic electrostatic field can have a significant
effect both on the penetration of charged particles into matter and on the mechanical properties of the
material itself. At the same time, because of the presently important problem of ion implantation in
materials, there is interest in a calculation of the depth distribution of the implanted particles for various
irradiation times.
In this paper, a solution of the transport equation is obtained for heavy charged particles including
the effect of the self-consistent field of the space charge produced in the target in the case of plane geo-
metry.
Let a broad beam of monoenergetic, nonrelativistic particles having a velocity v? directed along the
normal to the surface of a plane-parallel plate (along the x axis) be incident on this plate, which is made
of a nonmetallic homogeneous material, starting at the time t = 0. For heavy particles, one can neglect
velocity deviations from the original direction and fluctuations in energy loss during deceleration [4]. The
transport equation for the distribution function is then written in the form
Of (x, v, t) Of F(x, t) Of 1 8 -
Ox s OS M as [8(v) f (x, v, t)] = 0,
Ot 7n
(1)
where 7(v) is the average energy lost per unit path length by a particle with velocity v; m is the mass of
a particle; Fx is the projection of the force acting on a moving particle. In a number of cases the speci-
fic energy loss 7 depends very slightly on particle velocity so that in first approximation it can be as-
sumed constant ? Fo, where F 0 = mv20R-01/2 (here, R0 is the range of particles with an initial velocity
v? in the absence of space charge). The boundary condition for Eq. (1) takes the form
1(0, v,
vo
(2)
where 10 is the incident particle flux density.
The time from entrance to a complete stop is to = mv0(e0)-1 in the absence of electrostatic interac-
tions between particles. In actual cases, to 10-16-10-13 sec. The electrostatic force produced by the
presence of an implanted space charge decreases the stopping time. Therefore the total number of par-
ticles (per unit surface area) moving in the material at any time is no greater than 40 = Ienv0(60)-1. The
moving particles create a field which acts on a particle entering the medium with a force not greater than
F = 271-I0(ze)2mv0(xe0)-1 (here, ze is the charge of the incident particles and x is the dielectric constant of
the material). The magnitude of this force even for the most intense continuous sources is many orders
of magnitude less than the stopping power of the medium, i.e.,
F /0 (ze)2 nivo
a ? ? 2n < 1.
E0
(3)
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 64-66, January, 1976. Original article
submitted August 7, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
72
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
This circumstance makes it possible to neglect the interaction between moving particles a.nd to assume
that the decelerating electric field is created only by the stopped particles, i.e., by the implanted charge.
It is impossible to neglect the contribution of the latter to the field since their number increases with
time.
Since the mobility of the stopped particles in a dielectric is very small [5], one can neglect a slight
displacement of these particles after stopping because of the forces of electrostatic repulsion. Then the
force Fx in Eq. (1) describes only the effect of implanted charge on the moving particles.
The presence of a decelerating electric field leads to the fact that particles entering the material at
later times experience greater deceleration than particles entering earlier. Therefore the total stopping
range R (t) decreases as t increases. Thus at the time t the stopped particles are distributed with a cer-
tain density over the range of depths R (t) Ls x S Ro and the moving particles are found in the region 0 <
x < R (t). If the time dependence R (t) of the range is known, the distribution of the implanted charge, p (x,
t), can be calculated in the following manner: in the time interval from t to t+dt, dN = Iodt particles enter
the material which stop in the layer dx = ?(dR/dt)dt at the depth x = R (t). Therefore
I+ , dl I \-1
" k jt(x)
R (t) < x < Ro;
0; x > to. Therefore in the time range t>> to of interest
to us, a(t) lot, since the stopped particles outnumber the moving particles. As a result, Fx is written
in the form
(4)
Fx= ?2n (ze)2
The solution of Eq. (1) with Eqs. (2) and (5) taken into consideration takes the form
where
2/0 2a
f (E, u,
uo
TO ? 2a (1?u)
; u=_!_; = ?_L; (t) =T.? 1-F accr [1 (i )2] (1 + CCT)2
(5)
(6)
(7)
and the parameter a is defined by Eq. (3). In the limiting case = 0), we obtain from Eq. (6) an expres-
sion for the distribution function
fo (E, u, T) =210-2-- (1?u) 0 (x-1- u ? 1) 8 (1? u2 (8)
vo
Equation (8) represents a solution of the transport equation (1) in the absence of the decelerating force Fx.
Since a 1.
Setting u = 0 in Eq. (9) we find the time dependence of particle range:
Ro Ro Ro
R (0? 1+6,T f+c, to
? i? ?
(9)
(10)
The particle range decreases as the time increases. We find R = (1/2)R0 when t = t* = to/a. Now using
Eqs. (4) and (10), we find the density of implanted charge:
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
73
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
mqx , R0 > Es.) Figure 4 shows curves for < 02+(E-, E+, T)>, the mean square
spatial angle of positron emergence, as a function of E+ and T. Within the limit of statistical error,
< 02+(E_, E+, T) > can be considered independent of E_ and also Gaussian, as shown by analysis of the an-
gular distributions. In order to judge the reliability of the results obtained, the Monte Carlo calculations
were compared with experimental data [1-4]. Spectra for d2N+/dE4d2 from [1,3, 5] are compared in Fig.
5 with the spectrum obtained for E- = 25 MeV and T = 0.2 radiation lengths. The spectrum from [1] was
increased by a factor 2.7 in accordance with the note at the end of that paper; points on the curve were
obtained by interpolation of data for T = 0.15 and 0.3 radiation lengths. The spectra from [1] and [5] and
the Monte Carlo calculation are in good agreement but are roughly a factor of two lower than the results
of [3]. However, it was pointed out in [3] that the absolute scale of the experimental curves may contain
a factor of the order of two. On the whole, the comparison of the Monte Carlo calculations with experi-
mental data [1-4] showed that the agreement between them is good.
In conclusion, the author takes great pleasure in thanking B. V. Chirkov, B. I. Grishanov, R. A.
Salimov, and A. D. Bukin for valuable discussions.
(1)
LITERATURE CITED
1. M. Bernardini et al., CEA Report N 2212 (1962).
2. C. Jupiter et al., Phys. Rev., 121, 866 (1961).
3. L. Katz and K. Lokan, Nucl. Instrum. and Methods, 7, 7 (1961).
4. T. Aggson and L. Burnod, ORSAY, Preprint LAL-27 (1962).
5. V. Jacobs et al., Nucl. Instrum. and Methods, 61, 166 (1968).
6. R. Sund and R. Walton, Nucl. Instrum. and Methods, 27, 109 (1964).
7. V. A. Tayurskii and B. V. Chirikov, Preprint 73-73, IYaF, SO Akad. Nauk SSSR (1973).
8. F. M. Izrailev et al., Preprint 63-73, IYaF, SO Akad. Nauk SSSR (1973).
9. S. Z. Belen'kii, Cascade Processes in Cosmic Rays [in Russian], Gostekhizdat, Moscow (1948).
10. W. Messel et al., Nucl. Physics, 39, 1 (1962).
11. H. Nagel, Zeits. fur Physik, 186, 319 (1965).
12. M. Tamura, Prog. of Theor. Phys., 34, 912 (1965).
13. M. Ya. Borkovskii and S. P. Kruglov, Yad. Fiz., 16, 349 (1972).
82
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
DEPENDENCE OF ASYMMETRY IN TH.E
PHOTOFISSION OF 2 3 3 U AND 239Pu ON THE
MAXIMUM BREMSSTRAHLUNG
M. Ya. Kondrat'ko, V. N. Korinets, UDC 539.173.3
and K. A. Petrzhak
The fission yields of certain products of the symmetric and near-symmetric fission of 233U and 23213u
by means of the bremsstrahlung from a betatron are determined over a range of energy maxima E0 = 10-
24 MeV. The procedure for similar experiments is described in [1-5]; irradiation of targets using special
equipment, inserted in the accelerating chamber of the betatron; buildup of radioactive fission products in
the form of nuclear recoil; radiochemical analysis, and measurements of 13 activity in proportional 4Tr
counters. The fission products were identified by their half lives. Experimental decay-buildup curves
were fitted by the method of least squares, utilizing tabular values for the half lives and branching ratios.
The yields were determined with respect to the standard 149Ba. Cumulative yields of identified isotopes
were scaled to the values of the total yields of branches with a corresponding mass number. In addition,
numerical estimates of individual yields of daughter isotopes and published data on the branching of decay
with the formation of short-lived isomers were utilized.
The results are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The values of the relative yields, the error in which
has not been noted, are determined with a relative error of 5-7%. The error in the maximum energy E0
is due mainly to a drift in the standard values during irradiation and consisted of approximately ?150 keV.
The yield ratios of 139Ba and 149Ba, equal to 1.11 ? 0.06 and 1.13 d= 0.05 when E0 = 16-20 and 24 MeV, re-
spectively, are also determined for the photofission of 239Pu.
A comparison of the results shows that the ratios Y115Cd/Y149Ba for 233U and Y117Cd/Y149Ba for 239Pu,
representing the case of the most symmetric fission, are similar in magnitude and energy dependence. A
systematic reduction in the yields is observed for 235PU upon switching from near-symmetric (111Ag) to
most-symmetric (vict') fission. However, in the photofission of 233U, the relative yields of 113Ag are less
than with 115417Cd. It is possible that this irregularity is connected with the manifestation of a central
peak in the mass distribution of the symmetric fission. A similar phenomenon has been observed in the
photofission of 235U [5].
TABLE 1. Relative Yields of 233U Photo- TABLE 2. Relative Yields of 235Pu Photo-
fission Products
fission Products
E0,
MeV
Y118Agnr140Ba
Y115Cd/Y140Ba
Y117 cd/Y140Ba
10
0,0031?0,0008
0,0078?0,0010
0,005?0,001
12
0,022?0,005
0,034?0,002
0,032?0,002
14
0,037
0,060
0,060
16
0,053
0,068
0,061
20
0,068
0,095
0,086
24
0,100
0,126
0,128
Eo, MeV
Y111Ag/Y140Ba.,
Y113Ag/Y140Ba
,,
12
-
.
?,
.
10
0,046?0,005
0,020?0,006
0,013?0,002
0,010?0,002
12
0 ,075?0 ,005
0 ,031?0,003
0,027?0,002
0 ,024?0 ,003
14
0,100
0,058
0,059
0,049
16
0,144
0,081
0,073
0,071
20
0,176
0,099
0,102
0,094
24
0,202
0,121
0,127
0,127
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 72-73, January, 1976. Original article
submitted May 21, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
83
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Fig. 1. Yield ratios "peak to trough" for
photofission. Data of present paper for the
reaction 233U (Y f): 0) YttoBa/Y115Cd; ? )
Y
14oBa/Y113Ag; for the reaction 238Pu (y, f):
)
A5(1234,43jid_. Ta....t)a n i40[B1a]/f;r h
i it5ced ; reac-
tionin[6] for the reaction 238U (y, f): ? ? ? ?
?') Yi4oBa/Y115Cd?
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Eo, MeV ?
The energy dependences of the "peak to trough" ratios are given in Fig. 1. The Y14?Ba/Y117Cd ratios
for the photofission of 238U [1] and 238U [6] are given there also. A reduction in the "peak to trough" ratio
5?
is observed in the series 233u 23-u-238u, i.e., with a given nuclear charge Z, the probability of the
most symmetric fission is lower, the greater the mass number A.
LITERATURE CITED
1. M. Ya. Kondrat'ko and K. A. Petrzhak, At. Energ., 23, No. 6, 559 (1967).
2. M. Ya. Kondrat'ko, 0. P. Nikotin, and K. A. Petrzhak, At. Energ., 27, No. 6, 544 (1969).
3. M. Ya. Kondrat'ko, 0. P. Nikotin, and K. A. Petrzhak, Pribory i Tekh. Eksperim., No. 3, 47
(1964).
4. M. Ya. Kondrat'ko, V. N. Korinets, and K. A. Petrzhak, At. Energ., 34, 52 (1973).
5. M. Ya. Kondrat'ko, V. N. Korinets, and K. A. Petrzhak, At. nerg., 35, No. 3, 214 (1973).
6. R. Duffield, R. Schmitt, and R. Sharp, in: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference, Geneva,
Vol. 15 (1958), p. 678.
84
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
SYNTHETIC PITCHBLENDE: COMPOSITION,
STRUCTURE, AND CERTAIN PROPERTIES
V. A. Alekseev and R. P. Rafaltskii UDC 542.65:549.514.8:549.12
Pitchblende with a highly defined collomorphic structure has been synthesized previously under hy-
drothermal conditions by the reduction of hexavalent uranium by elementary arsenic [1]. However, inves-
tigation of the products of the synthesis was not accompanied by systematic determinations of the 0/U
ratio and water content. Additional experiments were conducted in order to obtain this information.
A wafer of natural arsenic was placed in a quartz ampoule with a solution of UO2SO4, which was
maintained at a fixed temperature after being evacuated and sealed. After rapid cooling, the ampoule
was opened and we washed the wafer, ? coated with a thin layer of pitchblende, with water and alcohol and
dried it in vacuum at room temperature. We carefully removed the thin layer; we used part of it for de-
termining the content of tetravalent arid ordinary uranium and water, as well as for x-ray analysis. A
polished section was prepared from the remainder.
We calculated the 0/U ratio from the data of chemical analysis performed by the ferrophosphatevan-
adate method [2]. The material subjected to analysis contained from 2.4-7.2 mass % of arsenic; however,
it has been established that the presence of arsenic and its oxides do not have any effect on the accuracy of
determining the uranium. We determined the water content by the Penfield method. During the heating of
the sample, not only the water, but also arsenic trioxide, which together with the water was condensed in
the form of a white deposit in an enlarged section of the tube, was driven off. During the drying of the
latter in vacuum (110?C; 0.5-1 h), evaporation of As203 did not occur, a fact which was established by
control weighing.
In order to prepare the polished sections of the thin layer, we introduced an epoxy resin, after the
solidification of which we produced the thin section and the polishing. Investigation of the polished sec-
tions was followed by structural pickling in a 20% solution of iron chloride. We measured the reflecting
TABLE 1
Expt. No.
Exptl. conditions
Composition and properties of the nth. pitchblende
t, 'C
heating
,.
n me,
tiuranium
initial ,I
concn. of
in
sol.. giliter
volume of
-sol. at 25?C,
mli
0113
water content,
To
reflecting pow
er, %
abs. micro-
hardness, kgf/
mm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
150
150
150
150
150
150
150
150
200
200
200
250
300
320
320
10,5
17,5
16,5
33
32
9
33
33
32,5
9
6
8,5
31,5
8,5
8,5
2
3
2
2
4
21,8
21,8
21,8
4,1
6
21,8
21,8
4,1
21,8
21,8
5
5
12
5
100
10
16
18
100
10
10
7
100
7
7
2,38 9,62
2,36 I 5,88
2,28 I 4,67
2,32 I 6,90
2,261 3.35
2,35 INot determined
2,36 I
2,33 I 6,27
2,25 2,66
2,19 I 2,33
2,19 I 1,84
2,21 0,96
2,12 I 0,12
2,161 0,76
2,09 0,79
Not determined
D
D
10,1
9,5
Not determined
10,5
12,4
13,3
11,9
Not determined
16,9
14,3
14,7
Not determined
D
D
I 160
I 310
ot determined
D
I 185
I 410
I 420
I 320
jNotdeterrnined
650
i 450
505
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 73-76, January, 1976. Original article
submitted May 21, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y.10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
85
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
R,%
18
16
14
12
10
e o 200
H, kgf/mm2
400 600
Fig. 1. Dependence between reflec-
ting power and microhardness of
uranium oxides; 0) Synthetic pitch-
blendes (microhardness is calcu-
lated from optimal load); 0) the
same, microhardness is calculated
for 14-12 diagonal of replica; GO
natural uraninites and pitchblendes.
their reflecting power and microhardness
between 0/U and CH20 (0.93), as well as between R and H (0.89 and 0.93 when calculating the microhardness
according to the optimal loads and for a constant diagonal length, respectively). Calculation of H by the
second method should convert the systematic error due to the effect of the surface layer into a constant
quantity which is smaller the greater the diagonal length. If one omits the anomalous point corresponding
to the minimum reflectingpower, the correlation coefficient in the last case increases to 0.98. At the
same time, the dependence between the microhardness and the reflecting power (Fig. 1) is expressed by
the following equation of a straight line, the coefficients of which are calculated by the method of least
squares;
power in_a POOS device in air in the visible region of the spec-
trum (435-660 nm). The etalon was STF-2 silicon glass. The
deviation in the arithmetical mean of the value of R for a single
sample equaled 3.6% due to the inhomogeneity of the material.
We utilized the value of R at A = 580 nm for comparison with
the microhardness.
We measured the microhardness in a PMT-3 device,
calibrated to halite, at loads of 15-100 gf. The deviation in the
arithmetical mean of the value of H with a single load com-
prised 16% due to the inhomogeneity of the material. For com-
parison with the reflecting power, the microhardness was de-
termined by two methods; at optimal load for a given class [3]
and for a constant length of a diagonal of the replica. In the
latter case, we found the microhardness from the points of
intersection of the straight line, obtained by utilizing the well-
known formula H = (1.8544P)/d2 (kgf/mm2) and the corresponding
diagonal length at 14 pt (the magnitude of which is limited by the
size of the thin layers), with curves describing the H? P de-
pendence for individual samples.
The conditions under which the experiments were con-
ducted and the results of the study of the synthetic pitchblendes
are given in Table 1. In spite of significant fluctuations in the
0/E ratio in pitchblendes obtained at the same temperature, a
distinct tendency of this ratio to fall with a rise in temperature
is observed. Simultaneously with a decrease in the oxygen co-
efficient, the water content in the pitchblendes is reduced and
increases. The largest correlation coefficients are obtained
R 0.0137H +7 .71
with the variances of the coefficients Sa = 0.0056 and Sb = 0.92.
The straight line corresponding to this equation agrees in direction and passes throug the center
of the correlation ellipse of the values of R and H for natural pitchblendes and uraninites [4]. It is note-
worthy that the reflecting power and microhardness of synthetic pitchblendes with the highest 0/U ratio
(2.33) are the same as for natural pitchblendes with a 0/U ratio equal to -2.70.
The dependence of the morphology of the separating out of the synthetic pitchblendes on the tempera-
ture presents considerable interest. Pitchblendes synthesized at 150?C and characterized by the highest
0/U ratios form principally small ?Mites of concentrically zonal structure (Fig. 2a); a collomorphically
banded microtexture is observed in particular cases. The latter moreover is most characteristic of pitch-
blendes obtained at 200?C (Fig. 2b). The pickling reveals a thin stratification (Fig. 2c); the individual
layers are .1 Am thick and extend over the entire thin layer. Of the characteristics of the crystalline
structure of pitchblendes synthesized at 150 and 200?C, it is not observed during microscopic study. How-
ever, thin layers of pitchblendes with the lowest 0/U ratios, formed at 300 and 320?C, have a distinct
crystalline structure. At the same time, they are combined with spheroidolites (Fig. 2d), sometimes
changing into dendrites (Fig. 2e).
As is known, the rate of chemical reactions increases with an increase in temperature (2-4 times
every 10?C on the average) and the concentrations of the original reagents. In this connection, one would
expect that at higher temperatures and concentrations of uranium in the initial solution the dispersion of
86
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Fig. 2. Morphology of the separating out of synthetic pitchblende (the ordinal
number of the experiment in Table 1 and the magnification are indicated); a)
5, 440; b) 9, 340; c) 11, 440, pickled; d) 13, 750, pickled; e) 13, 440, pickled
(the filler is indistinct).
pitchblende deposits should increase due to the increase in the rate of reduction of hexavalent uranium and
the formation of large quantities of the deposit per unit time. In fact, with an increase in temperature,
the dispersion is reduced and the deposits have an increasingly distinct crystalline structure. The experi-
mental results indicate the absence of an appreciable effect of the initial concentration on the size of the
particles and the morphology of the seParating out of the pitchblende, which agrees with the experimental
data obtained in [1]. One can explain these discrepancies by the formation at different temperatures of
pitchblendes with a distinct 0/U, which is also the most important factor determining the structure and
properties of the products of the synthesis. The higher this ratio, the higher the dispersion of the deposits
and their water content and the lower the reflecting power and microhardness. This dependence is in good
agreement with the results of the investigation of natural uraninites and pitchblendes. The effect of the
0,/U ratio is probably connected with the ordering of the crystalline structure UO2 +x, which occurs with
the reduction of this ratio. Unfortunately, pitchblendes synthesized by the method described are distin-
guished by an increased crystal lattice parameter (up to 5.56 I), which hinders the determination of the
dependence ,of the parameter on the 0/U ratio. It had been assumed previously [1] that the increase in the
parameter is connected with the presence of water in the pitchblendes; however, it did not eliminate the
possibility that the presence of As203 affects the parameter [5]. The available data does not permit one to
solve this problem.
87
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
One can assume that the values of 0/U given in Table 1 do not reflect stable phase ratios under ex-
perimental conditions and should decrease with an increase in time of the experiments. This question re-
mains unclear: is the formation of pitchblendes with 0/U > 2.38 possible at lower temperatures or for
shorter experimental periods? This maximum 0/U ratio, obtained in the experiments described, agrees
with the limiting 0/U ratio in the cubic phase UO2+ x, synthesized by a quite different method [6]. How-
ever, the possibility that this agreement is accidental is not excluded.
LITERATURE CITED
1. R. P. Rafal'skii, The Physicochemical Study of the Conditions of Formation of Uranium Ores [in
Russian], Gosatomizdat, Moscow (1963).
2. V. K. Markov et al., Uranium, Methods of Its Determination [in Russian], Gosatomizdat, Moscow
(1960).
3. S. I. Lebedeva, Trudy IMGRE, No. 6, _89 (1961).
4. M. V. Soboleva and I. A. Pudovkina, Uranium Minerals [in Russian], Gosgeoltekhizdat, Moscow
(1957).
5. Yu. M. Dymkov, The Nature of Pitchblende [in Russian], Atomizdat, Moscow (1973).
6. R. P. Rafal'skii et al., Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 224, No. 5, 105 (1975).
88
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
MEASUREMENT OF THE ENERGY DEPENDENCE
OF 71 2 3 3 U IN THE 0.02-1-eV REGION
V. A. Pshenichnyi, A. I. Blanovskii, UDC 539.125.5
N. L. Gnidak, and E. A. Pavlenko
Accurate data on the effective number of low-energy fission neutrons r1233U are important in the de-
sign of slow-neutron breeder reactors since the principal uncertainty in the breeding ratio for such reac-
tors is introduced by the indeterminancy of ?233U. In view of this, the energy dependence of 11233U over the
0.02-1-eV range was determined in the VVR-M atomic reactor of the Institute of Nuclear Problems of the
Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR with an accuracy of 1-2%. The measurements were conducted
using the time-of-flight method with a. resolution of ?12 pisec/m and normalized to the value when E =
0.0253 eV, assuming that 77 = 2.297 at this point. The neutron beam from the reactor was passed into a
pulsating mechanical chopper with a rptor 300 mm in diameter and slots 2 mm wide. The sample and de-
tectors were located 500 5 cm from the chopper. The fission neutrons were recorded by a bank of 50
SNM-37 helium-filled counters with a moderator in the geometry near 2r. A cadmium shield was placed
between the moderator and the counters in order to shorten the lifetime of the neutrons. The flux of inci-
dent neutrons was measured by the y quanta from neutron captures by a sample of cadmium or indium.
Such a (n, y) detector consists of an NaI(T1) crystal 70 x 70 mm in size and a PM-49. The transmission
was measured by a SNM-5 boron-filled counter or by three SNM-37 helium-filled counters.
Theoretical corrections for the resolution, for the energy-dependence of the flux detector's sensi-
tivity, and for multiple scattering of neutrons in the sample were introduced into the experimental results.
The magnitude of the correction for multiple processes in the fissionable sample, calculated by a Monte
Carlo method, was about 2.5% in the 0.025-eV energy region and increased to 3.5% in the vicinity of 1 eV.
The correction for the resolution was about 2% in the 0.2-eV energy region relative to the value when E =
0.0253 eV. Inexact knowledge of this correction introduced a systematic error of the order of 0.5%, al-
most comparable with the statistical error in the measurements of ?0.7%.
E, eV
' Channel number
Fig. 1. Energy dependence of 77233U in the 0.02-1-eV region; a) cadmium;
0) indium.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 76-77, January, 1976. Original article
submitted May 26, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
89
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
The energy dependence of 7233U (the flux was measured by an (n, y) detector with samples of cadmium
and indium) is shown in Fig. 1. Systematic discrepancies in the data obtained in the determination of the
flux with indium and cadmium detectors are evidently connected with some indeterminancy in the flight
distance in measurements with indium due to its greater thickness.
In the last five years, measurements of 77233U were conducted in the 0.02-1-eV energy range [1, 2].
The results of these papers agree; the reduction in the value of 71 by 4.0-4.2% at 0.16 eV from the value
at E = 0.0253 eV is emphasized. The energy dependence of II was determined by the simultaneous mea-
surement of the fission and capture cross sections. In this paper, another technique is utilized: the
energy dependence of the quantity Vol is measured indirectly. The results agree to within 1% with the
data of the papers cited, although the reduction in the value of T1 at 0.16 eV, obtained in the measurement
of the flux in cadmium, amounted to 5% of the value of n at E = 0.0253 eV. This agreement indicates that
with the same precision the average number of fission neutrons remains constant in the thermal-energy
region.
LITERATURE CITED
1. L. Weston et al., Nucl. Sci. Engng., 42, 143 (1970).
2. J. Smith and S. Reedez, in; 2nd Conference on Nuclear Cross Sections and Technology, Washington,
1968, Vol. 1, p. 591 (Proc. NBS Spec. Publication 299).
90
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
INFORMATION
NEXT PROBLEMS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
OXIDE FUEL ELEMENTS FOR FAST POWER REACTORS
I. S. Golovnin
One of the chief features in the current development of nuclear power is the creation of nuclear
power stations with fast reactors. Considerable advances have been made in a number of countries as
to the technical design of such reactors. Experimental industrial stations with powers of the order of
300 million (electrical) kW each are already in the stage of adoption in the USSR, Britain, and France.
Experience in the use of these installations and the more powerful versions now being built in the USSR
and USA (BN-600 and FFTF) should over the next decade provide all the data required to create and in-
troduce large electrical power stations of optimum parameters with fast sodium breeder reactors using
mixed oxide fuel.
At the present time scientists are assiduously exchanging the results of research and technical ex-
perience. Several recent large international conferences have, in effect, summarized progress up to
1975 and pointed the way to future developments. This specially applies to the winter session of the
American Nuclear Society (Washington, October 27-31, 1974),* the First European Nuclear Conference
(Paris, April 21-25, 1975), t and the Congress of Specialists from the International Agency on Atomic
Energy Regarding Possible Damage to Fast-Reactor Fuel (Seattle, USA, May 12-16, 1975). Earlier in-
vestigations were mainly aimed at demonstrating the potentialities of fast reactors and elucidating the
basic problems, especially those concerning the fuel elements.
The limited amount of information available as to the influence of reactor conditions on the proper-
ties of materials prevents all the effects which began to appear on increasing the power, the neutron flux
density, and the burn-up of the fuel in the experimental installations from being taken into account at the?
same time. One of the most important effects, which has not as yet been studied over a sufficiently wide
range of irradiation (up to 4 .1023 neutrons/cm2 at E > 0.1 MeV), is the softening of the construction mate-
rials, i.e., the fall in long-term strength and ductility, the acceleration of high-temperature embrittlement
(austenitic stainless steels), and creep. Effects which have been discovered include the neutron-induced
swelling of construction materials and the effect of the initial purity of the fuel and the accumulation of
fission fragments on the compatibility of the fuel with the material of the fuel-element can. On the whole
these effects lead to a certain (though not critical) reduction in the efficiency of fast reactors as compared
with the original optimistic estimates, although the exact extent of the effect cannot yet be assessed.
Apart from design and technological developments, important features in the creation of efficient
fuel elements include the study of materials and structures (both inside the reactor and after removal),
analytical investigations into efficiency based on experimental data regarding the properties of materials,
and an analysis of emergency situations from the point of view of their influence on the efficiency of the
installation as a whole and its safety under service conditions. Experimental investigations based on both
cooperative and independent programs are being carried out by scientists in the United States, Britain,
France, West Germany, Japan, Italy, and the USSR. Many years' experience in the use of the first fast
sodium reactors has shown that the number of fuel-element failures involving oxide and mixed oxide fuel
is less than 1% for burn-ups of more than 10% of the heavy atoms. In individual cases fuel elements re-
main efficient up to a burn-up of 15-18% of the heavy atoms. Damage only appears visually in 0.1% of the
total number of fuel elements studied.
*See At. nerg., 38, No. 4, 268 (1975)?
fSee At. nerg., 39, No. 3, 230 (1975).
Translated from Atomnaya fnergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 78-80, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
91
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
There are two main causes of damage: production defects and the exhaustion of efficiency. Experi-
ence in the manufacture of 25,000 fuel elements for the Phenix reactor (France) revealed that, subject to
qualified technological monitoring, production defects could be completly eliminated. As yet it has not
been found possible to predict the limit of efficiency exhaustion with a sufficient accuracy, since damage
criteria have not been finally established, nor have the damage mechanisms been clearly formulated.
Furthermore, experimental data regarding the influence of irradiation on the properties of materials are
as yet insufficiently reliable. Hence the limiting degree of burn-up of the fuel in the fuel elements is to a
large extent chosen on an approximate or empirical basis. For example, in the French Rhapsodie,
Phenix, and Superphenix reactors the burn-up is specified as 8, 6.5, and 9% of the heavy atoms respec-
tively. Criteria relating to can damage depend on the means of loading, and may be determined, firstly,
by reference to the degree of nonuniformity of the plastic deformation of the material and the ductility
limit, secondly from the deformation rate, thirdly from the steady creep velocity, and fourthly from the
yield stress of the material.
Detailed study has been devoted to the interaction between the mixed oxide fuel cores and the austen-
itic stainless steel cans which arises at temperatures exceeding 500?C, mainly as a result of the action of
volatile cesium, iodine, and tellurium fragments accumulating in the reaction zone at the high oxidizing
potential of the medium. The rate of intercrystallite penetration is high until roughly 3% of the heavy
atoms have been consumed, after which it rapidly diminishes. For almost stoichiometric fuel composi-
tions the depth of intercrystallite penetration may amount to 70-120 J1 for deep burnup, but it is much less
for substoichiometric fuel. For superstoichiometric fuel, however, a uniform frontal oxidation of the
inner surface of the can occurs to a depth of 10 ?, without intercrystallite rupture. A reduction in the
density of the fuel, a rise in the linear power of the fuel element, and an increase in the gap between the
can and the core, especially in the presence of eccentricity, intensify the interaction. West German re-
search showed that the intercrystallite penetration depended on the composition of the steel. German
types of steel may be placed in the following series of increasing interaction (the brackets indicate foreign
analogs to the West German brands of steel): 1.4988 (AISI-318, FV-548); 1.4919 (AISI-319); 1.4981
(010116N15M3B); 1.4970 (12R72HV). The difference in the depth of intercrystallite penetration amounted
to as much as 20% for different types of steel. The interaction due to the presence of fission fragments
does not lead to any direct damage to the oxide-fuel fuel elements, but it weakens the can. A change to
the use of carbide fuel fails to eliminate interaction: In this case carburization of the inner surface of the
can may occur to a depth approaching 40 ?.
Visible damage to the fuel elements consists of longitudinal cracks in the upper and central parts of
the cans arising as a result of the exhaustion of efficiency in the material. The central cracks correspond
to the region of maximum diametral deformation of the fuel elements and are most probably associated with
a gradual increase in the mechanical action of the swelling core and the gas pressure inside the fuel ele-
ment. The cracks in the upper, hot part, in which the oxide fuel is almost completely softened, are as-
sociated with the transient operating conditions of the fuel element, involving a considerable loss of ductil-
ity by the can (thermal ratchet effect). These mechanisms go hand in hand, and it is as yet hard to say
which is the most serious. For boosted irradiation conditions, cracks in the hot part of the fuel element
predominate. Cracks in the middle are usually formed after diametral distortions of over 1%. The per-
missible deformation of the material in the upper part of the element can hardly be taken as greater than
0.1%. Under normal service conditions the initiation and development of damage in one fuel element does
not have any major effect on the whole assembly. The time between the loss of hermetic properties and
the opening of a crack may extend to several months. Investigations into the behavior of fuel elements
with artificial defects have revealed a relationship between the development of damage and the formation
of sodium uranoplutonate under the can. Only if the coolant flow is reduced or stops altogether, or if in-
dividual open cross sections of the assembly become clogged, is it possible for damage to propagate to
the neighboring fuel elements; in the case of oxide fuel the emergency is localized within a single as-
sembly.
The individual mechanisms leading to the exhaustion of the efficiency reserve of the fuel elements
are quite closely associated, for example, with the redistribution of the fuel within the interior of the fuel
element, the accumulation of fission fragments, gas evolution under the can, and so on. At the same time
the influence of the neutron-induced swelling of the cans, which predominates over mechanical deforma-
tion at temperatures below 525?C, and also the role of radiation-induced creep, have not yet been studied
anything like sufficiently. One has the impression that the main effort should be directed at creating very
strong and ductile construction materials, although combating the swelling effect is still a matter of no
92
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
mean importance. It is quite possible that it will prove desirable in the future only to use low-swelling
materials for the housings of the whole fuel-element assemblies.
Theoretical investigations play a major part in establishing the mechanisms of fuel-element damage.
Mathematical models and computing programs developed by scientists in various countries have in general
proved perfectly adequate. Differences between various theories have in the main been associated with
the interpretation and assessment of individual properties, as well as the computing speed and accuracy.
Some programs have been developed in great detail, and account for quite refined phenomena (the effect
of changes in the isotopic composition of the fuel, the continuous change in contact thermal conductivity,
radial nonuniformity of the neutron-induced swelling, etc.). These useful computing programs cannot
yet be fully exploited in view of the absence of adequate experimental data relating to the properties of the
materials. This factor also impedes the establishment of the limiting and statistically averaged values
of the fuel-element efficiency criteria.
Special attention should be given to the behavior of fuel elements under transient conditions of opera-
tion. These include the rapid transient processes associated with the triggering of the emergency protec-
tion system, failure in the pumps of the first circuit, a surge in the power of the reactor, partial or com-
plete blocking of the coolant flow through the fuel-element assembly, and finally repeated changes in power
level. The aim of these investigations (the importance of which it is hard to overestimate) is to establish
the limitations which will enable fuel-element efficiency to be maintained right up to the onset of an emer-
gency situation. Such criteria include, for example, the limiting plastic deformation of the construction
materials in various temperature ranges, for various loading rates, and for various doses of neutron ir-
radiation and degrees of chemical interaction with the ambient; the permissible power surges; the per-
missible scales of fuel melting; the rupture of the can by gas pressure on overheating, and so on. The
extension of steady-state and quasi-steady-state theoretical models to the case of rapidly changing param-
eters requires considerable development and careful comparison between the analytical results and experi-
ment. It is important, for example, to allow for the transient nature of gas evolution, the redistribution
of porosity in the fuel, mass transfer on melting, the transience of the mechanical interaction between the
core and the can, the growth rate of the gas pressure (which may amount to hundreds of atmosphere), and
so on.
A number of western countries and also Japan have undertaken combined and independent programs
for studying the efficiency of fuel elements under transient conditions, including experiments inside the
reactor involving power surges and coolant losses, and investigations aimed at establishing the influence
of rapidly changing processes on the hydraulic and thermophysical characteristics of the fuel-element
assemblies. It is also intended to carry out experiments on the heating of fuel elements irradiated to
various burn-ups outside the reactor. The programs envisage the use of the TREAT pulse reactor (USA),
which enables power surges to be introduced in a controlled way, with a visual assessment of the rupture
process, and also loops of the experimental French thermal reactors, in which it is intended to carry out
similar experiments with fuel elements previously irradiated in the fast Rhapsodie reactor. Individual
experiments have already been carried out. The forming of the irradiated fuel on melting and the rupture
of the can by gas pressure at points of overheating have been studied, and the rise in gas pressure in the
fuel element following a power surge in the TREAT reactor has been estimated. Preliminary experiments
have shown that the rupture of the fuel elements under transient conditions may be associated with the
rapid evolution of gas from the molten fuel. Gas evolution from the solid fuel begins playing a major part
in the transient process before the onset of melting, leading to additional mass transfer; the onset of can
rupture depends on the original structure of the core. A brief power surge does not cause any serious
damage to the fuel-element cans.
The effect of the efficiency of the fuel elements on the question of safety in the running of fast reac-
tors is of importance in connection with the possible extension of any emergency situation (including that
associated with anomalous working conditions) beyond the confines of the fuel-element assemblies, to em-
brace part or the whole of the active zone itself. Models are being developed to represent the mechanisms
underlying the development of such hypothetical emergencies in order to establish the conditions under
which the irregularity may be entirely contained within the fuel-element assemblies, so that a complete
damaged assembly may be replaced without disturbing the running characteristics of the reactor as a whole..
It is considered that when using oxide fuel it should be perfectly possible to make a reliable determination
of the location and extent of the damage and to replace the fuel-element assembly quite safely, subject to
the development of the necessary measuring devices recording the presence and type of activity of the fis-
sion fragments in the reactor.
93
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
CONFERENCES AND SYMPOSIA.
THIRD CONFERENCE ON NEUTRON PHYSICS
A. I. Kal'chenko, D. A. Bazavov,
B. I. Gorbachev, A. L. Kirilyuk,
V. V. Kolotyi, V. A. Pshenichnyi,
A. F. Fedorova, and V. D. Chesnokova
The conference took place June 9-13, 1975 in Kiev. The participants were 300 Russian scientists
from 42 institutes and science centers of the USSR and 50 foreign representatives from 16 countries.
Ninety-two reports, including reviews and single communications, were presented. The conference took
place in the form of 7 sections in which the most important modern problems of neutron physics were
discussed.
Requirements in Regard to Nuclear Data and Their Evaluation. The Conference began with a presen-
tation of the requirements in regard to nuclear data for reactor technology, thermonuclear reactors, as-
trophysics, and reactor physics. The reports put into evidence that to date the requirements in nuclear
data and, even more, in neutron data by many fields of science and technology have now been formulated,
have received the technological and economical foundation, and have been brought to the scientists. These
requirements are heaviest in reactor technology and shielding from penetrating radiation.
L. N. Usachev (Physics and Power Institute, Obninsk) reported on mathematical studies of the
Physics and Power Institute and on a set of programs of experimental investigations. He based his con-
siderations on the conditions required for obtaining the desired accuracy of nuclear data with a minimum
of expenses. N. M. Nikolaev (Physics and Power Institute, Obninsk) reported on the strategy of obtaining
the required accuracy of neutron data; for this purpose, microscopical and integral experiments are com-
bined in the best possible manner. Work was described which is done in the Soviet Union on experimental
setups capable of satisfying a large number of the requirements of highest priority, G. E. Shatalov (I. V.
Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, Moscow) outlined problems related to the influence which nuclear
constants have upon calculations of the blanket of a thermonuclear reactor in terms of neutron physics.
The interest which scientists developing thermonuclear reactors have in neutron data increases from year
to year. The expansion of the work on the evaluation of nuclear data caused great interest. Two complete
files (data sets) on 235U (Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Belorussian SSR,
Minsk) and on iron (Physics and Power Institute, Obninsk) and some other papers dealing with the evalua-
tion,of the cross sections of nickel, chromium, gold, carbon, and other important construction materials
and of stable nuclei (fission fragments) were presented.
Noteworthy was the contribution which the report of G. Salvi (France) made to the new information
on the evaluation of nuclear data. The report dealt with a method of calculating the cross sections of cap-
ture, fission, and inelastic scattering in the case of heavy nuclei in the energy range 3 keV-1 MeV and
calculating the cross sections of n, xn and n, xrif processes at energies of 2-20 MeV.
It follows from several reports that it is now possible to automatically obtain grouped constants from
the files of microscopical data (mainly from the SOKRATOR system); methods have been developed for
matching nuclear data obtained from integral experiments on the basis of the grouped constants.
A report by N. A. Vlasov (I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, Moscow) on neutron reactions
in stars was received with interest.* It was shown that it is possible to accurately determine the cross
sections of radiative neutron capture at energies of 30-200 keV for solving the fundamental problem of the
origin of elements.
*See also At. Energ., 39, No. 2, 103 (1975).
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 80-82, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
94
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Fundamental Properties of Neutrons. This *section assembled for the first time. The topics of this
section put into evidence that it is justified to introduce this section into the program of the Conference,
because, in addition to applied problems, problems involving important principles must be discussed. V.
M. Lobashev (B. P. Konstantinov Leningrad Institute of Nuclear Physics) presented a review on the pres-
ent state of research on the electric dipole moment of the neutron and the general knowledge of this matter.
He reported on an experimental setup for measuring the dipole moment of the neutron with the aid of ultra-
cold neutrons. This work, which involved experiments of very high accuracy, has proved that it is prom-
ising to use ultra-cold neutrons for further research work. V. I. Lushchikov (Joint Institute of Nuclear
Research, Dubna) reported on the present state of work done with ultracold neutrons and reviewed several
papers presented to the Conference on Ultracold Neutrons, particularly as far as the papers were related
to the development of detectors, converters, neutron guiding means, and receptacles for retaining ultra-
cold neutrons. This is a very promising direction of neutron physics and receives more and more atten-
tion.
B. G. Erozolimskii (I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, Moscow) and Yu. A. Aleksandrov
(Joint Institute of Nuclear Research, Dubna) spoke of new measurements of the angular spin-electron cor-
relation in the decay of polarized neutrons, research of the n? e interaction, and the state of research
done in our country and abroad on other fundamental properties of the neutron.
General Problems of the Interaction of Neutrons with Nuclei. Problems of the theory of nuclear
structure and the mechanism of nuclear processes were discussed in review reports and communications
which are traditional in nuclear physics work. We mention the model calculations of the density of nuclear
states as a function of the excitation energy of the nucleus (V. G. Solov'ev and V. V. Voronov, Joint Insti-
tute of Nuclear Research, Dubna; and A. V. Ignatyuk, Physics and Power Institute, Obninsk), the various
aspects of the optical model and its new versions, the fragmentation of separate single-particle states (V.
G. Solov'ev, Joint Institute of Nuclear Research, Dubna), the structure of analog states (D. F. Zaritskii
and M. G. Urin, I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy). A general rule can be recognized in the
reports: Since the main institutes of the USSR are now equipped with modern computers, it is possible to
treat and solve the problems within the existing concepts of nuclear structure, whereas it was earlier
practically impossible to handle these problems. It is now possible to compare both theoretical and cal-
culated results with experimental results in greater detail and on a larger scale so that our insight into
the structure of the atomic nucleus has been improved. Characteristic in this respect is the work done
by the group of theoreticians of the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in which very laborious calculations
of the density of nuclear states are made with the well-known phenomenological microscopical theory of
the nucleus. The results are suitable for a direct comparison with the experimental data.
This section included a review report by G. Salvi (France) on the results of work done by four
groups, who are concerned with the development of new versions of the optical model. Work on an optical
model with a nonlocal real potential is of interest; this work requires considerable computer time. The
report by G. Salvi dealt mainly with methodological aspects but papers presenting new results in terms
of physics must be expected in the near future.
Experimental Investigation of the Interaction of Thermal Neutrons and Resonance Neutrons with
Nuclei. Recently, research on the structure of resonances (compound states) has received increasing
attention. Therefore, reports on the experiments which were done in the Joint Institute of Nuclear Re-
search in investigations of (n, a)- and (n, ya)- reactions at resonances, in determinations of the mag-
netic moments of compound states, and in work on the details of capture-induced gamma radiation at
resonances were accepted with great interest. Some general tendencies were recognized during the Con-
ference and should be noted. First of all, we note an increased research activity with radioactive and
transuranium nuclei, measurements of the energy dependencies of the neutron cross sections, and ana-
lyses of the parameters of neutron resonances (Institute of Nuclear Research of the Academy of Sciences
of the Ukrainian SSR, Kiev; Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Moscow; NHAR, Dimi-
trovgrad); besides that, machines working with polarized neutrons and nuclei have been put into opera-
tion and the first results have been obtained with them (V. P. Alfimenkov, Joint Institute of Nuclear Re-
search, Dubna; K. Abrahams, The Netherlands).
Experimental Investigations of the Interaction of Fast Neutrons with Nuclei. Reports were discussed
which were devoted to research on radiative capture and inelastic scattering of fast neutrons, neutron
cross sections, the spectra of fast neutrons, and investigations of the structure of the atomic nucleus with
the aid of fast neutrons (V. A. Tolstikov, Physics and Power Institute, Obninsk; M. B. Fedorov, Institute
95
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
of Nuclear Research of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR; 0. A. Sal'nikov, Physics and
Power Institute, Obninsk; and L. I. Govor, I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy). It was shown
in the report by L. I. Govor that even in the future reactors will be successfully used as a source of both
slow and fast neutrons for research in neutron physics. Z. Ziriax (Federal Republic of Germany) demon-
strated again the experimental possibilities of the neutron spectrometer used on the base of the isochro-
nous cyclotron in Karlsruhe. Therefore a time-of-flight neutron spectrometer of the nanosecond range
should be put into operation as soon as possible for work with fast neutrons on the base of the U-240 Kiev
cyclotron. The new possibilities which have been opened by spectrometers used on isochronous cyclotrons
facilitate investigations in a wide energy range. The investigations can be made with an accuracy which
the users of nuclear data for nuclear and thermonuclear reactors must have at the present time.
Cross Sections and Other Characteristics of the Fission of Heavy Nuclei by Neutrons. This problem
was considered in a large number of papers (42 Soviet papers and 24 Western papers). The experimental
facts were interpreted from the viewpoint of a double-hump fission barrier in theoretical work and in cal-
culations. It was unanimously noted that, though there does not exist a straightforward experiment con-
firming the existence of a double-hump barrier, all the experimental evidence can presently be described
only with the assumption of a barrier of this form.
The reports of the foreign participants (G. Specht and G. Pauli, Federal Republic of Germany; G.
Blanc, France; Ch. Sykos, Hungary, and others) have shown that the concept of a double-hump barrier
has been generally accepted and forms an important theoretical basis for new experiments and the de-
velopment of new concepts.
It is very important to increase the accuracy of measurements of fission cross sections in a wide
energy interval and to improve the absolute measurements of fission cross sections. As in the past, ex-
periments with 252Cf are of great interest both in regard to a deeper understanding of the fission process
and to obtaining reliable constants for relative measurements using 252Cf as a standard. The work en-
compasses detailed investigations of spectra of fission neutrons, emission times, and angular distribu-
tions. Attention was directed to the important role of the isotropic component of the spectrum of fission
neutrons and to the need for further research on the problem.
The results of the latest measurements of fission cross sections of heavy isotopes of plutonium at
energies of 1-7 MeV and precise values of the fission cross sections of 235U, 238U, 237Np, and 239PU as ob-
tained on the spectrum of the neutrons from 252Cf fission were reported. For example, the fission cross
section for 235U was obtained with an error of 1.5% (1265 I 19 mbar).
Results of excellent accuracy and resolution obtained in measurements made on 237Np, 238u, 243Am
and 239Ri, 241Am nuclei were described by D. Paye (France) and in the report by K. Attley (Great Britain)
on measurements of the fission cross section of 239Pu and the ratio of the fission cross sections of 238U
and 2"U.
Experimental Techniques of Neutron Physics. The problems related to obtaining and forming intense
beams of cold polarized neutrons, the construction of pulsed sources of fast neutrons, and the automation
of both collection and evaluation of data were considered. Some reports were devoted to neutron detec-
tion systems. The report "Neutron Sources and the Use of Laser Techniques" found great interest. It
was shown in that report that it is possible to build pulsed sources with excellent parameters in regard to
duration and intensity of the neutron pulse. The fact that it is possible to obtain cold polarized neutrons
with high yield indicates that the reactor as a neutron source can be used on a broader scale in neutron
physics research. Experimentalists and users of nuclear data are very interested, as in the past, in
pulsed sources of resonance neutrons and fast neutrons. The participants of the Conference received with
satisfaction the communication that the linear "FAKEL" accelerator has been put into operation U. V.
Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, Moscow) and that the first stage of the GNEIS spectrometer has
been built on the base of the phasotron of the Leningrad Institute of Nuclear Physics. The construction of
a fast neutron spectrometer on the base of the isochronous U-240 cyclotron in the Institute of Nuclear
Research of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR is expected in the near future.
Of the communications of foreign scientists, the report of M. Ashgar (France) on the construction of
the LOHENGRIN spectrometer for undelayed fission products caused greatest interest. Since this device
has been put into operation on the most powerful research reactor in Grenoble, detailed information on
some characteristics of fission products has been obtained and the outlook on future work is very promis-
ing.
96
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
The Conferences on Neutron Physics, which have become a matter of tradition, are accepted with
increasing interest. These conferences promote the exchange of opinions, ideas, and information and
further fruitful discussions. All this stimulates further progress in this important field of nuclear
physics.
The next conference on Neutron Physics will be held in 1977.
97
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
SCIENTIFIC SEMINAR ON THE COMPLEX
OPTIMIZATION OF POWER INSTALLATIONS
Yu. I. Koryakin
The first session of the All-Union Scientific Seminar on complex methods of optimizing installations
for the conversion of thermal and nuclear energy into electrical power was held on September 23-26, 1975,
in the Siberian Power Institute, Siberian Branch, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, in the city of Irkutsk.
The theme of this session was based on mathematical methods of simulating and optimizing the parameters
of nuclear power stations, the form of the technological arrangements, and the profile of the equipment.
Some 55 members of 21 organizations took part in the seminar; 27 contributions were presented and dis-
cussed. The President of the Seminar was Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
L. S. Popyrin.
The papers may be roughly divided into the following groups: general questions regarding the mathe-
matical simulation of nuclear power stations (nine papers); the mathematical simulation and optimization
of nuclear reactors (six papers); the mathematical simulation of the heat-engineering parts of nuclear
power stations (seven papers); mathematical models of nuclear/thermal power systems.
Practical experience of recent years has shown that many problems in nuclear power development,
from the determination of the basic systems involved in its progress to the optimization of the parameters
characterizing nuclear power stations (in part or whole) may and should be solved by using mathematical
models (simulation). Mathematical simulation supplements design computations in relation to nuclear
power stations; it facilitates the solution of problems associated with tnultivariant optimization proce-
dures as applied to the technical and economic indices (chiefly in the initial design stages). Such problems
arise in connection with multiparameter optimization, the indeterminacy and inaccuracy of the initial in-
formation, and the shortcomings of computing methods, and efficiency criteria, and also in connection
with the continuous correction of technical solutions during the design process. Calculations based on the
mathematical models of reactors and nuclear power stations may well reveal any promising tendencies as
regards the combination of parameters, provide a great deal of information for engineering analysis, and
point out the best directions for more detailed design and computing work.
One of the most important fields of application of mathematical models is the complex optimization
of the objects of investigation, i.e., the deliberate selection of those values of the defining constructional
and technical indices of the object (with due allowance for technical limitations) which will correspond to
the optimum value of the chosen efficiency criterion (i.e., the target function, which is most frequently
the calculated losses).
In order to provide a better understanding of the hierarchy of the mathematical models used in
nuclear power, two papers regarding the mathematical simulation of a nuclear power system were pre-
sented to the Seminar. The results of model calculations indicate a strong link between the indices of
nuclear power stations as objects of simulation and the indices of a real system of nuclear power stations;
they also indicate the influence of methodological requirements and conditions on the approach to the meth-
od of attack, and the choice of limitations in the complex simulation of the nuclear power station itself.
Since the Seminar was essentially of a methodical nature and also the first of its kind, it was im-
portant to acquaint the participants as broadly as possible with the simulation procedures adopted by var-
ious organizations. It was also essential to assess the breadth and scale of contemporary research, the
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 82-84, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
98
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
characteristics of various practical approaches, and other practical aspects of particular importance, to
exchange opinions, and to make a concerted attempt at systematizing methods of mathematically simula-
ting nuclear power stations already in use or in immediate prospect. It was therefore appropriate that
the representatives of a fairly large number of organizations using mathematical methods of simulating
nuclear power stations should be present, despite the fact that the main problems of these organizations
in the field of nuclear power development varied quite widely and were concerned both with education and
with the specific construction of various components and equipment for nuclear power stations. In other
words, the main aim of the Seminar was to consider simulation questions broadly rather than deeply. It
was considered that a deeper study of the mathematical simulation of nuclear power stations could be
undertaken better at subsequent Seminars with a smaller number of participants. This should promote
greater practical results in the complex mathematical simulation of nuclear power stations.
The methodical approaches discussed all tended to be similar, but there was a great variety of em-
phasis in the application of models to the objects under study. All the participants of the Seminar empha-
sized the importance of using methods of mathematical simulation for solving scientific-research and
applied problems in nuclear power, in particular the importance and fruitfulness of mathematical simula-
tion from the point of view of time economy and (largely) labor expense. A number of organizations have
already developed models for the complex optimization of nuclear power stations and sections of these,
and have put the models to practical use. In the majority of cases the use of the decomposition principle
was indicated, i.e., the arbitrary division of the nuclear power station into two parts: the "expanded re-
actor" and the "expanded machine room." The first incorporates the reactor and the nuclear steam-
generating equipment, the second incorporates the turbine system and heat-engineering apparatus. These
two subsystems are first optimized in relation to their internal parameters and then matched with respect
to the coupling parameters, which are either fixed or enter as external coupling factors in the subsystem
being optimized. In order to describe the process in hand or the special characteristics of the objects,
the algorithm of the model often employs approximating equations capable of being corrected as more ac-
curate information becomes available. In order to establish the adequacy of the representation of the real
nuclear power station by its mathematical model, the indices of the real object are usually compared with
the indices calculated for the model, using the same initial data. This method has been used, for example,
in the complex optimization of a nuclear power station with a water ?graphite reactor, as described in
the Seminar. Optimization was carried out by reference to the minimum calculated losses; it confirmed
the adequacy of the model with respect to the real object. The majority of indices are determined by means
of approximating equations with an absolute error of less than 10%.
Among other methods currently in use which were described at the Seminar, the "experiment-plan-
ning" method is one of particular importance. The essence of this method lies in the fact that the power
installation (or part of the installation) is represented as a kind of "black box," i.e., the complex physico-
technical relationships between its internal elements need not be kept continuously in view. Only the re-
lationship between the input and output variables is essential. The first of these are the independent
parameters of the power installation (or its elements), the second are the technicoeconomic characteris-
tics, or "response functions," which are represented in the form of regression equations. The experi-
ment lies in calculating the characteristics of the installation; it is carried out not with the real object
but with its mathematical model. Optimization of the thermodynamic cycle of a nuclear power station
using dissociating gas has been carried out by the experiment-planning method.
The Seminar also considered a method of separating essential and inessential factors for the object
or process under consideration (so determining the optimum size of the model), and also the equivalence
method, i.e., the conversion of one mathematical model into another, adequate (to a certain accuracy)
with respect to the former, but simpler in format.
The broad introduction of methods of mathematical simulation into engineering practice reveals the
weak link in this process ? the great amount of labor required from highly qualified programmers in pre-
paring the computing program. Furthermore, the program developed on a "manual" basis is not always
the best possible, since its form and sequence are determined on the basis of the subjective considerations
of the programmers. A paper by L. S. Popyrin described the Siberian Power Institute's improved auto-
mated method for constructing mathematical models of thermal power installations. This approach en-
sures both automation of the majority of the processes involved in setting up auxiliary procedures to de-
scribe individual technological processes and items of equipment, and also the automatic formation of a
mathematical model of the installation in accordance with its technological scheme. This enables the ex-
tremely laborious work relating to the creation of mathematical models to be mechanized and the develop-
ment time shortened by a factor of many tens. Many of the contributions laid main emphasis on the
99
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
mathematical simulation and optimization of the actual active zone of the power reactor. The rest of the
reactor, with its complex combination of engineering devices, which ought also to be the subject of math-
ematical simulation for purposes of optimization, has not yet received sufficient attention.
An important question which arose during the work of the Seminar was that of optimization criteria.
At the top level of the hierarchy of mathematic models in nuclear power engineering, i.e., that concerned
with a whole system of nuclear power stations, it is inevitable that the optimization process should involve
multiple criteria, owing to the wide variety of practical problems and development conditions of the nuclear
power system; at the lower level, i. e., the simulation of individual nuclear power stations and their com-
ponents, single-criterion optimization is better (the function being in the form of the calculated losses).
However, in the course of discussion several participants of the Seminar remarked that this point of view
was not the only one possible: Even in simulating a single nuclear power station (and its components),
multiple-criterion optimization might become vital. Special attention was paid to the importance of using
the criterion of minimum labor expenditure and labor resources. Thus the question as to the optimization
criteria assumes independent significance, and as yet cannot be regarded as clear and agreed from a meth-
odical point of view.
Another subject for discussion at the Seminar was the question of interaction between the human
operator and the mathematical mode. On the whole this amounts to the fact that only strictly limited prob-
lems are susceptible to mathematical simulation, in the presence of duly considered technical decisions,
whereas fundamentally new technical solutions may be created by heuristic methods, which the mathe-
matical model is unable to realize. It was indicated in several papers that at the present time the role of
mathematical simulation in the overall development and design of nuclear power stations is relatively
slight. At the same time, mathematical models realized in electronic computers constitute a most effec-
tive tool for discovering optimum schemes and parameters in power-generating installations. The infor-
mation employed in mathematical simulation is still incomplete. In this connection the importance of
using optimization methods under conditions characterized by the indeterminacy, incompleteness, or low
quality of the original data was emphasized, as well as the importance of creating an information system
for mathematical simulation.
The discussions associated with each of the groups of papers indicated were extemely useful.
On the whole the Seminar laid the basis for the organized comprehension,generalization, and in-
tensification of existing research into this undoubtedly promising new scientific direction, the complex
optimization of nuclear power stations (and their components) by mathematical simulation.
The Seminar papers will shortly be published by the Siberian Power Institute.
100
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
SOVIET ?AMERICAN SEMINAR ON
FAST-BREEDER REACTORS
E. F. Arifmetchikov
In accordance with the collaboration program between the USSR and the USA in the field of fast-
breeder reactors, a seminar on experience and problems in the design and utilization of fast breeders
with sodium as the coolant was held in Obninsk in the summer of 1975. The American participants of the
Seminar were representatives of the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and of
companies working on the planning, the construction, and the utilization of installations having liquid-
metal fast-breeder reactors (LMFBR); other US participants were from national laboratories working on
LMFBR problems. Each side presented 11 reports.
The report of T. Nemseck et al. was concerned with the history of the development and the present
state of the LMFBR program in the USA and the role of both the national laboratories and US industry in
the development of the technological principles, the fuel, the materials, and the components for commer-
cial LMFBR reactors. The other US reports dealt with the construction, the utilization, and experimental
programs of the reactors EBR-II, Enrico Fermi, SEFOR, and FFTF and with the project of an atomic
power station in Clinch River.
In 1974 the original plan of building three demonstrational atomic electric power plants with LMFBR
reactors having a (electrical) power of 300-500 MW was replaced by the plan of building a 350-MW (elec.)
reactor in Clinch River to concentrate the efforts on the completion of large-scale components and on a
prototype of a commercial 1200-1500-MW (elec.) unit. The program envisages the full industrial implemen-
tation of LMFBR reactors by the 1990's. The Hanford Engineering Laboratory and the Design Center of
Liquid Metals in Santa Susannah carry the bulk of the responsibility for the technological aspects of the
LMFBR development work. They develop and test materials, components, and mechanical parts, as well
as instruments for LMFBR reactors. The centers have: the FFTF reactor with a 400-MW thermal power
for testing samples of both materials and fuel (the reactor is to be put into operation in 1978); a high-tem-
perature sodium laboratory for testing huge reactor components in both air and sodium; a chemical engi-
neering laboratory and a fuel-element laboratory (Hanford); stands for testing pumps operating with so-
dium, models of steam generators with a 35-MW thermal power, and models of steam generators with
strong water discharge into sodium; and a stand for the purification of large equipment from sodium, etc.
(Santa Susannah). It is planned to build a laboratory for testing large components of industrial 150-MW
thermal-power LMFBR reactors (PCTF) in sodium, for destructive and nondestructive testing of irradiated
fuel elements, and for the reprocessing of fuel elements.
As far as the aspects of physics are concerned, the program envisages further gathering of nuclear
data of higher accuracy, the development of both a theory and methods of reactor calculations, and the ex-
ecution of integral experiments. The latter make use of the zero-power reactors ZPP-6, ZPR-9, and
ZPPR, of the reactors of the Argonne National Laboratory (AFSR, ATSR), and of the TSF unit. As to the
safety aspects, theoretical and experimental investigations concern disturbances of the fuel-element cool-
ing conditions (OPERA), an experimental investigation of the interaction of melted fuel with sodium when
the coolant circulation is rapidly interrupted (TREAT; LOFT ? Engineering Laboratory in Idaho Falls),
and the possible clogging of the channel in the case of a sudden discharge of gaseous fission products from
a fuel element (FFTF).
The US industry actively participates in the LMFBR work, works on experimental programs, and
develops and produces fuel, materials of the core, and equipment. The Argonne National Laboratory and
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 84-85, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
101
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
TABLE 1. Characteristics of the Cores of
Some Reactors
FFTF
Clinch
River
Industrial
reactor
Thermal power,
400
975
3800
MW
Electrical pow-
er, MV
_
350
1500
Load factor
?
0,75
0,85
Temp. of cool-
ant at entry to
core, ?C
422
388
380
Temp. of cool-
ant at exit
from core, ?C
565
535
538
Fuel
. - Oxide
Oxide
Oxide
Shell
Steel 316
Steel 316
Steel 316
with low
swelling
Ht. and diam.
of core, m
0,914/1,24
0,914/1,89
1.21/3.11
Diam. of fuel
rods, mm
5,8
5,8
6,9
Vol. fraction of
fuel
0,329
0,325
0,342
Heat liberation
(max./ay.),
kW/m
45,9/24,9
47,6/22,9
52,5/36,1
Max. burnup ,
80 000
150 000
150 000
MW ? days/ ton
Muir. factor
?
1,2
1,25
Doubling time,
yrs?
?
23
12-15
the companies Babcock and Wilcox, General Atomics, General Electric, and others are producers of
uranium? plutonium oxides. Carbides are produced by Atomics International, Westinghouse Electric,
and the Los Alamos Laboratory; nitrides are produced by the Batelle Institute and the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory. Various companies and laboratories participate in the development of instrumentation for
the reactors, steam generators, mechanical pumps, etc.
The EBR-II reactor [62.5-MW thermalpower, maximum neutron flux 3 .1015 neutrons/ (cm2 ? sec)] is
presently the main station for the irradiation of materials in the USA. In this reactor the following burnup
rates (% of the heavy atoms) and integral fluxes of fuel irradiation (1023 neutrons/cm2) are reached: for
carbide fuel ? 12 and 1.2, respectively; for metal fuel ? 15 and 1.2, respectively; and for oxide fuel
? 17 and 1.5, respectively. During its ten years of operation, the reactor worked with an average load
level of 42.6%. The low load figure is a consequence mainly of the experimental program and the large
number of actuations of the control and safety rods due to spurious signals (280 since 1966).
The construction and operation of the Atomic Electric Power Plant "Enrico Fermi" (1963-1972) with
a 200-MW thermal power have significantly contributed to the principal design schemes of an atomic elec-
tric power plant using an LMFBR reactor, to reactor technology, to the planning and the design of reac-
tors, to the determination of nuclear characteristics, and to mechanical testing and utilization of large
sodium-containing components of an LMFBR reactor. In 1966-1970, the atomic electric power plant was
repaired because two fuel element assemblies had been partially melted and fission products had entered
into the cooling system. At the end of 1972, the reactor operation was stopped owing to financial difficul-
ties.
The experiments which were made in 1969-1972 on the SEFOR reactor (20-MW thermal power, UO2
? Pu02 fuel, sodium as the coolant) have convincingly proved stability and safety of operation of fast
breeders having a composition, neutron spectrum, and temperature distribution typical for huge LMFBR
reactors.
102
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
The next stage in the Anerican LMFBR program concerns the construction of a large experimental
center for critical testing of fuel elements and materials in the FFTF reactor whose release is provided
for 1978. The experimental conditions in the FFTF reactor allow a sodium-exit temperature of as high
as 760?C and a maximum neutron flux of 1.3 .1016 neutrons/ (cm2. sec). The construction of the FFTF re-
actor is completed to about 40%.
In 1973 work on the project of a demonstrational atomic electric power plant in Clinch River was
initiated. The construction work is to begin in 1975 and the reactor is to become critical in 1982. The
experience gathered with the LWR and FFTF reactors will be brought into account to the greatest pos-
sible extent in the projecting work and the construction of the Clinch River installation. Sufficient space
for easy assembly of the huge components of the installation has been provided; models and prototypes
have been used for the planning of the construction. Table 1 lists some project characteristics of the
cores of the FFTF reactor, the Clinch River reactor, and an industrial reactor.
The Soviet reports were devoted to the experience gathered in the utilization of the fast breeder
(BR-5, BOR-60, and BN-350) installations working in the USSR, to problems and engineering aspects of
the projecting of fast breeders for industrial applications and, more specifically, to the selection and op-
timization of the characteristics, to the creation of cold traps for sodium impurities, to the purification
of the protective gas from vapors and sodium aerosols, to the preparation of the coolant, etc. V. V.
Orlov reported in his review on the basic stages of more than 25 years of USSR work on fast breeders.
The experience, which has been accumulated, made it possible to start the construction of industrial pilot-
types of fast breeders (BN-350 and BN-600) and to develop an industrial 1600 MW (elec.) reactor. However,
the development of reliable steam generators, achieving high reproducibility, the solution of problems re-
lated to the chemical refining of the fuel, and obtaining competitive economic parameters relative to ther-
mal reactors are preconditions for the industrial implementation of fast breeder reactors.
103
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON "DEVELOPMENT
AND APPLICATION OF ELECTRON ACCELERATORS"
A. N. Didenko and V. K. Kononov
The traditional 9th Conference on Electron Accelerators took place from Sept. 3-5, 1975, in the
Tomsk Polytechnical Institute. The first Conference on Electron Accelerators was held exactly 20 years
ago. Since then these conferences were regularly convened in intervals of about 2 yr.
The present conference was an interesting example. About 400 scientists and engineers from 69
organizations of the Soviet Union participated. In addition to representatives of the well-known accelera-
tor centers of the USSR, the co-workers of teachings organizations, scientific institutions, and industrial
enterprises using accelerator devices in various fields of science and technology participated in the con-
ference.
More than 300 reports were presented to the plenary session and the 11 sections. Besides that,
there were sessions of the subsections "Superconducting Elements of Accelerators" and "Microtrons" of
the Scientific Council of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR on problems related to the acceleration of
charged particles. Review reports dealt with the state and the chances of investigations made with elec-
tron accelerators in nuclear physics and hypernuclear physics (G. A. Sokol, Moscow), with problems of
the development of high-current electron accelerators and their utilization (A. N. Didenko, Tomsk), with
the state and the future chances of the development of linear accelerators for low and medium energies
(0.A. Val'dner, Moscow), of microtrons (V. N. Melekhin, Moscow), and of cyclic inductive accelerators with a
constant guiding field (V. L. Chakhlov, Tomsk), and with the chances of using synchrotron radiation (A.
A. Sokolov, Moscow). All reports presented to the sessions of the various sections can be subdivided in-
to the following three subject groups: 1) development, construction, and improvement of classical elec-
tron accelerators (synchrotrons, betatrons, microtrons, and linear accelerators); 2) development and
construction of straightforward high-current electron accelerators and the investigation of new accelera-
tion methods with these accelerators; and 3) utilization of electron accelerators in various fields of the
national economy.
The reports of the first group were discussed in four sections. The reports of the Scientific-Re-
search Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Tomsk Polytechnical Institute on the modernization of the "Sir-
ius" synchrotron (extraction of the electron beam, generation of a "plateau" on the pulse of the magnetic
field, and generation of a beam of polarized electrons) were received with great interest. At the present
time the electron beam is extracted with an efficiency of up to 60%; a "plateau" with a length of 22 msec
and a stability of +0.15% is created on the pulse of the magnetic field. The co-workers of the All-Union
Scientific-Research Institute of Opticophysical Measurements reported on the construction of an ironless
50-MeV synchrotron as an intensity standard for the vacuum ultraviolet. Work done in the Institute of
Nuclear Physics of the Siberian Division of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR on increasing the beam
intensity of the B-4 synchrotron (injector and storage device VEPP-3) and in the Physics Institute of the
Academy of Sciences on the slow extraction of electrons from the "Pakhra" synchrotron was reported and
caused great interest.
The sessions of the section "Betatrons" in which 28 communications were reported dealt with the de-
velopment of inductive accelerators. Certain progress, which was made in the development of new induc-
tive accelerators and their utilization in industry and medicine, was noted. New small-size pulsed MIB-3
and MIB-6 betatrons were developed in the Tomsk Polytechnical Institute. The dose rate of these beta-
trons was increased more than 10 times. A compact high-power 25-MeV betatron with a weight two times
Translated from Atomnaya fnergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 85-87, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
104
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
smaller than that of previous models was also built in the Tomsk Polytechnical Institute. Multiorbit
betatrons and betatron complexes (Tomsk Polytechnical Institute, Tomsk), inductive accelerators with
constant controlling field (Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences, Moscow; Scientific-Research
Institute of Nuclear Physics, Tomsk), and ironless inductive accelerators (Leningrad State University,
Leningrad) have been developed and built. New methods of generating controlling fields in betatrons have
been designed.
Twenty two reports from 8 organizations were presented to the section "Microtrons and Linear Ac-
celerators." A sector microtron for 25 MeV, which is to be used for the injection of electrons into the
"Pakhra" synchrotron, is being built in the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences. The Saratov
State University does extensive work on the construction of microtrons and on the improvement of their
components. The great success attained by the Scientific-Research Institute EFA (Leningrad) and by the
Moscow Engineering Physics Institute in the building of serial linear accelerators and their utilization in
medicine and the national economy was outlined.
The results of work on the development of superconducting accelerator elements were discussed for
the first time in a conference. The Scientific-Research Institute of Nuclear Physics (Tomsk), the Scien-
tific-Research Institute (EFA, the Physicotechnical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR (Khar'kov), and the Radiotechnical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Moscow) have
been most successful in this field. Results of investigations on superconducting resonators and on meth-
ods of treating and protecting their surfaces were reported by the co-workers of the Scientific-Research
Institute of Nuclear Physics (Tomsk). Methods of nuclear physics were used for the first time in this
work to analyze the state of the surface of a superconducting material. The co-workers of the Scientific
Research Institute EFA told of an investigation of the parameters of a superconducting resonator of the
10-cm band made of niobium. The resonator was designated for an experimental superconducting 5-MeV
electron accelerator.
A communication by representatives of the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Electrothermal
Tooling (Moscow) on the development of an electrical superhigh vacuum furnace for the annealing of super-
conducting resonators was accepted with great attention. The basic design parameters of the unit are:
temperature of operation 2200?C, pressure at the temperature of operation 10-8 mm Hg, and diameter and
height of the articles to be annealed 250 and 500 mm, respectively. This furnace, which was built by order
of the Radiotechnical Institute, has been brought to the Scientific-Research Institute of Nuclear Physics in
Tomsk and assembled in it. The subsection "Superconducting Accelerator Elements" recommended that
the work of all organizations capable of performing investigations with the aid of the furnace should be co-
ordinated.
Reports of the second group caused very great interest. The reports were discussed in three sec-
tions. Twenty seven reports from 11 organizations were presented to the section "Straightforward Ac-
celerators." Most of the reports dealt with the results of development work on straightforward high-cur-
rent accelerators with energies of up to 2 MeV and currents of several ten thousand amperes in nanosecond
or microsecond pulses. Several organizations reported on the development of new accelerators of this
type. The large number of reports indicates that extensive work is being done in the USSR on the develop-
ment of these accelerators and that these accelerators are increasingly used in modern science and technol-
ogy. Particular interest in accelerators generating microsecond beams with a power in excess of 1 GW
was noted in the reports. The participants of the conference were informed of the new Tonus-II accelera-
tor of the Scientific-Research Institute of Nuclear Physics (Tomsk), which makes it possible to obtain 1.5-
MeV electron beams with a current of 20 kA and a pulse duration of up to 7 ?sec.
The reports were also concerned with physics research which is done with the aid of high-current
electron accelerators. As far as the subject matter is concerned, these reports can be divided into four
groups. The first group works on the theory and on experiments of self-acceleration and was represented
by the Physicotechnical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR and the 101artkov State
University, the Scientific-Research Institute of Nuclear Physics (Tomsk), and the Physics Institute of the
Academy of Sciences and the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute (Moscow). The main efforts are now
directed to removing the low-energy component of electron beams. The second group of reports, which
were presented by the Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics (Moscow), the Joint Institute of
Nuclear Research (Dubna), and the Scientific-Research Institute of Nuclear Physics (Tomsk) is concerned
with the development of electron rings. The Conference approved work done in this field and recommended
to the scientists working in this field that they improve the coordination in the development of both the
105
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
mathematics and the automation of experiments on collective acceleration techniques. The third group
considered the acceleration of ions in straight beams; the fourth group discussed the generation and
transfer of powerful electron beams and their interaction with various media.
The utilization of electron accelerators in various fields of the national economy was considered in
116 reports from 52 organizations. The reports concerned the state and the chances of utilizing electron
accelerators for nondestructive testing methods, for radiation chemistry, for radioactivation analysis,
and for nuclear physics and medicine. The utilization of synchrotron radiation in physics experiments
was discussed in a special section.
The resolution of the conference reflected the proposals and recommendations of the sections in
regard to extending the work on electron accelerators. The conference was useful and up to date.
106
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
7TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
CYCLOTRONS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
N. I. Venikov
The above conference took place in Zurich (Switzerland) between Aug. 19-22, 1975. About 250
specialists from 22 countries participated in the conference; 55 reports were read and 70 reports were
presented for information of the participants. Summarizing the main topics of the conference, it is noted
that the technology of cyclotrons has branched out in the last few years: the number of operating cyclotrons
increases rapidly, meson factories using isochronous cyclotrons and synthrocyclotrons have been put into
operation, superconductivity was introduced into the technology of cyclotrons, new areas have been de-
veloped, and the old areas of cyclotron applications have been expanded.
Meson Factories. Two meson factories making use of huge isochronous cyclotrons (the SIN in
Switzerland and the "Triumph" in Canada) have been put into operation; two other meson factories making
use of synchrocyclotrons (CERN and Columbia University, USA) are working now. An external 590-MeV
proton beam of about 30 ?A, up to 95% of which are transmitted through a ring cyclotron, were obtained in
the SIN accelerator; polarized protons have been accelerated and beams for physics experiments and
practical applications have been introduced on a large scale. Owing to the beam losses (-30%) during the
acceleration process, the external beam, with an energy of about 500 MeV, of the "Triumph" cyclotron
reaches at most 0.3 ?A, though 48 ?A are reached in pulses. At the beginning of 1976 the average current
was raised to 10 pA; the average current is to be increased to 100 ?A in 1977. In the external beam of
the CERN synchrocyclotron, several microamperes have been reached and the efficiency of the extraction
system is as high as 70%. The internal beam of the Columbia University synchrocyclotron reaches several
microamperes and work on beam extraction is in progress.
The participants were impressed by the project of the Laboratory of Nuclear Problems of the Joint
Institute of Nuclear Research to develop a "supermeson factory" based on an isochronous cyclotron with
an external beam intensity of several hundred milliamperes and a 800-MeV energy. This is possible in
an external beam, provided that the extraction efficiency is 100%. This efficiency figure can be reached
when one uses a new method of extracting the beam from an isochronous cyclotron. The method was pro-
posed and developed by the co-workers of the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research and termed "method of
expanding closed orbits in periodic magnetic fields."
Acceleration of Heavy Ions. As in the past, the interest in accelerating heavy ions has increased.
Both operating cyclotrons and cyclotrons to be put into operation have been adapted to accelerate heavy
ions; projects of new, cyclotrons and setups with cyclotrons have been worked out. Work on the improve-
ment of existing sources of multiply charged ions and the development of new sources of such ions are in
progress. All proposals on the development of superconducting cyclotrons are directed to the acceleration
of heavy ions (Michigan University, Chalk River, Oak Ridge, Berkeley). The reports of the conference
dealt with both cyclotrons accelerating heavy ions (the most important of these cyclotrons are in Dubna,
Berkeley, and Oak Ridge) and with existing proposals and projects. At the present time heavy ions are
accelerated in at least 17 cyclotrons all over the world; records in regard to the selection of ions and the
ion intensity have been set by the Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions of the Joint Institute of Nuclear Re-
search, by Berkeley, and by Oak Ridge. Though new sources of multiply charged ions (laser sources,
electron beam sources) have been developed and studied in many laboratories, the dominating opinion is
that Penning sources of multiply charged ions will be most efficient for cyclotrons for a long time to
come. The source having a heated cathode and used in the cyclotrons of the Laboratory of Nuclear Reac-
tions of the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research is the best form of the Penning source.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 87-88, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system: or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
107
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
One must consider separately the acceleration of "semiheavy" ions, lithium and beryllium ions,
which are of great interest for nuclear physics research. Lithium and beryllium ions were accelerated
for the first time in the entire world in the cyclotron of the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy
and, as far as the intensity of the source is concerned, the source of the Institute of Atomic Energy has
not been surpassed. The same ions are now obtained with similar intensity in the Berkeley cyclotron,
but the ions issue from a completely different source. Triple-charged lithium ions were also accelerated
in the Karlsruhe cyclotron (with an intensity of 0.005 /.1A, which is by two orders of magnitude lower than
the intensity of the triple-charged lithium ions in the external beam of the Institute of Atomic Energy).
There exist plans to generate these ions in the 0.1 11A internal beam of the recently finished cyclotron of
Indiana (USA).
Several proposals concerning the acceleration of heavy ions in cyclotrons and synchrocyclotrons
which are in operation, being built, or in the project stage were presented to the Conference. In 1976
the heavy-ion complex of the WIKSI (=Wissenschaftliches Institut Mr Kernforschung + SI) in West Berlin
is to be put into operation. This complex comprises the existing electrostatic 6-MeV accelerator-injector
and a 4-sector ring cyclotron. The complex can be used to accelerate ions up to argon ions with an energy
of up to 200 MeV. It seems that in the same year heavy ions will be obtained in the external beam of the
Indiana (USA) cyclotron complex. This complex comprises an electrostatic 600-kV accelerator and two
ring cyclotrons. It was planned to put this complex into operation in 1972, but the operation was delayed
for several reasons. One of the Oak Ridge projects is in the final stage; according to a contact with ORNL,
the National Electrostatic Corporation builds an electrostatic charge-reversing vertical H-shaped acceler-
ator with a conductor potential of up to 25 MV. The total cost of this accelerator is 8.1 million dollars.
A beam will be obtained for the first time in 1979. After a charge-reversing injection of a heavy ion beam
into the existing ORIC cyclotron and the acceleration of the ions in the cyclotron, ions with an energy ex-
ceeding the Coulomb barrier energy of uranium will be available for experiments with ions having a mass
of up to 160. It was suggested to replace the ORIC cyclotron by four separate magnets with BR = 25 KG ?
m, which would make it possible to generate uranium ions with an energy of up to 10 MeV/nucleon and
carbon ions with an energy of up to 75 MeV/nucleon. This project can become operative in 1981.
Extensive work is done on the French GA NIL project whose completion is planned for 1980. This
project comprises a small cyclotron injector and two large ring cyclotrons with separate magnets and
charge-reversing injection. The plan is to accelerate ions up to uranium ions with an energy of 8 MeV/
nucleon. It has been proposed to accelerate heavy ions in the CERN synchrocyclotrons (ions up to neon
with an energy of 70 MeV/nucleon) and in Uppsala (Sweden).
Utilization of Superconductivity in Cyclotrons. First suggestions with a solid foundation have been
made in 1973 in regard to building a cyclotron with a superconducting base coil; these suggestions were
made almost simultaneously in three laboratories, viz., in Chalk River, Berkeley, and Michigan Univer-
sity. All these proposals make use of the rich world-wide experience in the construction of large super-
conducting bubble chambers; the proposals comprise a fully stabilized niobium?titanium superconductor
in a copper matrix, the cryostat and the refrigerators resembling in their design the components of bubble
chambers, etc. The most important aspect of these projects is that the high-frequency system and the
correction coils of the steel sectors are used at normal temperature. The azimuthal variation of the mag-
netic field is produced by saturated steel sectors rather than by superconducting coils. Michigan Univer-
sity has received an allocation for the building of a superconducting magnet with a cryogenic system for a
cyclotron having three-sector structure with BR = 46 kG ? m and an ejection radius of 0.65 m (K = 440).
The ejection problem was solved mainly by creating a magnetic field which breaks off sharply at increas-
ing radii and by using a pair of electrostatic deflectors with a high gradient; the ejection problem was,
first of all, solved by a magnetic shield in the form of a superconducting tube made from a50-,u Nb3Sn
superconductor. This tube was already prepared in Stanford and its inspection has been initiated. The
magnet costs 0.7 million dollars.
The project of a superconducting cyclotron for the Chalk-River Laboratory is estimated at 2.2 mil-
lion dollars; the cyclotron is to become operative in 1980. The average magnetic field is 50 kG and the
exit radius is also 0.65 m. The injection into the cyclotron is effected from an existing electrostatic
charge-reversing 13-MV accelerator. The ejection problems have not yet been fully resolved. It was
proposed to generate uranium ions with an energy of up to 10 MeV/nucleon and carbon ions with an energy
of up to 50 MeV/nucleon. The proposal of the Berkeley Laboratory considers two forms of superconducting
cyclotrons which differ only by their geometrical dimensions (K = 400 and K = 800). One of the two forms
108
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
will be selected as a post-accelerator for the existing SUPERHIGHLAC or the 88-inch cyclotron. This
will make it possible to reach the range of very heavy ions with an energy of several dozen MeV per
nucleon. The basic difference to the above projects is that the required radial profile of the magnetic
field is developed with the aid of the main superconducting coil which is divided in vertical direction into
sections (the sections are separately supplied). The cost of the superconducting cyclotrons is 4.9 million
dollars for K = 400 and 7.8 million dollars for K = 800. If these cyclotrons were not made superconduc-
ting, the costs would increase to 10.3 and 18 million dollars, respectively, i.e., by more than a factor of
two.
Greatest attention should be paid to the proposal made by the Oak Ridge Laboratory that the coil of
the ORIC cyclotron should be replaced by a superconducting coil while simultaneously the steel yoke should
be reinforced (an additional steel mass of 1500 t should be added). This allows to increase four times
the ampere-windings of the coil and to raise almost two times the average magnetic field strength (from
18.6 to 33.9 kG), i.e., it should be possible to increase K from 90 to 300.
The utilization of cyclotrons in other fields, particularly in medicine, increases at a higher rate
than in nuclear physics. Compact isochronous cyclotrons have been installed in many hospitals. Widely
discussed were proposals for a cyclotron which is optimal from the viewpoint of medicine and which allows
cancer therapy with protons (proton energy 150-200 MeV) and the preparation of large quantities of radio
isotopes required for disease diagnostics. Other applications of cyclotrons are expanded, e.g., the sim-
ulation of radiation defects of reactor materials and the radio activation analysis of superpure materials,
mainly semiconductor materials and materials for reactors. New applications have come up; the cyclo-
tron in Winnipeg (Canada) is extensively used to determine the amounts of protein in various cereals,
whereas the cyclotrons in Melbourne (Australia) and Davis (USA) are used to analyze environmental con-
tamination.
Some cyclotrons in the Federal Republic of Germany and in Great Britain are used to determine the
wear of parts of machines (wheels of box cars, pinions, ball bearings, etc.) and the corrosion of construc-
tions; in this case surface activation with a beam of accelerated particles is employed.
The conference also dealt with problems related to the automated control and the computer control
of cyclotrons, with high-quality systems, magnetic systems, beam dynamics, beam injection, beam ejec-
tion, and beam transfer.
The next conference on cyclotrons and their application will be held in Aug.-Sept. 1978 in the USA.
109
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
CONFERENCE ON LASER ENGINEERING
AND APPLICATIONS
V. Yu. Baranov and N. G. Koval'skii
This conference took place in the summer of 1975 in Washington. Similar conferences are or-
ganized by the Optical Society of America and the Committee on Quantum Electronics every other year and
are a broad forum at which the latest accomplishments in various fields of laser applications are reported
and the most interesting technical problems associated with lasers and the optical elements used in laser
systems are discussed. Approximately 1400 people took part in the 1975 conference. The majority of the
participants were representatives of U.S. research laboratories and industrial firms. The number of
foreign experts (USSR, England, Canada, France, West Germany, Japan) did not exceed 150. About 200
talks were given which were divided into 19 sections according to themes. Each day three sections ran
simultaneously in morning and evening sessions.
The conference covered a wide range of questions. Judging from the talks, there is great interest
at present in a number of countries in the problem of laser isotope separation. However, no practical re-
sults were reported at the conference. As a rule, only individual physical experiments and theoretical
considerations were presented. At the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Solarz has conducted experi-
ments on the photoionization cross sections and lifetimes of excited states in uranium vapors at 2000?K.
Here a commercial N2 laser was used to pump a dye laser. At Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory the cop-
per isotopes 63Cu and 65Cu were obtained by irradiating copper and iodine vapors with an argon ion laser.
As always, there was great interest in the talks presented by the staff of the Institute of Spectroscopy of
the Academy of Sciences of theUSSR. R. V. Ambartsumyan, N. V. Chekalin, Yu. A. Gorokhov, V. S.
Letokhov, G. P. Makarov, and E. A. Ryabov have for the first time obtained macroscopic isotope separa-
tion with a CO2 laser using isotopically selective dissociation of complex molecules in the high radiation
field. Experiments were done on the separation of the isotopes 1013 and 11B by dissociation of BC13 and an
enrichment coefficient of about 2800 was obtained for the sulfur isotope 34S by dissociation of SF6 molecules.
The talk by V. N. Bagratashvili and others (also of the Institute of Spectroscopy) described the basic char-
acteristics of a high pressure CO2 laser with smoothly tunable frequency over a wide band. At a pressure
of 5 atm the tuning range was 50 cm-1. With this laser infrared luminescence resonances of ethylene in
the visible range have been observed. The study of these resonances is important for understanding the
mechanism of isotopically selective molecular dissociation.
The papers on the laser fusion program were presented mainly by physicists from Los Alamos and
Livermore and can be divided into the following groups.
1. Theoretical and experimental studies of effects accompanying the propagation of subnanosecond
light pulses through the amplifier cascades of powerful neodymium glass lasers; analysis and use of soft
diaphragms and spatial filters for prevention of self-focussing of laser beams; choice of materials for
optical elements; and perfection of disc amplifiers to avoid parasitic oscillations.
2. Discussion of the design of the large neodymium glass and CO2 laser systems with energies of
about 10 kJ in a short pulse which are under construction at this time in US laboratories.
3. Reports on the results of the latest experiments on demonstration of the compression of spheri-
cal glass targets, filled with a deuterium?tritium mixture, by laser pulses with energies of several tens
of Joules. To achieve spherical symmetry in energy deposition on the compressible target when working
with one or two laser beams, the surface of the glass sphere is coated with a layer of low Z material
(ablator).
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 89-90, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
110
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
4. The search for new gaseous media for powerful pulsed lasers in the range of 0.3-0.6 ?. Ameri-
can scientists believe that such lasers might be used in future thermonuclear power stations.
The talk by E. Teller before the start of the session on the use of lasers in thermonuclear research
attracted great interest. In his opinion, thanks to work done at the KMS Company and at Los Alamos and
Livermore, the possibility of laser initiated controlled thermonuclear fusion, first mentioned in 1972,
has now become real. Apparently, in the next three or four years thermonuclear reactions will be demon-
strated in compressed and heated deuterium ? tritium targets. The basis for this conclusion is the rather
good agreement between experimental and theoretical results. Construction of commercial laser-driven
thermonuclear reactors is complicated by so much technical difficulty that energy will be obtained from
such systems only in the 21st century. However, it may be hoped that in the next few decades high-power
lasers will be widely used for isotope separation to great economic effect. Teller noted that the Russians
do not lag behind the US in the application of lasers.
A large research program was described by the Livermore staff. In that laboratory a two-beam
laser, "Janus" (20 J in each beam with pulse duration 100 psec), and a single beam laser, "Cyclops" (270
J in a 200-psec pulse), have been built and are working. Both machines are neodymium glass laser sys-
tems with disk amplifiers 35, 85, and 200 mm in diameter in the final stages. The goal of the Janus ex-
periments is to demonstrate the compression effect in a spherical target. Along with the standard methods
of determining the plasma temperature from soft x-rays using filters, x-ray pinhole cameras, and spec-
troscopic analysis of radiation scattered by the plasma, an x-ray image converter is being built directly
on the test chamber to make streak photographs with a time resolution of 10 nsec. An x-ray microscope
has been developed and is being used successfully. Of undoubted interest are the measurements of the
energy spectra of the alpha particles produced in the D-T fusion reaction. At the relatively low (about
106) neutron yields in present laser target experiments it is extremely difficult to analyze the energy spec-
trum of the neutrons. Thus, this method is very useful and, apparently, makes it possible to judge
whether the neutrons are of thermonuclear or nonthermonuclear origin.
On the Cyclops machine work is being done to perfect optical elements for laser systems, and to
test soft diaphrams, spatial filters, and Faraday rotators. Various ways of battling parasitic oscillations
in disc amplifiers are being studied. In fact, the Cyclops laser is a module for later multibeam systems.
At Livermore work has begun on construction of the Argus system which will consist of two Cyclops lasers
operating in parallel.
Work is proceeding at a fairly fast rate on construction of the 20-beam "Shiva" system, which will
have an energy of 10 kJ in a short pulse. According to the plans, the experiments are to begin in the end
of 1977. With this machine, American scientists hope to obtain significant thermonuclear energy yields
(10-20% of the laser energy delivered to the target) in 1977-1979, and in the next year or two it may be
possible to proceed to experiments in which the energy release is on the order of the laser pulse energy.
The possibility is foreseen of operating at the second and fourth harmonics of the neodymium laser light.
The Livermore staff members also presented a talk on a pulsed CO2 laser (project "Valkyrie") with
an energy of 50 J in a?1-nsec pulse. The amplifier stages have been built by the Maxwell company. When
it acts on a 5-?-thick CH2 foil, about 6% of the CO2 laser light at a power density of 1014W/cm2 is back-
scattered into a solid angle of 0.1 Sr. Work on pulsed CO2 lasers for thermonuclear studies is being ac-
tively done at Los Alamos. The master oscillator and the preamplifier chain form al-nsec pulse, which
is divided into two parts, expanded, and sent into the two chambers of the final amplifier, which are lo-
cated on both sides of a cathode from which electron beams excite the working gas mixture in both cham-
bers at once. After amplification, the energy in each of the two beams, at a diameter of 35 cm, is 1.25 kJ.
The machine is one of four modules of a projected 10-kJ laser system.
Interesting results have been obtained by McCall's group at Los Alamos in a study of the processes
responsible for the anomalously low thermal conductivity of the plasma formed when spherical and plane
solid targets are irradiated at supercritical densities. Experiments have been conducted on two machines.
One of these is a two-beam neodymium laser with an energy of 30 J in each beam and a pulse length of 150
nsec, and the other is a singre-beam CO2 laser with a 150-J, 1.5-nsec pulse.
Also attracting interest is the work of Sheppert (Los Alamos) in which a number of subtle effects
have been studied which have an important effect on the operation of CO2 lasers. Simultaneous lasing on
several lines has been achieved by placing cells with different gases (ilegaz, butane, etc.) in the cavity.
When amplifying short pulses, the dispersion effects may differ for different rotational?vibrational
111
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
transitions so the total pulse after amplification may be longer. The time variation in the rotational tem-
perature was analyzed, the maximum efficiency of a CO2 laser was estimated theoretically, and a method
was proposed and.the technology explored for measuring the size of the focal spot and energy density (using
a diffraction grating).
German scientists (G. Brederlau et al. at Garching) presented a design for an iodine laser, "Asterix
III," with an energy of 1 kJ in a nanosecond pulse at a wavelength of 1.315 pt. Its use in thermonuclear re-
search was proposed.
It should be noted that a large-scale effort is under way in the US to study new active gaseous laser
media. In particular, much attention is devoted to the development of chemical lasers, metal vapor lasers,
and lasers using mixtures of noble gases and oxygen.
112
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
SOVIET ?AMERICAN WORKING MEETING ON
OPEN TRAPS
D. A. Panov
A Soviet?American working meeting on the problems of plasma containment and stability in open
traps was held from Sept. 15-21, 1975 in Novosibirsk at Akademgorodok. The meeting was organized
within the framework of the agreement on scientific and technical cooperation between the USSR and the
USA.
The center of attention was a discussion of the results of studies of collisional plasmas in minimum
B traps: PR-6, PR-7 (I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, Moscow), 2X2, and 2X2B (Lawrence
Livermore Laboratory, California). -A plasma of density up to 3 .1012 cm-3 with an ion temperature of
about 0.5 keV is investigated in the PR-6 and PR-7 machines. Observations of the decay of the plasma
have shown that after some period of tability, oscillations develop in the plasma which are produced by
anomalously rapid particle losses through the magnetic mirrors. A number of previous experiments
show that the delay in the development of the instability is connected with the stabilizing effect of the cold
plasma which lies outside the region of containment of the hot plasma. To investigate this effect an addi-
tional pulsed winding was installed in the PR-6 to develop a flux of lines of force between the plasma in-
jector and mirror regions. It is shown that this flux discontinuity, in breaking contact between the cold
and hot plasma, is in fact, accompanied by the onset of an instability.
Along with studies of plasma confinement physics, the "X" series machines at Livermore are also
intended to gradually achieve thermonuclear reactor parameters. A significant step in this direction has
been made on the 2X2B machine, on which experiments were begun in the summer of 1975, shortly before
the beginning of this meeting. A beam of fast atoms with energies of 10-20 keV and intensities of up to
370 equivalent amperes was injected into a plasma target (produced as in. the 2X2, by injection of a plasma
and then compressing it adiabatically). A plasma with very high parameters has been obtained in the ex-
periments, which because of insufficient time cannot be regarded as complete: density 4 .1013 cm-3, ion
temperature 13 keV, containment time 5 msec or more, and ratio of the kinetic to the magnetic pressure
k3 = 0.4. An unchanging condition for creating a plasma with these parameters is stabilization of the in-
stability of the cold plasma which is being injected into the target throughout the buildup along the magne-
tic field lines. Injection of fast atoms with the flux of cold plasma turned off was accompanied by the de-
velopment of powerful oscillations at a frequency close to the ion cyclotron frequency and by plasma decay
with a time constant of about 100 ?sec. Thus, the experiments at the Institute of Atomic Energy and at
Livermore have shown that if special measures are not taken in minimum B traps, an instability develops
and is accompanied by anomalous plasma losses. At the same time, the instability can be stabilized by a
cold plasma flux. The results of experiments on the Ogra-3 machine (Kurchatov Institute) in which a feed-
back system was used to suppress the flute instability of a simple mirror plasma at densities of 50 times
the threshold for appearance of the instability, were discussed with interest.
A number of experiments at US laboratories involve development of target plasmas. In the LITE
experiment vaporization and ionization of grains of LiH by a laser beam is used to produce a plasma whose
decay constant in the density range 1014-1012 cm-3 is about 0.5 msec, which renders it suitable for planned
experiments on injection of a beam of several hundred equivalent amperes into a minimum B trap. A spe-
cial system for injecting ammonia droplets with a complex device for aiming the droplets at a given point
in space has been developed for the Baseball-2 magnetic trap. The ammonia droplet will be evaporated
and ionized by a laser beam as it passes through the machine.
Translated from Atomnaya fnergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 90-91, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
113
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
In connection with the negative ion injectors being developed at the Kurchatov Institute, the require-
ments imposed on the material of which the charge exchange gas target is made (which must be sodium as
shown by analysis) were discussed. On the presently existing negative ion sources, the ones with the
best parameters are the surface ionization sources developed at the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the
Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. A report of this was received with great inter-
est. The authors of the 2X2B experiment presented for discussion an injector system for the device with
design parameters of 600 equivalent amperes at a particle energy of 20 keV. A modernization of the
sources which would allow an increase in the energy of the atoms to 40 keV was reported.
The study of various kinds of open traps for building a thermonuclear reactor in our time, when the
problem of controlled fusion has not yet been finally solved, is very important. A system for containing
a dense plasma in a chain of simple mirror traps, developed at the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the
Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, was discussed with great interest. The kinetic
pressure of the plasma in this system is balanced by the chamber walls while the role of the magnetic
field amounts to reducing the thermal conductivity of the plasma. Arranging the field in the form of a
chain of traps must impede escape of the plasma along the field lines. This has been confirmed experi-
mentally in experiments with an alkali plasma. It has been shown that a plasma can be produced and con-
fined in experiments with a simple mirror trap and a system of annular high-voltage electrodes in the
magnetic plugs. From a theoretical analysis of the stability of the plasma in such a trap, it is clear that
by producing certain profiles of the radial electric field it is possible to satisfy the conditions for hydro-
dynamic stability.
As before, confinement systems with cusped magnetic field, which ensure complete hydrodynamic
stability of the plasma, attracted great attention. At the Kharkov Physicotechnical Institute the possi-
bility is being studied of reducing plasma losses from such traps through the annular magnetic gaps by
means of an electrostatic barrier. In the Jupiter machines developed there, a plasma has been obtained
with a density 1012 cm-3, an ion temperature of about 1 keV, and a lifetime of up to 5 msec. No signs of
instability were observed. At the University of California the escape of'a low-pressure plasma through a
magnetic wall with opposing currents was measured and it was shown that the outflow is proportional to
the geometric mean of the ion and electron Larmor radii. A power reactor with cusped magnetic fields
computed on the basis of these losses is within the realm of contemporary technical possibility.
It was not a special goal of this meeting to discuss the present state of the theory of plasmas in open
systems. On the whole it was noted that the majority of the theoretically predicted instabilities have been
observed experimentally. The results of the initial stages of an analysis of the nonlinear limitations on the
level of instability oscillations have been definitely confirmed experimentally. The linear theoretical
analysis of the conditions for stabilization of the flute instability agrees numerically with experiment.
Factors are theoretically observed which increase the range of parameters over which plasma stability
is ensured with respect to drift cone oscillations.
In a discussion of the prospects for open traps as reactors the substantial progress in obtaining
high plasma parameters was noted. The possibility of stabilizing the drift cone instability with the cold
plasma was demonstrated. Up to the present time no signs of the RF cone instability have been observed.
At the same time the existing data do not yet permit a reliable analysis of the energy balance of reactor
systems in which the energy losses associated with the leakage of cold plasma needed for stabilization
are taken into account. It was emphasized that the weak point of open traps from the standpoint of future
systems is their small margin of energy efficiency, even if the plasma should be completely stable. It
is necessary to devote much attention to the analysis of methods for increasing the plasma lifetime in
traps.
114
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
SEVENTH ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON SCINTILLATION TECHNOLOGY
0. P. Sobornov
A conference on the synthesis, production, and use of scintillators took place in Kharikov on Septem-
ber 23-25, 1975. Papers on work executed since 1971 were read, and consideration was given to the pros-
pects of technological development and the production of scintillators and scintillation materials in the
'Tenth Five-Year Plan. Participants included leading scientists working on the creation and study of scin-
tillation materials, detectors, photomultipliers, and scintillation units, as well as representatives of vari-
ous industrial and scientific-research organizations using nuclear-radiation detectors based on NaI(T1),
C5I(T1), CsI(Na) plastic and other scintillators. The conference proceedings indicated that Soviet industry
had made notable advances in the production of detectors and in the improvement of their properties. Pro-
duction of large NaI(T1) spectrometric detectors (200 x 200 mm in diameter) has become a routine matter.
Of great practical interest are tie industrially adopted CsI(T1) detectors, which have a greater effi-
ciency than NaI(T1), as well as a greater mechanical strength, and are capable of operating subject to sharp
changes of temperature. For counters recording tritium radiation and the extremely weak luminescence of
living tissues, ph(' tomultipliers with the first dynode made of gallium phosphide have been developed; by
virtue of the amplification of the dynode the signal/noise ratio has been increased by a factor of more than
20 times. Many research workers have studied the counting, spectrometric, and background (noise) char-
acteristics of detectors and scintillation devices intended for recording p , y and x radiations. A number
of papers considered problems of improving the technology of making scintillators and detectors based on
the latter.
On the whole the conference demonstrated considerable progress in scintillation technology, which
has greatly extended its useful range over the past few years. The proceedings of the conference will
shortly be published.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, p. 92, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, methanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
115
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON ENGINEERING
CHEMISTRY, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,
AND AUTOMATION
V. N. Koshkin
An International Congress on Engineering Chemistry, one of the series organized by the Czecho-
slovakian Academy of Sciences once every three years, was held in Prague on Aug. 25-29, 1975. The
scientific schools of a variety of countries concerned with the development and study of fundamental prob-
lems in engineering chemistry were widely represented at the Congress.
The section devoted to mixing processes considered theoretical and applied problems involved in
the design of systems with various types of mixers for homogenization, the mixing of suspensions and
viscous liquids, dispersion, and the mixing of gases. K. Molen of Holland described a determination of
the intensity of turbulence in various zones of a reactor based on Doppler measurements of velocities with
lasers. Soviet scientists presented an interesting communication in which they discussed the construction
and modeling of devices for the production of wet-process phosphoric acid at a rate of 280-300 thousand
tons of P2O5 per year.
A considerable number of the papers on the mixing of solids were devoted to the further development
of mixing theory.
The fluidization Section considered theoretical problems of agglomeration and heat and mass-transfer
processes in fluidized beds, gas? solid systems, and liquid? solid systems (ion exchange).
In the field of liquid extraction and the structure of flows in chemical apparatus, all the research
workers concentrated their attention on three types of extracts: rotor-disk columns (East Germany,
Austria, Switzerland, West Germany), pulsation columns (USSR, Bulgaria, East Germany), and vibra-
tional columns (Czechoslovakian SSR, USSR, Yugoslavia). A combined paper by Bulgarian and French
scientists compared various types of extracts in the acetone?benzoic acid system. It was shown that the
best technological and economic indices were those of rotor-disk and pulsation columns. A series of con-
tributions presented by the USSR included one on a study of the vibrational extractor and five on hydro-
mechanics and mass transfer in pulsation columns with a diameter of 200-3400 mm.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, p. 92, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
116
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
REV IEWS
V. I. Sidorov, N. I. Loginov, and F. A. Kozlov
FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT PHYSICS IN ATOMIC
POWER INSTALLATIONS*
Reviewed by M. Kh. Ibragimov
A large number of scientific-research and experimental-design investigations are now being carried
out with a view to establishing a sound basis for the design of nuclear power installations. Most of these
investigations are concerned with heat physics. The execution of research and the servicing of nuclear
power installations demand the attention of a large number of specialists, including the workers and opera-
tors of nuclear power stations. The education of such personnel is impeded by the lack of heat-physics
reference books duly reflecting the present level of nuclear science and technology.
The book under consideration satisfies this need; it systematizes information relating to hydrodynam-
ics and heat transfer, coolant technology, and temperature and flow measurements in the active zones
of nuclear reactors.
The first chapter considers the basic problems of liquid and gas mechanics: the laws of hydrostatics
and hydrodynamics, and the operating principles of instruments for measuring pressure and rate of flow;
the characteristics of liquid motion (laminar and turbulent) are explained, relationships are given for cal-
culating the pressure drop and velocity distribution in channels containing moving liquids. The second
chapter sets out the fundaments of heat transfer and considers the laws of conduction, convection, and
radiation in relation to the transmission of heat, as well as heat transfer in boiling and condensation, and
methods of calculating the performance of heat exchangers. A special section is devoted to the character-
istics of heat transfer during the flow of coolant in the channels of nuclear power stations. The third and
fourth chapters provide a detailed description of instruments and sensors for measuring coolant tempera-
ture, flow rate, and velocity. Special attention is given to a description of small coolant temperature and
flow sensors for making precision measurements. The physical bases of the electromagnetic method of
measuring coolant flows are set out. The fifth chapter gives information regarding various coolants used
in nuclear technology and makes recommendations as to their use in nuclear power equipment. The sixth
and seventh chapters are devoted to problems involved in the use of liquid sodium as coolant for nuclear
reactors. Questions as to the monitoring of impurity content (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen)
are considered, as well as ways and means of decontaminating the sodium.
Taken as a whole, the book contains all the information necessary for educating and instructing the
middle technical personnal of nuclear power stations and improving their qualifications. Unfortunately,
owing to its small size, the book is unable to reflector to rigorously expound such questions as safety tech-
nology when operating with liquid-metal test-beds and reactors, emergency situations, and so on. The
small number (1610) printed is surprising as the book is rapidly selling out.
*Atomizdat, Moscow (1975).
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, p. 94, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system; or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
117
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
L. S. Sterman, L. T. Sharkov, and S. A. Tevlin
THERMAL AND NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS*
Reviewed by Yu. I. Klimov
This book'is intended as a reference book for students of the higher educational establishments
studying courses in "Water and fuel technology in thermal power stations" and "Automation of thermal
power processes"; it is based on a course of lectures read by the authors in the Moscow and Ivanovsk
Power Institutes. The authors consider identical components and services in thermal and nuclear power
stations in relation to their functional purposes, with a parallel exposition and description of their special
characteristics.
A considerable space is given to general problems of the power industry and its economic aspects.
The authors briefly set out the principles and special characteristics of gas-turbine and gas-steam power
stations and those containing MHD generators, which cannot as yet be regarded as widely employed in
power production.
The book gives the impression of a very fundamental treatise; it contains 26 chapters embracing
practically every aspect of the construction, operation, and special characteristics of thermal and nuclear
power stations (except for heat-generating systems such as the steam boiler in thermal and the nuclear
reactor in nuclear power stations, which as the authors indicate are treated in special courses).
The authors give considerable attention to the description of technological solutions employed in
specific operating power stations. This emphasizes the practical nature of the book. Of course, as re-
gards nuclear power stations, which are experiencing a period of rapid technical progress and intensive
technical and economic evolution, it is as yet impossible to assert that any particular description of their
characteristics has become generally accepted and canonical. This applies to general problems of
nuclear power (the choice of sites for nuclear power stations, the types of stations to be built, and their
functions in the nuclear-power system), which constitute the subject of serious and often mutually com-
petitive discussions and considerations. Naturally the book is not intended to reflect every view as to the
future of power (especially nuclear-power) production. The authors have nevertheless succeeded in dis-
tinguishing and expounding some reasonably general problems and tendencies. In this sense the book is a
great aid to the development of competent specialists for such a vast and vitally important branch of the
popular economy as power production.
*Atomizdat, Moscow (1975).
Translated from Atomnaya f nergiya, Vol. 40, No. 1, p. 94, January, 1976.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
118
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
breaking the
language barrier
WITH COVER-TO-COVER ENGLISH,TRANSLATIONS OF SOVIET JOURNALS
in the life sciences
'Biology Bulletin
livestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Biologicheskaya
Editor: E. N. Mishustin
z Academy of Sciences of the'OSS,R, Moscow
The biological proceedings of the Academy of Sci-
ences of_The USSR; this prestigious new bimonthly)
- presents the work of the leading academicians op
every aspect of the life sciences?from micro.- and
_molecular biology to zoology,-physiology, and space
medicine.
, Volume 1, 1974 (6 issues)* $175.00''
'Soviet Journal of
Marine Biology ,
Biologiya Morya
." Editor: A. V. Zhiimunskii
Acadeniy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow
This new bimonthly publication highlights the latest
research on marine organisms and their activity and ?
preservation, The results of, investigations on ,riewlY
discovered organisms and the utilization of the sea's
biological resources are also included.
Volume 1, 1975 (61isues),
,$95.00
?Human Physiology Water,Resources
Fiziologiya Cheloveka Vodnye Resuisy
Editor: N. P. Bekhtereva
Academy of Medical Sciences, Leningrad
This new journal encompasses research on the physio-
logical aspects of speech, human brain, aging.. work,
and experimental neurophysiology: Human Physi-
ology publishes both theoretical and applied papers.
Volume 1,1975 (6 issues) $175.00
' Editor: A: N. Voznesenskii
AcademY of Sciences of the USSR, Mo-scow ?
This bimonthly reports on new methods being used
for ,water pollution control and the optimal use of
water: The latest research is presented onwater run- `
off, soil percolation, and subsurface water systems.
Volume 1,1974 (6 issues)* $190.00
send for your free examination copy!'
*Please note that the 1974:yolumes of these journals will be pub,lished in 1975.
?PLENUM PUBLISHING CORPORATION, 227 West 1.7th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011
In United Kingdom:, 8 Scrubs Lane, Harlesden, London NW10 6SE, England
-Prices slightly higher outside the US. Prices subject to change' without notice:
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0
D'i
breaking the language barrier
WITH COVEFi-TO-COVER ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS (;) SOVIET JOURNALS
-The Soviet Journal of
Bioorganic Chemistry
Bioorganicheskaya Khimiya
Editor: Vu. A. Ovchinnikov
Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow
, Devoted to all aspects of this rapidly-developing science,
this important new journal includes articles on the isola-
tion and puhfication of naturally-occurring, biologically-
active compounds; the establishment of their structure;
the mechanisms of bioorganic reactions; methods of
synthesis and biosynthesis; and the determination of the
relation between structure and biological function.
Volume 1, 1975 (12 issues) $225.00
,
The Soviet Journal of
Coordination Chemistry
Koordinatsionnaya Khitniya
Editor: Yu. A. Ovchinnikov
Academy of Sciences of 'the USSR, Moscow
The synthesis, structure and properties of new coordi-
nation compounds; reactions involving intraspheral sub-
,stitution and transformation, of ligands, homogeneous
catalysis; complexes with polOunctional and macro-
molecular ligands; cornpleling in solutions; and the ki-
netics and mechanisms of reactions involving the partici-
pation of coordination compounds are among the topics
this monthly examines:
Volume 1, 1975 (12 issues) $235.00
The Soviet Journal of Glass
(
Physics and Chemistry
Fizika i Khimiya Stekla
Editor: M. M. Shurts
Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Leningrad
This newpimonthly publication presents in-depth articles
on the most important trends in glass technology. Both
theoretical and'applied research arereported.
, Volume 1, 1975 (6 issues) ' $95.00
Soviet Microelectronics
Mikroolektror2ik'a
' Editor: A. V. Rzhanov
Academy of SCiences of the USSR, Moscow
Offering invaluable reports on the latest advances in
fundamental problems of microelectronics, this new bi-
monthly covers ? theory and design of integrated cir-
Cults ? new production 'and testing methods for micro--
electronic devices ? new terminology 9-new principles of
component and functional integration.
Volume 4, 1975 (6 issues) $135.00,
Lithuanian
Mathematicl Journal
Lietuvos Matematikos'Rinkinys
Editor: P. Katilyus
A publication of the Academy of Sciences of the Lithuanian
SSR, the Mathematical Society of the Lithuanian SSR, and the
, higher educational institutions of the Lithuanian SSR.
In joining the r-anks of other outstanding mathematical
journals translated by Plenum, Lithuanian Mathematical -5
transactions brings important original papers and notes
in all branches of pure and applied mathematics. Topics
covered in recent issues include complex variables,
firobability theory, functional analysis, geometry and
topology, and computer mathematics and programming.
Translation began with the 1973 issues. ' _ ?
Volume 16, 1976 (4 .issueS) $150.00
? Programming and
Computer."Software
Programmirovanie
Editor: N. P. Buslenko
Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow
This imp-ortant new bimonthly is a forum for original
research in computer programming theory, programming
methods, and computer software 'and systems pro-
gramming.
7
Volume 1, 1975 (6 issues) $95.00
send fpr your free examination copied!
PLENUM PUBLISHING CORPORATION, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011
Prices slightly higher outside the US. Prices subject to change without notice.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/10-: CIA-RDP10-02196R000700070001-0