THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF ATOMIC ENERGY VOLUME 11, NO. 6

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• Publication Date: May 1, 1962
• Content Type: REPORT

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olume 11, liLLEGIB
May, 1962
ILLEGIB
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
OMIC ENERGY
ATOM Ham
TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
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?
VOLUME I
VACUUM MICROBALANCE TECHNIQUES
Proceedings of the 1960' ConferenceSponsored by
, The Institute for Exploratory Research
U. S. Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory
Edited by
M. J. KATZ
II: S. Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory
Fort Monmouth, New Jersey r
, Introiluctio,n by
Thor N. Rhodin
Cornell Univereity
The proceedings of this confererfc provide
, an authoritative introduction to the rapidly ,
widening scope of microbalance methods
which is not available elsewhere in a single
publication.
, /
The usefulness of microbalance techniques in
the study of the properties of materials lies
. in their extreme sensitivity and versatility.
This renders them particularly important in
studies of properties of condensed systems.
In addition to the historical use of microbal-
ance techniques as a tool of microchemistry,
they have, in recent years, found extensive ap-
' \plication in the fields of metallurgy, physics,
and chemistry. The uniqueness of the method
results from the facility it provides in making
a series of precise measurements of high sen- ,
sitivity under carefully controlled conditions
over a wide range of temperature ,and
-. pressure.
This significant new volume contains papers
in three major categories.' The 'first group 'Of -
reports deals with the general" structural
features and measuring' capabilities of micro-
balances. In the second group, a sophisti-
cated :consideration and much needed evalua-
tion of sources of spurious mass changes
associated with microbalances is presented. -
The third group describes some of the most
recent extensions in inicrobalance work to
new research areas such as semiconductors,
ultra-high vacuum, and high temperatures. ?
These .papers provide an interesting account
of advances in the application of the micro-
gravimetric method to three new and iinpor-
tant fields of research on the behavior of
materials. , '
170 pages
$6.50
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA gNERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAY A ENERGIY A,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian Original Dated December, 1961)
Vol. 11, No. 6 May, 1962
CONTENTS
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
Interaction of Intense Electron Beams with a Plasma. A. K. Bere z in, Y a. B.
Fainberg, G. P. Berezin, L. I. Bolotin and V. G. Stupak 1143 493
Investigation of the BR-5 Fast Reactor (Space-Energy Neutron Distributions).
A. I. Leipunskii, A. I. Abramov, Yu. A. Aleksandrov,
G. V. Anikin, I. I. Bondarenko, A. G. Guseinov, V. I. Ivanov,
0. D. Kaza.chkovskii, V. F. Kuznetsov, B. D. Kuzeminov,
V. N. Morozov, M. N. Nikolaev, 0. A. Sal'nikov, G. N.
Smirenkin, A. S. Soldatov, L. N. Usachev and M. G. Yutkin 1148 498
On Some Methods for Raising the Power Level of Reactors with Gaseous Coolants.
P. I. Khristenko 1156 506
The Critical Heat Flux for Boiling Water in Tubes. Z. L. Mir op ol' s kii and
M. E. Shitsman 1166 515
The Use of Resonance Detectors for the Investigation of Neutron Spectra in Fast-Neutron
Reactors. V. I. Golubev, V. I. Ivanov, M. N. Nikolaev and
G. N. Smirenkin 1174 522
Determination of the Separation Factor of Lithium Isotopes in Ion Exchange.
S. G. Katal'nikov, V. A. Revin, B. M. Andreev and
V. A. Minaev. . . 1180 528
Some Problems in Nuclear Meteorology. B. I. Styro 1185 533
Delayed-Neutron Yields in the Fission of Pu239 and Th232 by 14.5 Mev Energy Neutrons.
V. I. Shpakov, K. A. Petrzhak, M. A. Bak, S. S. Kovalenko
and 0. I. Kostochkin 1190 539
The Kinetic Energy of Th232 Photofission Fragments. B. A. Bo ch ag ov , A. P. Komar,
G. E. Solyakin and V. I. Fadeev
1192 540
A Photoemulsion for Nuclear Investigations (PR-2). N. A. Perfilov, , N. R. Nov iko v a ,
V. I. Zakharov and Yu. I. Vikhrev 1195 543
An Apparatus for Studying Heat Exchange in Fluidized-Bed Reactors.
N. I. Syromyatnikov, L. K. Vasnova and Yu. N. Shimanskii 1196 544
Measuring the Relative Fast-Neutron Flux Distribution in the VVR-M Reactor with
Semiconductor Detecting Elements. R. F. K on ople v a and S. R. Novikov ? ? 1199 546
The Use of Radioluminescence, Caused by a- Radiation of P02u,to Analyze Ores and
Minerals. I. N. Plaksin, M A. Belyakov and L. P. Starchik 1201 548
Annual subscription $ '75.00
Single issue 20.00
Single article 12.50
0 1962 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
Note: The sale of photostatic copies of any portion of this copyright translation is expressly
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CONTENTS (continued)
C,
The Activation Energy of Solution of Uranium Dioxide in a Sulfuric Acid Medium
with the Participation of Manganese Dioxide. E. A. Kane vs kii and
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
V. A. Pchelkin
1203
549
The Problem of Aerial Prospecting in Wooded Regions. A. V. Mat ve e v
1205
550
A Study of the Fluorides of Some Multivalent Metals by Potentiometric Titration
in Nonaqueous Media. A. P. Kreshkov, V. A. Drozdov,
E. G. Vlasova, S. V. Vlasov and Yu. A. Buslaev
1208
553
The Thermal Decomposition of Uranium Ammonium Pentafluoride.
N. P. Galkin, B. N. Sudarikov and V. A. Zaitsev
1210
554
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Atomic Energy at the Soviet Exposition in London . .
1213
556
Atomic Energy at the French National Exposition in Moscow.
1215
557
[Remodeling the EBWR Reactor Vessel
Source: Nucleonics, August 1961
560]
Direct-Cycle Reactor with Diphenyl Coolant
1219
562
[The Belgian B-2 Research Reactor
Source: Nucl. Engng. 6, 62, 276 (1961)
564]
A Note on Neutron Irradiation Effects on the Mechanical Properties of Steels P . A .'P lat on o v
1222
566
[A Grain-Irradiating Ship
Source: Nucleonics, June, 1961
570]
[Brief Communications
571]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Books and Symposia
1227
573
INDEX FOR VOLUMES 10 AND 11 (1961)
Tables of Contents
, 1229
Author Index
1251
Note. The Table of Contents lists all materials that appears in Atomnaya Energiya. Those items that originated
in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets. Whenever possible,
the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given. Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc.
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INTERACTION OF INTENSE ELECTRON BEAMS WITH A PLASMA
A. K. Berezin, Ya. B. Feinberg, G. P. Berezin,
L. I. Bolotin and V. G.,Stupak
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 493-497,
December, 1961
Original article submitted June 17, 1961
In this work an experimental determination has been made of the energy losses of an
initially unmodulated electron beam passing through a plasma (with no magnetic field).
These losses amount to 12% of the beam energy for a beam current of 8 amp, a beam voltage
of 26 key and a plasma density of 7-9'1013 cm-3.
It is shown that these high losses are due to the coherent interaction of the beam with
the plasma.
INTRODUCTION
The interaction of an electron beam with a plasma has been studied by a number of authors [1-91. It has
been shown theoretically (1-5, 8, 91 that a beam of charged particles passing through a plasma excites density waves
in the plasma and that the resulting interaction between the beam and plasma results in the transfer of energy from
the beam to the wave with a consequent reduction in the energy of the electron beam.
This effect has been investigated experimentally by several workers [6, 7]. In this work the energy losses of
pulsed electron beams were studied of beam currents of 1 amp at 80 key; both modulated and unmodulated beams
were used. The energy losses were found to increase with increasing beam current and diminishing beam energy.
For this reason, in the present work the beam energy has been reduced to 26 key while the beam current has been
increased to 8 amp. The energy lost by the beam in passing through a plasma with an electron density of 7-9.1014
cm-3 has been studied with no magnetic field. The dependence of loss on beam current was also investigated.
Description of the Apparatus and Method of Measurement
A diagram of the apparatus used in these experiments is shown in Fig. 1. The pressure differential between
the plasma chamber and the electron beam chamber, in which a high vacuum is needed, is achieved by means of
a copper tube 150 mm long with an inner diameter of 12 mm. The plasma chamber itself is a quartz tube with an
Inner diameter of 40 mm and an over-all length of either 64 cm or 32 cm. The pressure in the tube is maintained
at 3.10-4 to 4.10-3 mm Hg by means of a mechanical valve. These experiments use air as the working gas. The
electron gun and the pressure-differential tube are located in a uniform region of the magnetic focusing field. The
maximum value of this field is 2000 oe. The magnetic field cuts off sharply beyond the tube and it may be assumed
that there is essentially no magnetic field in most of the plasma chamber (Fig. 2B).
The cathode of the electron gun is a disc of lanthanum boride 10 mm in diameter oriented perpendicularly
to the magnetic field. Pulsed voltages up to 30 key are applied to the gun [pulse lengths, 3.5 ?sec and repetition
rate, 50 cps (Fig. 3a)]. The electron gun provides pulsed currents up to 9 amp with a focusing field of 1200 oe at
the entrance to the plasma chamber. The current is measured with a Faraday cup with an aperture 25 mm in
diameter; the Faraday cup is 80 mm long. The current distribution along the axis of the plasma chamber is shown
in Fig. 2C. It is evident from this curve that the beam current falls off as the electrons traverse greater and greater
distances in the chamber. This behavior is understandable because the beam moves in a region with no magnetic
focusing field in which it suffers Coulomb scattering; as a result some of the electrons strike the Walls of the quartz
chamber before the beam reaches the end of the chamber.
In passing through the plasma chamber the electron beam ionizes the residual gas, forming a plasma whose
density is proportional to the beam current and the pressure of the residual gas. The plasma density is measured in
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a cylindrical cavity 300 mm in diameter and 100 mm high. This cavity is excited in the TM030 mode by means of
a klystron. The plasma density is determined by the shift of the resonance frequency. As is well-known, there is an
upper limit to the electron density that can be measured by this technique. In the present case this limit is 4? 1013
cm-3. Since the plasma density is higher than this value during the beam traversal time it is necessary to determine
the density by the following technique. It is known that the plasma decays exponentially [10, 11], in accordance
with the relation( when diffusion losses are much greater than the recombination losses)
n no exp(? t/t),
where n is the plasma density at time t ; r is the mean plasma decay time; no is the initial plasma density, corre-
sponding to t = 0. In the present work, at least three values of the density, n1, n2 and nware measured at three
corresponding values of the time t1, t2 and t3, after the current pulse is terminated. These density values are then
plotted as a function of time on a semilogarithmic curve (the quantity ln n is plotted along the ordinate axis with t
as the abscissa). This curve is a straight line that can be extrapolated to t =0, thereby making it possible to obtain
the initial density of the plasma during the beam traversal time. The distribution of plasma electron density along
the axis of the system with a current of 6 amp into the plasma chamber (pressure 4-10-3 mm Hg) is shown in Fig. 2D.
9 sections TGI1 400/18 100 I 1. Since, in the case of uniform heating, the boiling crisis usually occurs
at the outlet part of a channel, we will take the value of x for the channel outlet in all the calculations that follow.
In calculating the concrete form of the relation between the criteria of system (2), we use the results of
experiments carried out with channels of various shapes (see the table). The limits of the ratios of the geometrical
dimensions of the channels, described in 1, are also taken into account.
In comparing experimental results obtained by different authors, it is necessary to take into consideration the
fact that, with a definite range of values of the pressure, velocity, and heat content of the medium, the values of
ger can be strongly dependent on conditions that determine the general circulation of the flow. Here two different
types of regime must be distinguished [12, 13J: a) regimes with free development of pulsations (pulsating regimes)
in the presence of a compressible medium at points in the flow located between the heated section and a choking
element or an element for stimulating the circulation; b) regimes with restricted development of pulsations (non-
pulsating regimes), with an incompressible medium at the points in the flow referred to above.
The analysis of experimental results has shown that the difference between these regimes effects the value of
qcr only when
K gig 11' ( v' )0,2
< 2. 10-2.
The concrete form of the relation between the criteria of the system (2) can be written in the form of the
following equations:
1. Non-pulsating regime, x 0.
The motion of a water-steam mixture in tubes and annular channels:
where n = 0.8 for
cr
= 0.174
(ry'r
c'p T )0.8
s 0,4
Kw (1--- xr,
Kw< 1.6 .10-2;
n = 50Kw, for 1.6.102 < Kw< 6 ? 10 -2;
n = 3, for Kw > 6 -10-2.
The motion of the water-steam mixture in plane slot channels
q
cr = 0.224
(Tyr
CJ)TS
0.8
(3)
(4)
where n = 33.3Kw, for 2. 10-2 < Kw < 9 .10-2;
n = 3? for Kw > 9 .10-2.
2. The pulsating regime (for Kw < 2-10-2 with a compressible medium in the specially included elements
of the path of the flow); x 0. Motion of a water-steam mixture in tubes and annular channels:
q
a '
Cr = 0.7 ( cT Pr s
- y' r
0.8
Kw(1 x) (1+ 4x).
(5)
3. Non-pulsating regimes; x < 0.
The experimental results obtained for the motion of water, underheated to the saturation temperature in tubes
and annular channels, agree well with the results of the hydrodynamic theory of the boiling crisis, in that, to a first
Ai
approximation, qcr for x < 0 is a linear function of x = In the case under consideration, it was found that
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qcrui
y' r
2
10?
8
6'
4
2
fa-7
8
2
10-2
8
tip
?
?
qCr )14 4 P s
C T 0.8
r
0174 A Z
-w r
?
0
ma
?41'4 1
ci
0
0
?
00?
?
0
6'
4
2
?
0
?
0
,
00 '
0 e
'oPct4'
ger iil 9.4 icnr 10.8
0.224Kw Z
r
ii
10-3 2 4 6' 810-2 2 # 6' 81111 2 4 6' 8100
Fig. 2. The dependence of ger on Wg and x in nondimensional
coordinates (non-pulsating regimes).
x > o x < o
0 0 [21
A A [to]
Tubes e [111
[7]
2 4 8870
2
4
2
2
Annular channels: ES 0 results of Miropoliskii, Shitsman,
Mostinskii and Faktorovich.
Plane slot channel
{
0
(i)
0
[7]
[6]
[5]
for x > o_(j?x)n.
0.85
for x< o z=1-0.45 x
Y")
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2
1138
4
2
a
4
2
10-1
8
6
4
to3
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p s v0.4
T 0.8
= 0.174 I
ay r r w
X [ 1 ? 0.45x (11-)?*"]
(6)
We show, in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, the results of an analysis of the experimental results corresponding to Eqs. (3),
(4), (5) and (6). A satisfactory agreement was established between the experimental and the calculated results;
about 90% of the experimental results agreed with the calculated results to within ? 30%, and about 80% agreed
to within I 20%.
4
3
10-2
9
8
7
6'
5
4
3
10-1.2
3 4 5 6' 7 8910-
oCr
1
1 i a
rs). 8 ce
r
.:.
? ?
?
0.7(op
6i r =4/ r 0-xX17404
/DO?
PO ?
*
'
7.
0
0
0
?
0.
zA
e.3
2 3 4 5 6' 7 8910'
Nw(W8(1?x)(1#44
Fig. 3. The dependence of qcr on Wg and x in nondimensional coordinates
(pulsating regime). Cylindrical tubes: data from [11]. Annular channels:
0) results of MiropoltsIdi, Shitsman, Mostinskii and Faktorovich.
In applying the Eqs. (3), (4) and (5), it should be noted that as the steam content, the pressure, and the mass-
transfer rate increase, the temperature jump occurring at the transition from bubbling-boiling to full-boiling becomes
smaller, and the operation of steam-generating channels becomes safe under worsening heat-transfer conditions.
The heat flux obtainable in this case exceeds the values of qcr calculated from the formulas (3), (4) and (5). In the
present article, we have assumed that for q = qcr, the wall temperatures exceeded ts by more than 100-150? C. For
mass rate of flow in steam-generating units in contemporary steam-generating plants, we may, for a start, assume
that the Eqs. (3) to (5) can be applied within the following limits of steam content relative to pressure:
p = 20 atm -up to 0.9;
p = 100 atm - up to 0.6;
p = 180 atm - up to 0.4;
p = 200 atm - up to 0.25.
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0
7
0
s o
A
v%I'
oto
40
Hillfillio::
riatirr,
1?
30p
2
0 p
1
i
0
0
0
_Aid,
Aoy
MAI
_____
?
0
?
iktidar
r
or
MN
1
It
Py..,
\ 2 0 40
I 60
I 80
I 10
L 120
140
I 16'0
I 180
P,
1 21
kg/cl
I ..didlOIVA'
-,TA
1B0 orpor
1OPMM7
0 04244
FIMardrialli
Egli
..%44?,4"11
I
q104 kcal/m2.hr
Fig. 4. Nomogram for the determination of (kr in tubes and annular channels (non-pulsating regime;
deg
> 100).
0
2
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The application of Eq. (6) for high rates of flow and large negative values of x is also associated?with definite
limits, obtained from the following considerations. For water moving in a tube and undedieated to the saturation
temperature, surface boiling can arise only after the temperature of the wall has reached the value ts. At this point,
the corresponding heat flux can be determined from the equation
98= 0.023 Proi. wad 0.8
) -
Since the boiling crisis cannot occur for tw < ts , the Eq. (6) can be used only when the inequality qcr >
is satisfied. Calculations show that the limiting values of Wg that are obtained are significantly greater than the
mass rates of flow used in contemporary steam-generating plants.
To simplify the calculations, we have included Fig. 4, a nomogram for the determination of qcr in tubes
and annular channels ( ii deg > 100) from the values of Wg, and x for non-pulsating regimes and values of
x 0.
NOTATION
The prime ' refers to the liquid, and the double prime " to steam at saturation;
y) specific weight, kg/m3;
cti) specific heat, kcal/kg ?C;
v) kinematic viscosity, m2/sec;
v) dynamic viscosity, kg ? sec/m2;
a) surface tension, kg/m;
r) heat of vaporization, kcal/kg;
x) heat-conduction coefficient, kcal/m ? hr ?C;
a) temperature-transfer coefficient, m2/sec;
g) acceleration of gravity, m/sec2;
Ts) saturation temperature; ?C; ?K;
tf ) flow temperature ?C;
tw) wall temperature ?C;
1) heat content of the medium, kcal/kg;
pi) ? kcal/kg;
x =-f--, rate of enthalpy;
W's,Wo") reduced velocities, m/sec;
Wv) mass rate of flow, kg/m2.sec;
(7) specific heat flux, kcal/m2.hr;
qcr) specific critical heat flux, kcal/m2.hr;
id characteristic linear parameter, m;
(5) slot width, mm.
ts
LITERATURE CITED
1. L. S. Sterman, ZhTF, 23, 2, 341 (1953).
2. V. I. Subbotin, B. P. Zenkevich, 0. N. Sudnitsyn, A. A. Ivashkevich, N. D. Sergeev, and 0. L. Peskov,
Collection - An investigation of heat transfer to steam, in water boiling in pipes at high pressure [in Russian].
(Moscow, Atomizdat, 1958) pp. 95, 120.
3. V, S. Chirkin and V. P. Yukin, ZhTF 7, 1542 (1956).
4. N. L. Kofengauz and I. D. Bocharov, ?Teplognergetika," 3, 76 (1959).
5. H. Jacket, J. Rourty and J. Zerbe, Trans. ASME 80, 2, 391 (1958).
6. D. Bell, Nuclear Science and Eng. 7, 3, 245 (1960).
7. A. Cicchitti, M. Silvestri, G. Soldaini and R. Zavattaralli, Energia Nucleare (Milano) 6, 10, 407 (1959).
8. S. S. Kutateladze, The Elements of Heat-Transfer Theory [in Russian] (Moscow, Mashgiz, 1957).
9. S. S. Kutateladze and M. A. Styrikovich, The Hydraulics of Gas-Liquid Systems [in Russian] (Moscow,
Gosinergoizdat, 1958).
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10. H. Buchberg, Studies in boiling heat transfer,Final Report 1951. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission.
11. Z. L. Miropol'skii, M. E. Shitsman, A. A. Stavrovskii and I. L. Mostinskii, "Teploenergetika," 1, 80 (1959).
12. M. A. Styrikovich, Z. L. MiropoPsIdi, M. E. Shitsman, I. L. Mostinskii, A. A. Stavrovskii and L. E. Faktorovich,
"Teplodnergetika," 5, 81 (1960).
13. V. E. Doroshuk and F. P. Frid, "Teplo;nergetika," 9, 74 (1959).
14. I. T. Alad'ev and L. D. Dodonov, In the Collection *Convective and Radiative Heat-Exchange,' Ein Russian)
(Moscow, Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1960) p. 65.
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover- to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
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THE USE OF RESONANCE DETECTORS FOR THE INVESTIGATION
OF NEUTRON SPECTRA IN FAST-NEUTRON REACTORS
V. I. Golubev, V. I. Ivanov, M. N. Nikolaev,
and G. N. Smirenkin
Translated from Atomnaya inergiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 522-527,
December, 1961
Original article submitted April 17, 1961
The possibility of the investigation of the low energy portion of the neutron spectra in
reflecting fast reactors by activated resonance detectors is considered.
Absorber difference and "1/v absorption" methods are illustrated by an example of the
measurement of the flux distribution of resonance neutrons with energies of 4.9 ev (Au137) and
2.95 key (Nass) in the reflecting reactors BR-1 and BR-5. It is shown that the neutron spectrum
region from one to several thousand electron volts can be studied in adequate detail with the
aid of the set of detectors described.
The resonance detector method has been used with success for many years for the investigation of neutron
spectra in intermediate- and thermal-neutron reactors. The use of thin foils or layers of material having strong isolated
resonance activation cross sections as detectors permits the determination of neutron fluxes, at energies corresponding
to the resonance maximums [1].
The resonance detector method can also be useful for the study of comparatively soft spectra arising in fast
neutron reflecting reactors. However, in this case, the contribution of the primary, usually the strongest, resonance
to the detector activation can prove to be comparable with the resonances at high and lower energies. Therefore,
it is necessary to use special methods to separate the activity induced by the neutrons which correspond to the
resonance energy.
One of such methods is the absorber difference method. If the detector foil is covered on both sides during
irradiation by layers of the same material which is thin in all neutron energy regions except in the neighborhood
of the resonance at E =E0, then the portion of the total activity due to the resonance neutrons will be decreased,
because of the screening, in comparison with the case when the detector foil was irradiated without screening layers
(filters).
It can be shown that the difference of the absolute magnitude of the saturation activity AA, which refers to
unit volume of the detector foils without filters and with filters of thickness t ? when irradiated in identical isotropic
neutron fluxes, can be represented by the following expression:
AA = (E0) rylo, ari
2t
X Ei[? le (E) t]). (E)dE. (1)
Here v(E) is the neutron flux with energy E; r is the radiation width; E0, a is the activation cross section at the
Y
resonance maximum; Ea and Ec are the activation cross sections of the isotope being irradiated and the total
absorption cross section of the detector respectively (all macroscopic cross sections).
The first term in formula (1) is dependent on the screening of the resonance neutrons which is characterized
by the factor 1.1. The second term, to a first approximation, takes into account the absorption of the neutrons which
lie outside the resonance being studied (the integration is carried out over all of the energy region except the
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neighborhood of the resonance). It is assumed that, for these neutrons, E ct ? 1, and that the detector thickness can
be neglected in comparison with the filter thickness. From relation (1) it is obvious that with E0 >> E c(E) it is
always possible to make the second term negligibly small in comparison with the first. Thus, by measuring the
activity difference AA and knowing the resonance parameters and the dependence of the absorption factor 17 on
them, it is possible to determine the flux of resonance neutrons.
The absorption factor ?I can be calculated easily with the aid of the Gurevich-Pomeranchuk resonance ab-
sorption theory (see for example [2]) in the limiting cases of narrow ( r > E0) isolated
resonances and also for isolated absorption resonances (r rY ). We will, for convenience, introduce the para-
meters [3= E'ot, 130= ot0 ;the relation of the filter thickness t and the detector thickness to to the drawing-outs
length of neutrons from the resonance region is ? which corresponds to its maximum. It is obvious that
Then the factor
?E,
ri (8, 8) in Eq. (1) will
for
zo Cry
F<
for F >> E0 and F ry.
by the relation
(2)
be determined
(P, f3(,)
F(0, PO?F(13, Po)
= f (P) ? f
+
(3)
where
F
(4)
Po
is the factor which takes into account both the self-screening of the detector and the screening by its filters.
I 13
(5)
is the function which describes the self-screening of the resonance neutrons in a plane layer of thickness t [2];
and II are Bessel functions of order zero and one,with imaginary argument. From formula (4) it is obvious that the
factor F (6, 80) is proportional to the difference between the activities of layers of thickness 8 + 80 and 8. The
values n (8, 8o) can be calculated from tables of functions of f (8) given in [2]. However, in practice, one has
to deal mostly with the case 8>> 80 when the calculation of the difference between the close values of f (8 + 80)
and f (8) can lead to a significant error in the value of n . In this case one should use for n (8, 80) the formula
which is obtained by a Taylor's series expansion of f (8 + 8) and which is correct to third-order terms in 8::
(13,
_
e [(P P?1+-112)4(t)
(6)
Values of the function n (13 Bo) for certain /3 and 60 calculated from formula (6) are given in Table 1. The inter-
ference resonance and potential scattering has been neglected in the calculation of n (8, Bo). When r g E0
and r n? 5, the calculation is difficult and consequently must be carried out separately, by numerical methods,
for each specific resonance.
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In order to determine the difference AA with sufficient accuracy, it is necessary that the contribution to the
total detector activity of the neutrons which correspond to the first resonance level energy be sufficiently large. For
E
a Fermi spectrum this contribution is determined by the ratio of the magnitude of ? to the total resonance
2E,
integral I. Although the spectra in fast-neutron reflecting reactors can be substantially different from Fermi spectra,
this ratio is a convenient detector characteristic. When detectors are used with highly situated primary resonances,
the effect of the slower neutrons can be substantially decreased if the detectors, both with and without filters, are
covered on both sides by additional borate filters.
TABLE 1. Values of the Absorption Factor n (8, 8)
0
Pa
-
0.25
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.0
10.0
0.0
0.308
0.422
0.508
0.570
0.654
0.709
0.743
0.769
0.805
0.827
0.857
0.882
0.25
0.186
0.295
0.368
0.427
0.496
0.546
0.577
0.601
0.634
0.656
0.684
0.708
0.5
--
0.234
0.300
0.349
0.416
0.454
0.489
0.513
0.544
0.565
0.592
0.615
0.75
--
--
0.257
0.309
0.346
0.403
0.430
0.451
0.480
0.501
0.527
0.550
1.0
--
--
--
0.266
0.319
0.343
0.383
0.403
0.431
0.451
0.476
0.499
One should choose, as resonance detectors, those isotopes whose primary resonance activation cross sections
are separated from the remainder by an adequately large energy interval. For such detectors the absorption of the
second and succeeding resonances [see Eq. (1)] will be small in comparison with the absorption of the primary
resonance since they have greater width and smaller cross section at the maximum. Table 2 gives some character-
istics of resonance detectors recommended for spectra measurement. The characteristics of all the isotopes given
in the table are such that it is possible, in the case of investigation of spectra close to 1/E, to neglect deliberately
the second term in formula (1) for B '61. For all detectors given in the table except Nan, the contribution of the
primary resonance to the total resonance integral is almost 100%. For Nam this contribution is 30%. From Table 2
It is obvious that condition (2) is satisfactorily fulfilled only for three detectors In115, Au157 (r > Ef) and
rv ^-? r), La135 (r < En). An experimental determination of the "drawing out" cross section E; is necessary
for the use of the remaining detectors.
TABLE 2. Characteristics of Resonance Detectors
Isotope
E0,ev ao, barn
rv ,ev
1'7, ,ev
tEo,ev
a, %?
inin
1.46
3.90.104
0,072
0.003
0.025
95.8
ka157
4.91
3.74-104
0.124
0.016
0.050
100,0
Nv186
18.8
1.19.105
0.047
0.282
0.20
28.4
Lal39
73.5
1760
0.150
0.027
1.05
100.0
Co"
132
8.92.103
0.5
4.9
4.4
100.0
Na"
2950
550
0.4
220
250
100.0
a is the content in a naturally-occurring isotopic mixture.
If the neutron spectrum being studied decreases with energy with sufficient rapidity in the resonance region,
then neutrons which correspond to the second and higher resonances do not give a marked contribution to the
detector activity. In this case, it is possible to use the so-called "1/v absorption" method to separate the activity
induced by neutrons lying in the neighborhood of the primary resonance level.
In the case under discussion, the saturation activity of a thin detector can be represented as a sum of the con-
tribution from the region where the activation cross section obeys the 1/v law and from the region of the primary
resonance:
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Here Emot
8
6'
A1= Em.cp(E) ?dE+CEO 17,1,2,0] ?
is the activation cross section for thermal neutrons (at energy Ern), is the detector efficiency.
We will discuss two isotopes, one of which has a
resonance in the activation cross section for E =E0, while
the cross section of the other obeys the 1/v law. It is
obvious that the second term of formula (7) will be absent
in the expression for the second detector's activity. The neutron
flux near E0 can be determined from the following relation:
PL-2,5%
SO
20
45
15
0 02 04 06'. 08
Absorption factor , F
Fig. 1. The dependence of the specific activity of
gold detectors on the absorption factor of the primary
resonance for various distances from the center of
the active zone.
1.0
(7)
zTin:
A1 A2
l'gri 2
'
?
2 v ?
The 91? (n, a) reaction can be employed as a detector
possessing ?1 sensitivity.
(8)
In order to build-up spectra from data obtained with
the aid of various detectors, it is necessary to compare
their efficiencies in an identical thermal-neutron flux.
The BF3 chamber (or counter), which is used to separate
the ? ?1 contribution," must be calibrated in the same
flux.
Let us now illustrate the proposed methods with
results obtained from the investigation of neutron spectra in fast reflecting reactors. The difference method was
used to measure the flux distribution of neutrons with an energy of 4.9 ev in the BR-5 reflecting reactor DJ. Gold
foils with a density of 1.38 mg/cm2 ( 80 = 0.14) were used as detectors; the filters were gold foils with densities of
3.05 and 6.10 mg/cm2 ( 8 =0,31 and 0.62). The activity distribution of foils with density of 195 mg/cm2 was also
measured. In the latter case, the self-absorption of 8 -particles was taken into account in processing the measured
results. The measurements were made in a vertical channel which was 50 mm from the axis of the reactor and
passed through the active zone and below the end reflector which was made of nickel with small amounts of sodium
and stainless steel.
Figure 1 shows the dependences of the specific activity of the detector used on the parameter F (8 80) which
was calculated from formula (4) for the primary resonance of Au197. As is obvious from the figure, these dependences
are linear for all detector positions in the reactor. Consequently, the contribution from neutrons which lie below the
primary resonance in the region being blocked by the thicknesses of the filters employed is negligibly small. Extra-
polation of these data to the absorption factor value F =1 gives the activity of an infinitely-thin detectors
A (F --> 1)= C (E) (E) dE (9)
The difference between this quantity and the activity which is obtained from a linear extrapolation to the absorption
factor value F =0 (t co) is proportional (with the same proportionality coefficient) to the resonant neutron flux:
A (F --> 1)? A (F --> 0) = Cep (E 0) (10)
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4
2
F=1
=0.8Z
7.? -..4'.
NNF
=0.488
F=0.633
' . ?N
a
43,....... 0
A ?
F= 0.175
...-----"
F= 0
-----"?-?0 -..........
10 20 30
40
50
Distance from the center of the active zone, cm
Fig. 2. Activity distribution of gold detectors as a function of the distance from the
reactor center. Values of the absorption factor are shown as numbers on the curves.
Figure 2 gives the specific activity distributions
along the axis of the channel for the detectors used and
also the extrapolated activity distributions. The neutron
flux distribution at an energy of 4.9 ev at 5000 kw
nominal reactor power is? shown in Fig. 3. For the mea-
surement of the latter distribution, the activity differences
of detectors calibrated in the thermal column of a reactor
together with a layered Pu 239 fission chamber were used.
Neutron flux
1,5
?
active
zone
boundary
0 10 20 30 40
Distance from the center of the
active zone, cm
Fig. 3. Distribution of neutron flux at 4.9 ev
energy for 5000 kw reactor power.
1178
50
?
1
i
ix 04'
%
1
I
I
I
I
%
1
I
I
I
%
%
1
%
I
I
I
/4
i
\
V
..?.
V
6'
3
2
1
o 10 20 JO 40 50
Distance from the center of the
active zone, cm
Fig. 4. Distribution of neutron flux with
energy 2.95 key in the BR-1 reactor's
nickel shield, obtained from sodium
detectors by the ? 1/v absorption" method.
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The described measurements were carried out in detail with the aim of checking the method. For practical
application of the method, as a rule, the use of one filter thickness is sufficient; the resonant neutron flux is cal-
culated from this according to the formulas (1), (3) or (6).
The "1/v absorption" method was used to measure the neutron flux at the 2.95 key energy in the BR-1 reactor
[4] with a nickel reflector. The measurements were carried out using salt (Na2CO3) detectors of thickness 100 mg/cm2
(60 0.3); a small size BF3 chamber was used as a 1/y detector. The contribution of the resonance neutrons to the
total activity of the sodium detectors ranged from 20 to 50%,depending on their position in the reactor. Measure-
ments were not made near the active zone where the second (55 key) and higher sodium resonances could add a
noticeable contribution to the detector activity. The results are presented in Fig. 4. The neutron flux distribution
at an energy of 4.9 ev, measured by the absorber difference method with gold foils, is shown by the same dotted
curve.
The authors express deep thanks to A. I. Leipunskii for interest in the work and to I. I. Bondarenko and V. V.
Orloy for helpful advice and comments.
LITERATURE CITED
1. D. Yuz, "Neutron research in nuclear reactors' [in Russian] (Moscow, published in Foreign Literature, 1954).
2. G. I. Marchuk, "Numerical calculation methods for nuclear reactors' [in Russian] (Moscow, Atomizdat, 1958).
3. A. I. Leipunskii, et al., Transactions of the Second International Conference on the World Utilization of Atomic
Energy (Geneva, 1958). Reports of Soviet Science. 3 (Moscow, Atomizdat, 1959), p. 215.
4. A. I. Leipunskii, et al., "Atomnaya gnergiya," 5, 277 (1958).
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover- to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
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DETERMINATION OF THE SEPARATION FACTOR OF LITHIUM
ISOTOPES IN ION EXCHANGE
S. G. Katal'nikov, V. A. Revin, B. M. Andreev,
and V. A. Minaev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 528-532,
December, 1961
Original article submitted January 30, 1961
The isotopic equilibrium between the solutions of lithium salts (LiOH and Lid) and SBS,
KU-2, and Dowex-50 cationites is investigated. It is shown that, in the first place, the Li7
isotope was concentrated in the solution in all the cases which were investigated; in the second
place, there is a dependence of the separation factor value a on the nature of the cationite; in
the third place, in 1 N to 5 N solutions of Lid, the value of a does not depend on the concentra-
tion of the solution.
Taylor and Urey [1] made the first attempt to separate lithium isotopes by using ion exchange. They demon-
strated the theoretical possibility of separating lithium, potassium, and nitrogen isotopes in the exchange between
their salts with a zeolite-type aluminosilicate ion exchanger, and they determined the equilibrium separation
factor a of the 1171A+6LV R6I,i+ 'Li ion-exchange reaction. Taylor and Urey showed that, at room tem-
perature, the above reaction is characterized by a separation factor a =1.022. In connection with the development 1
of artificial ion-exchange materials, experiments on the separation of lithium isotopes by using organic ion ex-
changers were performed in the postwar years [2-4]. The experiments performed by Glueckauf, et al. [2] on the
chromatographic separation of lithium isotopes in a column filled with the Zeo-Karb H. I. ionite showed that the
value of a is much smaller than the 1.022 value obtained in [1]. Menes, et al. [4] came to the same conclusion;
according to the results of their experiments on the isotopic exchange between lithium salts and the Dowex-50
cationite, the value of a is equal to 1.002. The paper by Lee and Begun [5] is devoted to the effect of the degree
to which the Dowex-50 cationite is bonded on the magnitude of a for lithium isotopes. It was shown in this paper
that, if the percentage of divinylbenzene (DVB) (which characterizes the degree to which the cationite is bonded)
varies from 2 to 24% in the resin, the a values vary from 1.0010 to 1.0038. In all the above-mentioned experi-
ments, the separation of lithium isotopes occurred in such a manner that the solution was enriched in heavy isotope.
A paper by G. M. Panchenkov et al. [6], which appeared in 1959, was devoted to a study of the influence exerted by
the concentration of the exchanging salts and their nature as well as the nature of the ion exchanger itself on the
separation factor value. In this paper it was shown that in the exchange between Li0H, Li2C05 and C6H5COOLi
and sulfocarbon, the solution is enriched with the light isotope, while, in the exchange between Lid 1 and the same
cationite, the heavy isotope is concentrated in the solution. All the above papers are concerned to various degrees
with the assessment of such influences on the separation factor as the nature of the cationite and its structure, the
chemical nature of the exchanging salt, the salt concentration in the solution, and the temperature. The present
article is concerned with the determination of the separation factors of lithium isotopes in the exchange between
LiOH and LiC1 in different concentrations and certain domestically-produced sulfocationites, such as SBS and KU-2,
as well as the Dowex-50 cationite.
Experimental
Preliminary investigations of cationites. A 0.25-0.50 mm cationite fraction in the air-dry state and in hydro-
genous form was used in our experiments. The static exchange capacity (SEC) for all the above-mentioned cationites
was determined according to the standard method [7] by using a LiOH solution instead of NaOH. Table 1 shows the
results obtained in determining the capacities of the SBS, KU-2, and Dowex-50 cationites and of their swelling
ability in a 1 N solution of Li0H. Table 1 also provides the values of the distribution factor KLI and of the exponent
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.2 in the expression Kit!i (1R1ILIi)
which describes the ion exchange in the RH + Lid RLi +HCI system.
The distribution factor for Li+ and H+ ions was determined graphically with respect to the relative equilibrium con-
RH
centration of lithium and hydrogen in the solution and in the resin; a graph (Fig. 1) which expresses the log Ru
Lid1
= f (log -HC1 ) dependence was plotted for this purpose.
TABLE 1. Certain Characteristics of the SBS, KU-2,
and Dowex- 50 Sulfocationites*
SEC, mg-eq/g
of resin
Cationite
type
air-
dry
dry
f< L.1
SBS (1)
SBS (2)
SBS (3)
SBS (4)
SBS (5)
KU -2
Dowex -50
2.68
2.46
4.86
3.65
2.34
3.60
3.54
3.40
3.16
5.20
4.57
3.06
4.85
50
40
110
40
40
4.16
3.46
6.01
4.68
2.82
1.00
0.65
1.00
1.00
0.65
* The SBS batches which we used, which will be sub-
sequently denoted as Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, were
produced by various organizations at different times.
We obtained SBS [5] from SBS (4) by additional sul-
fonation.
3\\O.
1DgFh
1.2
1
1.0
2r.,
8\
1
in
.
?
(
0.4
0.2
i.2
i, 4
i..6'
1.8
0
0.2
0,4
1691
Fig. 1. Determination of the distribution factor Kill
in the exchange with SBS cationite from different
batches. The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 denote different
batches of the SBS cationite.
A comparison between the static capacity, the swelling ability, and the distribution factor for different SBS
cationite batches indicates the existence of definite differences between their physical and exchange properties.
It was natural to assume that the above differences will manifest themselves in the isotopic exchange process. In
connection with this, we organized experiments on the exchange between lithium isotopes and all of the above-
mentioned cationite types.
The experimental method. One of the simplest methods for determining the value of the isotope separation
factor
( /(
a = L i7
is the method of single equilibration with the subsequent calculation of the a value with respect to the difference
between the equilibrium concentrations. The greatest difference between the concentrations of equilibrium phases
is secured in work with samples which are enriched up to 50% (in isotopes). We had at our disposal lithium hydroxide
that was enriched with Lis to 48.4%, with which a concentration difference of approximately 0.25 ( a - 1) could be
secured in single experiments. In order to increase the accuracy of a determination even in work with samples that
are enriched with Li6, it is advisable to perform the so-called multistep experiments, which have been described in
[8].
In multistep experiments, the separation factor value can be calculated by using the equations given in [9],
or it can be determined graphically, as was described in [8]. In processing the results of our multistep experiments,
the value of a was determined only graphically.
In using the graphical method for determining the separation factor, it is necessary to know the amount of
lithium that is introduced in RU form at each exchange step. Therefore, after performing each exchange step, the
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cationite was regenerated by means of a 2-3 N solution of 11C1, and the lithium percentage in the solution was deter-
mined; the remaining LiOH solution was concentrated by evaporation in order to maintain a constant concentration,
The isotope concentrations were determined according to the flotation method by comparing the flotation tempera-
tures of the specimen crystals and of the standard. The residue of the LiOH solution as well as LiC1 solutions, which
were obtained at individual exchange stages, were used as samples. Some of the experiments were performed at a
temperature of 0?C, since the separation factor of Na and Li isotopes increases with a decrease in temperature [10,
11].
Experimental Results
The experiments concerning the dependence of a on the nature of cationites were performed with a 1 N
solution of Li0H. The experimental results are given in Table 2.
TABLE 2. Values of a in the Exchange Between
Lithium Isotopes and SBS, KU-2, and Dowex-50
Cationites
Cationite
Expt.
No.
a
aav
Temp
?C
SBS (1)
1
1.006+0.001
1.006+0.001
0
1. 006?0. 001
SBS (2)
1
1.004+0.001
1.004+0.001
0
SBS (3)
1
1.019+0.001
1.020+0.002
0
1.022+0.002
SBS (4)
1
1.010+0.001
2
1.010+0.001
1.009+0.002
0
3
1,008+0.002
SBS (5)
1
1,004+0.001
2
1.005+0.001
1.004+0.001
0
3
1.004+0.001
KU-2
1
1.008+0.002
1.008+0.002
25
Dowex-51
1
1.006
2
1.006
3
1.008
1..006+0.002
25
4
1.006
TABLE 3. Exchange of Lithium Isotopes Between SBS
(5) and LiC1 Solutions
Expt.
'sic).
Initial con-
centration of
LiCI,
g-eq/liter
Equilibrium
conc of
g-eq/liter
Lithium
shae in the
ca otute,
RLi+RH
a
1
1.230
0.877
0.283
1.005?0.001
2
1.360
0.869
0.290
1.004+0.001
3
1.150
0.800
0.286
1.005+0.001
4
1.050
0.720
0.278
1.007+0.002
5
1.010
0.975
0.322
1.010+0.002
6
1.020
1.010
1.000
1.003?0.001
7
1.290
1.280
1.000
1.005+0.001
8
5.20
4.64
0.362
1.005+0.002
9
5.40
4.83
0.372
1.006+0.002
In order to investigate the effect of the solution
characteristics on the value of the separation factor for
lithium isotopes, we performed experiments on the
exchange between the SBS (5) cationite and Lid and
LiOH solutions.
In multistep experiments where LiC1 solutions are used, a progressive accumulation of hydrochloric acid in
the solution takes place (due to the RH + LiC1 RU +HC1 reaction). As a consequence of. this, the exchange
equilibrium is shifted toward the hydrogenous form of resin, which makes the performance of multistep experiments
very difficult. Therefore, only single-step experiments were performed with LiC1 solutions, the results of which are
given in Table 3.
In experiments 6 and 7, we used a cationite which was first saturated with lithium that had the same con-
centration of Li6 as the solution.
The dependence of the a value on the lithium concentration in the solution that was used in exchange with the
cationite in the RH-form (SBS, 5) was investigated by means of 1 N and 5 N solutions of Lid. The choice of lithium
chloride solutions was based on the fact that cationites are unstable in intensely alkaline solutions. Moreover, ex-
change experiments with solutions whose concentrations are higher than 5 N cannot be readily performed.
The results of the experiments performed with 5 N solutions of Lid are also given in Table 3.
Discussion of the Results
The sulfo group, in which hydrogen possesses the exchange ability, constituted the functional group in all the
cationites which we used. Therefore, we cannot draw any conclusions concerning the effect of the ion exchanger's
functional group on the separation factor value. At the same time, our results as well as the results given in papers
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that were published earlier [6] indicate that the value of a depends on the cationite's nature. By the term "nature*
of the cationite, we understand the chemical properties of the cationite's frame as well as its physical structure.
Both of the above factors determine the difference between the selective properties of a single cationite type (KU-2
and Dowex-50 with different DVB percentages and SBS, which is prepared by using different initial materials and
which is sulfonated according to different procedures) as well as the difference between the selective properties of
different cationite types.
In [5], the difference between the selective properties of Dowex-50 cationites with various DVB percentages
can be reduced mainly to a decrease in the number of water molecules which hydrate a lithium ion in the resin
phase. In the above experiments, this reduction was caused by the different degrees to which the cationite is bonded,
which are expressed in percentages of DVB that is introduced into the resin's structure during its synthesis. As a rule,
cationites with a large percentage of DVB swell to a lesser degree. If the results of determining a by using the SBS
cationite are interpreted from this point of view, our results cannot be explained by the dehydrating action of the
ionite. The maximum value of the separation factor was obtained for the SBS (3) cationite, which had the maximum
swelling ability. It must be emphasized that this cationite type is characterized by the greatest value of the distribu-
tion factor If we compare the KHLi and a values for all SBS cationite batches except SBS (5), we arrive at the
following conclusion: The lesser the affinity of the cationite to lithium, the larger the lithium isotope separation
factor. For the SBS cationite, this dependence is quantitatively given in the shape of an a = f (log Kriu) graph,
which is shown in Fig. 2. This inference enables us to state that the distribution factor value, which ex-presses the
affinity of the cationite to lithium, can determine to a certain extent the value of a.
Unfortunately, the article [5] does not provide the elution curves,
cr which could be used for estimating the lithium distribution between the
solution and the cationite and, consequently, the molar portion of lithium
1.020 in the cationite phase. In fact, according to data given by Reichenberg
[12] and Bonner [13], the value of KIL for the Dowex-50 cationite depends
1.016' on the molar portion of lithium in the cationite phase. If there is a
1 012 relationship between Kit and a and if it has the character indicated
.
above, the fact that different values of a were obtained in [5], where
1 008 HC1 and NH,c1 were used as elution agents, becomes understandable. It
.
is known that, with respect to their affinity to cationites, lithium,
1.004 0 ammonia, and hydrogen ions can be arranged in the following order:
Li < H < NH,. This means that the lithium peak of an elution curve
that was obtained by using an 1\11-14C1 solution will be more constricted in
comparison with a similar peak that is obtained by washing-out lithium
with a HC1 solution. In the peak of lithium that is washed out by an
NI-14C1 solution, the influence of the tail and head portions of the peak
Fig. 2. Dependence of a on log
on the effective separation factor will be less pronounced due to the fact
for the SBS cationite.
that the molar portion of lithium in the cationite phase is smaller in these
sections of the peak (consequently, the it value is also smaller). Therefore, it can be expected that the aeff value
in washing-out lithium with an NH4C1 solution would be larger, which was confirmed in [5].
This confirms the fact that a depends on the molar portion of lithium in the cationite or on the values of the
KH and KNH4 distribution factors. On the other hand, if there is a dependence of a on the molar portion of
Li Li
lithium in the cationite, then, the a values which are determined by using the chromatographic method are integral,
and they are not comparable with the a values obtained in lithium exchange in a solution with a cationite that is
used entirely in lithium form, as was the case in our experiments with Li0H. In our experiments with the SBS
cationite, for which no dependence of Kiti on the molar portion of lithium in the cationite was detected, the
separation factor value was also independent of the molar portion of lithium in the cationite.
It is also interesting to note the fact that additional sulfonation of the SBS cationite results in a change in all
of its properties, including the separating ability with respect to isotopes, which follows from Tables 1 and 2 (speci-
mens 4 and 5).
?
0.5 OS
07 08 09
II
log K
The results of experiments with the SBS cationite and LiOH and LiC1 solutions indicate that, within the limits
of measurement errors, the a value remains the same in the exchange between lithium that is bonded to the cationite
and a LiOH solution as well as a Li01 solution. With respect to the character of the dependence of a on the nature
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of the solution, our results differ from those obtained in [6]. It seems that the presence of some functional groups
Is the main cause of these discrepancies.
SUMMARY
1. As a result of isotopic exchange of lithium between SBS, KU-2, and Dowex-50 cationites, and LiOH and
LiC1 solutions, it was shown that: a) The Li6 isotope is concentrated in the cationite, while the Li7 isotope is con-
centrated in the solution; b) the value of the separation factor a depends on the nature of the cationite.
2. Within the limits of measurement errors, the values of a are equal in the exchange of lithium isotopes in
LiC1 and LiOH solutions, while, in 1-5 N solutions of LiC1, the a value does not depend on the concentration.
3. The mutual dependence between the distribution constant for the Lf- H+ system and the lithium isotope
separation factor was demonstrated qualitatively. It was shown that a cationite with the minimum affinity to lithium
has a maximum value of the separation factor. A similar relationship between Oh and a also holds for cationites
in which the distribution factor value depends on the molar portion of lithium in the exchanging cationite (Dowex-50).
In conclusion, we extend our sincere thanks to Professor G. K. Boreskov for his advice and continued interest in
the work.
LITERATURE CITED
1. T. Taylor and H. Urey, J. Chem. Phys. 5, 597 (1937); 6, 429 (1938).
2. E. Glueckauf, K. Barker and G. Kitt, Disc. Faraday Soc. 7, 199 (1949).
3. I. Gross, Nucl. Sci. Abstrs. 5, 169 (1951).
4. F. Menes, E. Saito and E. Roth, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Isotope Separation p. 227.
North-Holland Publishing Co. Amsterdam (1958).
5. D. Lee and G. Begun, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 81, 10, 2332 (1959).
6. G. M. Panchenkov, E. M. Kuznetsova and 0. N. Kaznadzei, Atomnaya Energiya 7, 6. 556 (1959).
7. GOST 5695-52.
8. G. K. Boreskov and S. G. Katal'nikov, Zh. Fiz. Khimii 35, 6, 1240 (1961).
9. E. M. Kuznetsova, A. V. Makarov and G. M. Panchenkov, Zh. Fit. Khimii 32, 11. 2641 (1950.
10. R. Betts, W. Harris and M. Stevenson. Canad. J. Chem. 34, 1, 65 (1956).
11. D. Lee, J. Phys. Chem. 64, 187 (1960).
12. D. Reichenberg and D. Mc Cauley, J. Chem. Soc. 2741 (1955).
13. 0. Bonner, J. Phys. Chem. 58, 4, 318 (1954).
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover- to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
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SOME PROBLEMS IN NUCLEAR METEOROLOGY
B. I. Styro
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 533-538,
December, 1961
Original article submitted March 11, 1961
A group of problems associated with radioactive contamination of the atmosphere is
discussed. Principal attention is given to the study of natural radioactivity and to those
phenomena which are closely connected with meteorology or which assist in the solution of
a number of meteorological problems. While setting forth the results obtained thus far,
several questions are raised which need investigation.
With the widespread use of atomic energy, large quantities of radioactive gases and aerosols of artificial origin
have been deposited in the atmosphere during the last fifteen years; contamination of the atmosphere has occurred,
presenting a biological hazard. Aware of this, scientists have exhibited great interest in the study of atmospheric
radioactivity. The area of investigation, both for artificial and natural radioactivity, has been broadened, since the
fate of radioactive aerosols of both natural and artificial origin is identical in many respects despite a number of
fundamental differences.
The term 'nuclear meteorology" is not a standard one, but we find it convenient for the definition of those
geophysical problems connected with radioactive contamination of the atmosphere and with the solution of a number
of meteorological problems by radiometric methods.
This paper is chiefly devoted to the study of natural atmospheric radioactivity. There have been numerous
papers, published both here [1, 2] and abroad, on radioactive contamination of the atmosphere caused by man.
Immediately after the discovery of radioactivity [3, 4], scientists set about the study of radioactive contamina-
tion of the atmosphere, and a wealth of material, which is summarized in a monograph [5], has been accumulated
up to the present time.
One of the fundamental problems of nuclear meteorology is the study of the radioactive materials which form
part of the atmosphere [6, 7]. In papers published in the past sixty years [3, 6, 7], analyses were made of the nature
of atmospheric radioactivity, and it was shown that all the members of the radioactive families of uranium, thorium,
and actinium were present in air in the atomic state or as aerosols.
In recent years, a number of radioactive isotopes [5, 8] have been detected in the atmosphere, a list of which
is given in the table. This list will be increased continually, as our knowledge grows.
The assumption that the creation of these isotopes is explained by cosmic ray irradiation of the atmosphere is
bolstered by the increase in their concentration with height above the Earth's surface [5], and by the existence of a
latitude effect on the concentration [9, 10] which coincides with the change in cosmic ray intensity. The possibility
of atmospheric contamination by radioactive elements carried in with meteoritic matter [11, 12] is not excluded
either. Finally, an important source of radioactive contamination is the activity of man as a result of which the
atmosphere is contaminated by radon, thoron, and C14, as well as by Sr90, 037, 1131, and other fission products which
originate from nuclear weapons testing and from the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
The formation of radioactive isotopes in the atmosphere, as a result of natural processes, and their radioactive
decay enrich the air with both radioactive and stable isotopes. Such a situation, firstly, calls for the assumption
that there is a possibility of quantitative variations in atmospheric composition when there is a variation in the in-
tensity of the cosmic radiation which penetrates the atmosphere. For example, this can occur with variations in the
intensity of the Earth's magnetic field. Secondly, along with the continuous creation of some isotopes in the atmos-
phere, there occurs deposition on the surface of the Earth, thus one can conclude that some materials in the crust of
the Earth and in the deep sediments of the oceans owe their origin to nuclear reactions of atmospheric gases with
cosmic ray particles.
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All the things mentioned change our view of the atmosphere somewhat. It has been discovered that the
atmosphere is a medium in which intense changes in isotopic and chemical composition occur.
Some Radioactive Isotopes Which Are Formed in the
Atmosphere as a Result of Interactions of Protons,
Neutrons, and Mesons of Cosmic Origin with Nitrogen,
Oxygen, and Argon Nuclei
In the quantitative determination of the concentra-
tion of radioactive material in air, rainfall, individual
rain drops, or cloud elements, the experimenter encounters
great difficulties which are associated with the lack of
precise knowledge about the isotopic composition of
Radio- radioactive contamination. This applies especially to the
active determination of levels of short half-life contamination,
isotope since it then becomes necessary to determine from the
calculated concentration the isotopic activity not in the
measured sample but in the actual meteorological unit.
Analysis of air sample activity is done with all the instru-
ments which are in the armamentarium of the present-day
nuclear physicist. Sample collection is a separate, and
often very difficult, task for which one of the following
methods is used; accumulation in charcoal or a liquid,
activation, freezing, air filtration, aerosol electro-
deposition, sedimentation collection on sticky paper or
in pots, dynamic sample collection on a photoemulsion
layer, etc.
Half-life
Type of decay
and particle
energy, Mev
End product
of decay
H3
12.25 yr
p-(0.018)
He3
Bel
53 d
y(0.48)
LP
Bel?
2,740" yr
p-(O.55)
Blo
ci4
5720 yr
13-(0.15)
N14
Na"
2.6 yr
13*(0.54)
Ne"
Si"
100 yr
y(1.27)
0-(-4.1)
p32 ___>. sa2
p32
14.3 d
f3-(1.70)
S32
p33
25 d
0-(0.26)
S33
S3'
87 d
r(0.17)
Cl"
Cl"
4,4.10? yr
p-(0.71)
Ars'
Cl"
55 nun
6-(1.65; 2.96)
y(0.36; 1.31)
K49
Ar41
110 min
1311.2.4; 2.5)
y(1.37)
K41
Unfortunately, each of the, collection methods has
its disadvantages. In activation, for example, there is a
selectivity with respect to the sign of the charge on the
ions [5]. Porous filters are selective for aerosol dispersions
and absorb practically no inert gases. The electro-deposition method has a similar disadvantage. Absorption of
radioactive materials in charcoal and liquids permits the obtaining of results for radon only. Dynamic activation
of a photoemulsion layer [7, 131 is advantageous because it permits a simultaneous determination of the kind of
radioactive material and an estimate of its concentration, but the determination of concentration still requires great
improvement. A selectivity, which has not been successfully evaluated yet, is possible in connection with the air
flow over the photoemulsion and with the capture of aerosols. Up to now, studies have been made of a-radiograms
only, but the use of B -radiograms should be no less a possibility.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0.005 0.010 0.015 0.017 0.020 0.0225 0.0250 ?
At the present time, radiochemical methods are
used ever more widely for the separation of the different
components of radioactive atmospheric contamination.
These methods are quite effective for the determination
of long-lived isotopes, but, unfortunately, they are not
suitable for isotopes with short half-lives.
Many of the difficulties mentioned here are also
met with in the determination of radioactivity in rainfall.
Thus, the making-up of mixtures of rainwater with scintillating liquids seems a very good possibility for the
NN future.
\t'x
34
Methods were first developed in [6, 14, 15] and
10 14 98 22 26 30 cm
Fig. 1. Mass spectrum of ions carrying natural
radioactivity (radon decay products).
radioactivity measured for separate raindrops and various
cloud elements, in connection with which the radiographic
method proved to be very effective.
Radioactive material in the atmosphere is usually
transported by aerosols, therefore the study of the com-
position, dispersion and behavior of these aerosols is one of the most important problems. From the work of Wilkenning
[16], it is known that radon daughter products are associated with finely-dispersed aerosols. The distribution in
mobility and size of those aerosols which carry natural radioactivity is shown in Fig. 1. As can be seen from the
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figure, most particles have dimensions from 0.009 to 0.018 i. Similar experiments were repeated in [17] with some-
what improved methods. The results obtained did not contradict the ones presented above. The nature of these
aerosols and the selectivity of aerosols of a particular dispersion for radioactive materials is still unexplained. Nor
Is the problem definitely settled with respect to the state in which radon exists in the atmosphere; in the form of
Individual gas atoms, or as a gas which is absorbed on aerosols [5]. Individual particles of high activity, amounting
to 10-9 c [18], were detected recently by autoradiography. These particles were called 'thot". Their occurrence
sharply increases the activity of a sample and can create a false impression of the average concentration of con-
tamination in the air. Hot particles appear after atomic weapons tests and are detected in amounts of one particle
per 100-1000 m3 of filtered air.
The concentration of radioactive materials in the atmosphere changes both periodically and nonperiodically
with time. The periodic changes are associated with the periodicity in the change of day and night or of the seasons
of the year, the nonperiodic with features of atmospheric circulation, with changes in the weather or even in in-
dividual meteorological elements. Numerous attempts to establish a connection between changes in meteorological
elements and atmospheric radioactivity have generally turned out to be unsuccessful; different authors have established
only correlated, and often diametrically opposed, relationships. Atmospheric radioactivity is more or less precisely
correlated with wind speed (turbulence) and absolute humidity [5]. Generally, the concentration of radioactive con-
tamination in the surface layer decreases with increasing wind speed because of increased mixing. The amount of
natural atmospheric radioactivity and the absolute humidity change in one and the same direction. Usually, the
connection between complex meteorological elements, i.e., weather, and the concentration of radioactive materials
in the air is complicated and not well-defined, therefore the group of studies in this area should be extended in the
future.
The establishment of a connection between the concentration of radioactive materials in the air and larp-
scale atmospheric processes is of great interest. Marine air masses, as a rule, have less natural radioactivity than
continental air masses. Artificial radioactive contamination of the atmosphere leads to particularly heavy con-
tamination of the middle latitudes of the northern and southern hemispheres of the Earth because of the peculiarities
of atmospheric circulation.
In this situation, some correlation with atmospheric pressure is observed, but the development or breaking-down
of vertical motion, which may be associated with pressure or may be the cause of its change, is the actual reason
for changes in the radioactive contamination of the surface air layer.
Changes in meteorological elements cause marked variations in atmospheric radioactivity; thus, for example,
two measurements of natural radioactivity at the very same spot can differ from one another by two to three orders
of magnitude [5], with the average value of radon concentration above dry land approximately 10-13 C/cm3. Above
the sea, that kind of radioactivity is less by one to three orders of magnitude [5, 19], as a rule. The activity of
thoron and its decay products in the air has been studied considerably less well. On the average, thoron activity
over dry land is approximately 5.1047 C/cm3. Knowledge of the actinon group and its decay products is even less
reliable, but its activity is obviously an order of magnitude less than radon activity. Activity in the surface air layer
of the products from nuclear explosions is 0.01-0.001 that of radon activity.
Recently, a number of papers have been published in which the variations of the relative concentrations of
the different components that contribute to atmospheric activity were studied. These referred equally to natural
[5] and artificial activity [20- 22]. However, the presentation of measurements still does not give a complete picture
of the phenomenon.
Rainfall, being an important scavenger of radioactive aerosols from the atmosphere, can concentrate them in
large amounts. On the average, the amount of natural radioactivity in rain and snow is 2-3 ? 10-11C/g [5].
Regularity in the distribution of radioactive isotopes in the depth of the atmosphere,on the one hand, is
associated with the mechanism of penetration into it or the creation of radioactive isotopes within it, and, on the
other hand, reflects the structural properties of the atmosphere. Experimental studies point to great uniqueness in
this distribution. It is characterized by inversions and intermittent changes in the transition from one layer to
another. At the present time, the distribution of radon and its daughter products has been studied more than any
other, and several theoretical schemes for its circulation have been constructed [23, 24].
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Interesting work has been done in the USA where the concentration of CIA and 113 in the stratosphere [25] was
studied by collecting samples with large plastic balloons and analyzing the samples in laboratories on the ground.
These experiments indicated a sharp increase in the concentration of C14 and Hs in the stratosphere in comparison
to that in the troposphere, which can be explained, firstly, by more intense creation in the stratosphere, and, secondly,
by their accumulation in the stratosphere as a consequence of thermonuclear weapons testing.
\
Atmospheric limit
5
110
Surface of the earth
Fig. 2. A qualitative scheme for the circulation of
radioactive materials in the atmosphere; positive
terms: 1) inflow of radioactive material (r. m.)
because of emission of emanations from the soil;
2) inflow of r. m. with dust; 3) inflow of r. m.
by evaporation and penetration of spray into the
atmosphere; 4) inflow of r. m. by the combustion
of carbonaceous fuels; 5) inflow of r. m. with
meteoritic material; 6) creation of isotopes by the
action of cosmic rays; 7) penetration of r. m.
through atomic weapons testing and the use of atomic
energy for peaceful purposes: negative terms: 8)
radioactive disintegration; 9) washing-out
of r? m. by rain; 10) deposition of r. m. with dust;
11) departure of r. m. beyond the limits of the
atmosphere.
hydrosphere [5]. However, this problem is still unsolved
because of the great complexity in the interactions of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
At the present time, the study of the penetration of radioactive materials into the atmosphere from the Earth's
surface along with dust, about which there is no quantitative data whatever, is of interest. As a verification of the
important role of this process, one might perhaps consider the work [29] in which it was shown that, in connection
with measurements of artificial radioactivity, the ratio of the concentration of long-lived isotopes (observed one to
two months after sample collection) to a short-lived isotopes was always less than one on a mountain, and more than
one in a valley. Quantitative evaluations of this process are of paramount importance for calculation of the accumu-
lation of radioactive fallout on the Earth [30].
No less ahead of us is the problem of investigating the transfer of radioactive materials, along with air masses,
between continents and oceans, between various latitudes, and between the northern and southern hemispheres.
Radioactive isotopes which are created in the stratosphere, then penetrate into the troposphere, and from it
are deposited on Earth. This situation can serve as a source of information about air mass mixing processes between
stratosphere and troposphere which is of great interest to meteorology. Thus, the problems of radioactive material
balance in the atmosphere open up a very broad perspective. In connection with this, it is possible to set up the
problem of study of the density of deposition of the various radioactive and nonradioactive isotopes on the Earth,
their ultimate fate, and their possible role in the formation of the elements distributed in the Earth's crust.
Artificial contamination of the atmosphere by atomic weapons testing and by industrial use of atomic energy
puts a number of problems before the research meteorologist. First of all, it is possible to study the processes of
turbulent mixing and diffusion in the surface layer of the atmosphere because of the presence of easily detected
Study of the time variations in the concentration of
radioactive isotopes in the air make it possible to investi-
gate atmospheric turbulence. Yearly variations in artificial
contamination of the atmospheric surface layer points out
the existence of seasonal variations; a maximum is ob-
served in the spring, a minimum in the fall [26, 27].
These seasonal variations are connected with seasonal
changes in the penetrability of the tropopause and with
mobility of the stratospheric air mass, and, in turn, can
serve as a means for investigating the properties of the
tropopause and the mechanism of interchange between
troposphere and stratosphere.
A scheme for the processes of atmospheric con-
tamination by radioactive isotopes and atmospheric
purification is shown in Fig. 2. It would be advisable
to evaluate quantitatively the various components in the
balance of radioactive isotopes which get into the atmos-
phere and to set up the problem of the quantitative study
of the circulation of the different isotopes between the
atmosphere, on the one hand, and the lithosphere and
hydrosphere of the Earth, on the other. The study of these
processes has only begun at the present time. Only the
circulation of radon and its daughter products has been
described quantitatively [28]. There has also been an
attempt to calculate quantitatively the entrance of radio-
carbon, beryllium, and tritium into the lithosphere and
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radioactive material in the air. Recommendations for the placing of nuclear reactors must be based on the technical
results of these studies.
The study of the temporal course of meteorological processes by the investigation of the radioactivity of
meteorological elements is also of interest, for example, the residence time of water and carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, the transfer of air masses between continents, the time for formation and growth of drops in a cloud,
etc. [5].
In conclusion, one can say that nuclear meteorology is beginning to attract the attention of numerous in-
vestigators, and that the group of problems calling for solution is very broad and interesting.
1.
2.
3. J. Elster and H. Geitel, Phys. Zs. 2, 40, 590 (1901).
4. V. Gess, Ionization of the Atmosphere and Its Causes [in Russian] (Moscow-Leningrad, Gosizdat, 1930).
5. B. I. Styro, Problems of Nuclear Meteorology [in Russian] Inst. Geol. i Geograf. AN Lit. SSR, Vil'nyus (1959).
6. B. I. Styro and Ch. A. Garbalyauskas, ,Tr. AN Lit. SSR, Ser. B, 2, 21 (1955).
7. Ch. A. Garbalyauskas, Tr. AN Lit. SSR, Ser. B, 1, 69 (1956).
8. D. Lal, E. Goldberg and M. Koide, Phys. Rev. Let. 3, 8, 350 (1959).
9. W. Libby, Scient. Am. 4, 38 (1954).
10. D. Lal, P. Walhotra and B. Petrs, J. Atmos. and Terr. Phys. 4, 12, 306 (1958).
11. T. Kohman and W. Ehmann, Cosmic-ray induced radioactivity in meteorite and tektites, Radioisotopes Scient.
Res. (International Conference, Paris, Sept. 9-20, 1957), Vol. 2 London - New York - Paris - Los Angelos -
Pergamon Press (1958), p. 661.
12. F. L. Fureman and Derelice, J. Geophys. Res. 64, 8, 1102 (1959).
13. B. I. Styro and Ch. A. Garbalyauskas, Tr. AN Lit. SSR, Ser. B, 3, 55 (1955).
14. B. I. Styro, Nauchnye soobshcheniya AN Lit. SSR, Inst. Geol. i-G-eograf., 3, 61 (1956).
15. V. Yu. Potsyus. Nauchnye soobshcheniya AN Lit. SSR, Inst. Geol. i Geograf. 10, 1, 63 (1959).
16. M. Wilkenning, Rev. Scient, Instrum. 23, 1, 13 (1952).
17. K. Stierstadt and M. Papp, Atomkernenergie 5, 12, 459 (1960).
18. W. Marquardt, Z. Meteorol. 13, 9, 10, 237-(1959).
19. S. G. Malakhov, Izv. AN SSSR, Ser. geofiz. 4, 620 (1961).
20. D. Peirson, R. Crooks and E. Fischer, Radioactive fallout in air and rain, Atomic Energy Res. Establ. No. 3359
(1960).
21. W. Anderson et al., Nature (England) 186, 4720, 223 (1960).
22. A. Wensel, Atompraxis 5, 10-11, 419 (1959).
23. B. I. Styro, Nauchnye soobshcheniya AN Lit. SSR. Inst. Geol. i Geograf. 10, 1, 39 (1959).
24. S. G. Malakhov, Izv. AN SSSR, Ser. geofiz. 9, 1344 (1959).
25. F. Hagemann et al., Science 130, 3375, 542 (1959).
26. N. Stewart, Bull. Schwez. Akad. met. Wiss. 14, 5-6, 407 (1958).
27. L. Machta and R. List, J. Geophys. Res. 64, 9, 1267 (1959).
28. B. I. Styro, Nauchnye soobshcheniya AN Lit. SSR. Inst. Geol. i Geograf. 1, 55 (1959).
29. R. Reiter, Naturwissenschaften 47, 13, 300 (1960).
30. V. P. Shvedob et al., "Atomnaya gnergiya," 5, 5, 577 (1958).
LITERATURE CITED
L. I. Gedeonov, "Atomnaya L'nergiya," 3,
3,
260
(1957).
0. I. Leipunskii, "Atomnaya gnergiya," 4,
1,
63
(1958).
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover- to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
1189
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LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
DELAYED-NEUTRON YIELDS IN THE FISSION OF Pu239 AND
Th232 BY 14.5 MEV ENERGY NEUTRONS
V. I. Shpakov, K. A. Petrzhak, M. A. Bak,
S. S. Kovalenko and 0. I. Kostochkin
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 11, No. 6 ?pp. 539-540,
December, 1961
Original article submitted July 18, 1961
A knowledge of the delayed-neutron yields as a function of the neutron energy causing the fission is of
theoretical and practical importance. Existing data DJ on the fission of various nuclei by thermal neutrons and
fission spectrum neutrons show that the total delayed-neutron yield per fission event for odd nuclei does not depend
to a great extent on the excitation energy of the fissioning nucleus. Measurements of delayed-neutron yields in the
fission of U235 by monochromatic neutrons with energies of 2.4, 3.3 and 14.5 Mev [2] show that up to 3.3 Mev- the
yield does not change, at an energy of 14.5 Mev it is doubled. The delayed-neutron yields during the fission of even
nuclei (U238 and Th232) are also doubled when the energy of the bombarding neutrons from the fission spectrum is
increased to 14.5 Mev (3), In the theoretical consideration [4] it is assumed that the probability of emission of a
delayed neutron from a given nucleus is constant. The change in the delayed-neutron yield with increase in the
excitation energy of the fissioning nucleus is therefore determined by the change in the yield of nuclei emitting
the delayed neutrons. These nuclei are mainly near the peaks of the mass distribution curve. It is known that the
yield of fragments corresponding to a peak remains practically constant over a wide range of energies of particles
causing fission. Furthermore, with increase in the excitation energy the radioactive chains are shortened, which
should lead in the general case to a reduction in the total yield of the nuclei emitting delayed neutrons. In the
region of symmetrical fission, where the yields of fragments increase considerably with increase in the excitation
energy, there is little probability of the existence of nuclei emitting delayed neutrons since these nuclei are at a
distance from the closed neutron shells. This is confirmed by an analysis of the decay curves given in [3]. It might
therefore be expected that the total yield of delayed neutrons should decrease somewhat with increase in the ex-
citation energy.
As shown above, the yield of delayed neutrons was measured with thermal neutrons ,fission neutrons and with
14.5 Mev energy neutrons only for U. We measured the yield of delayed neutrons in the fission of P239 by 14.5
Mev energy neutrons. For this nucleus we know the yield of delayed neutrons for fission by thermal neutrons and
neutrons of the fission spectrum. For comparison with known data, we also measured the 'delayed-neutron yield for
the fission of Th232 by neutrons with the same energy.
The delayed-neutron yield was defined as the ratio of the number of delayed neutrons forming in the fissioning
material in 1 sec with saturation,to the number of fissions in the specimen during this time. A diagram of the ex-
periment is shown in the figure. The plutonium or thorium specimens were 5 cm discs (2), enclosed in cadmium
containers of 1 mm thickness. They were irradiated by a stream of neutrons (1) with an energy of 14.5 Mev, obtained
in a neutron generator in the T (d, n) He4 reaction. The target (3) immediately behind the specimen was irradiated
at the same time in order to determine the number' offissions in the specimen. The target was a thin layer of fission-
able material applied to a stainless steel backing and was one of the electrodes in the ionization chamber (4). The
diameters of the target and specimen were the same.
To determine the number of delayed neutrons emitted by the specimen, after irradiation the specimen was
placed for about 0,2 sec in a neutron detector (5), at a distance of 1.5 m from the neutron source. The detector
was in the form of 17 SNM-5A boron counters enclosed in a common paraffin block. The efficiency of the neutron
detector and its dependence on the neutron energy was determined by means of calibrated neutron sources with
energies of 50, 200, 850 key and 5 Mev. The pulses from the neutron detector were recorded on motion picture
film together with time marks.
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The moment of the end of irradiation, i.e., the switching-off of the neutron generator ion current, made to
coincide with the ejection of the specimen, was also recorded on the film with an accuracy of 0.02 sec. The
neutron activity decay curve was plotted from the obtained data. The
number of delayed neutrons forming in the specimen was determined
3 by extrapolating this curve to the end of irradiation. Since the time
for feeding the specimen into the neutron detector was 0.2 sec and the
To amplifier shortest period of the delayed neutrons was 0.16 sec, it was essential
to estimate the contribution of neutrons with such a period to the total
delayed-neutron yield. For this purpose, the specimen was placed in-
side the neutron detector and irradiated for various periods of time
followed by recording of the delayed neutrons. The time of irradiation
varied between 0.1 sec and 10 min.
Cd
Diagram of experiment on the deter-
mination of delayed-neutron yields:
1) direction of neutron stream; 2)
specimen in cadmium container; 3)
target; 4) ionization chamber for
recording fission events; 5) delayed-
neutron detector; 6) SNM-5A neutron
counters; 7) paraffin block.
certain characteristics of the fission process.
neutrons from certain nuclei at different excitation energies of the fissioning nuclei and also by studying the corre-
lation between the -particles, y -quanta and delayed neutrons.
The obtained data indicate that during irradiation to saturation
the contribution of neutrons having a period of 0.16 sec does not exceed
the error of the experiment. The number of delayed neutrons at the
zero time can therefore be obtained by extrapolating the curve from
0.4 sec. The time of irradiation needed for saturation was determined
experimentally by irradiating specimens for 1 hour and then analyzing
the neutron activity decay curve. It was found that if there are neutrons
with periods between 1 min and 1 hour, their contribution does not
exceed the error of the experiment.
The following data were obtained from the measurements: The
total delayed-neutron yield per fission is 0.0130 ? 0.0015 for Pu239
and 0.075 ? 0.007 for Th232. The data for Th232 agree with the results
of [2, 3]. The delayed-neutron yield for the fission of Pu239 by thermal
neutrons is 0.0061 and during fission by fission spectrum neutrons it is 0.0063
of a neutron per fission [1]. It therefore also follows from our data that
the total delayed-neutron yield for the fission of PU239 is doubled on
changing to neutrons with an energy of 14.5 Mev. The increase in the
total delayed-neutron yield is presumably due to the increased prob-
ability of emission of a neutron from the given nucleus, depending on
This hypothesis can be checked by studying the emission of delayed
LITERATURE CITED
1. G. Keepin, T. Wimett and R. Zeigler, Phys. Rev. 107, 1044 (1957); J. Nucl. Energy 6, 1 (1957); G. R.
Keepin and T. F. Wimett, Reports of theInternational Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy
(Geneva, 1955), Vol. 4 [in Russian] (Moscow, Acad. Sci. USSR Press, 1957), p. 197.
2. B. P. Maksyutenko, *Atomnaya gnergiya," 1 474 (1959).
3. K. Sun, R. Charpie, F. Pecjak, B. Jennings, J. Nechaj and A. Allen, Phys. Rev. 79, 3 (1950).
4. G. R. Keepin, "Atomnaya Energiya," 4, 3, 250 (1958); A. K. Pappas, Transactions of the Second Inter-
national Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy [Geneva, 1958). Vol. 2, Selected Reports of
non-Soviet Scientists [in Russian] (Moscow, Atomic Energy Press, 1959), p. 308.
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some oral! of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover-to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
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THE KINETIC ENERGY OF Th232 PHOTOFISSION FRAGMENTS
B. A. Bochagov, A. P. Komar, G. E. Solyakin
and V. I. Fadeev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 540-543,
December, 1961
Original article submitted April 24, 1961
By studying the kinetic energy distribution of fragments, using the pulse conservation law, we can obtain the
most probable ratio of the fragment masses 21 and compare it with the ratio determined radiochemically. By
1111
comparing these ratios obtained by such different methods we can obtain reliable values of n-1 . free from errors
resulting from the use of each method separately. The presence of radiochemical data [1] on the fragment masses
of Th232 photofission, obtained under very similar conditions (Ey max 69 Mev), led us to undertake the present work.
It would be interesting to compare the results obtained in the study of Th"' photofission with results obtained in the
study of Th232 fission by neutrons with an energy of 14 Mev [2].
The experimental method used in this work is the same as the method used in our laboratory to study the
photofission of U238 [3]. Changes were made in the recording part of the apparatus. The pulses corresponding to
heavy and light fragments, after amplification and forming, were fed to the vertical and horizontal plates, respectively,
of a cathode oscillograph. In this way each fission event was marked on the oscillograph screen by a bright spot,
the coordinates of which were proportional to the kinetic
energies of the fragments. The coordinate axes (the axes
of the kinetic energy of the fragments) were marked on
3000
E2, Mev
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
3.0
2.0
mH
mL
2.2 1.8 40
1.4
S 10 15 20 25 30 35 401/5 SO 55 60 65 70 7580
Ef, Mev
Fig. 1. Contour diagram of the energy distribution
of Th232 nuclei photofission fragments at Ey max
= 70 Mev.
2000
1000
1.11.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2123252.72.9
it2t
/772
Fig. 2. Mass distribution of photofission
fragments of Th nuclei.
the screen with a special device. The position of the bright spots on the screen was recorded automatically by a
photographic apparatus. Usually about 150 spots were recorded on one exposure. This number was determined by
the probability of superimposition of individual spots. The calibration and quality of operation of the coordinate
circuit were checked after each five frames.
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The target was a preparation of thorium nitrate of 150 ug/cm2 thickness, applied to an aluminized collodion
film of 30 ug/cm2 thickness (aluminum + collodion). The target was at a distance of 2 m from the y -radiation
source. About 10 fission events were recorded in 1 min.
When processing the results of the investigations,
26.000 recorded fission events were used. Figure 1 shows
a half of the contour diagram where, as for all subsequent
curves, in accordance with established tradition the kinetic
2500
2000
1000
SOO
100 200
E, Mev
Pig. 3. Spectrum of total kinetic energy of photo-
fission fragments of Th232 nuclei.
142
energy values were used without corrections for losses
in the target and for the ionization defect. On the
contour diagram for Th, as for U238, two
and "crosspieces" can readily be seen. The peaks of
the 'hills" correspond to the most probable kinetic
energies of the light and heavy fragments.
.700
200
100
0
1..9-1.8
2,0 -1..9
2.1-2.0
2_2-2.1
2.3-2.2
2.4- 3
2.5-2.4
2.6 - 2.5
.
10 100 150 200
E, Mev
Fig. 4. Distribution of total kinetic energy E =
=E1 + E2 of photofission fragments of Th232
nuclei for various mass ratios of the fragments
= . The scale along the ordinate axis
E2
for all graphs is the same and is shown on the
graph for 2-12- - 1.1 - 1.0.
The presence of two 'hills" and "crosspieces" is probably due to the existence of two types of nuclear fission:
asymmetric and symmetric. The crosspiece is obviously partially due to the energy losses of the fragments in the
target. However, this effect is not decisive. The clearly expressed third peak in the mass distribution, corresponding
to symmetrical fission, was detected previously in the fission of the Ra228 nucleus [4). In a number of cases the
position of the peak of the heavy fragments in the mass distribution is constant. This leads to a systematic reduction
in the ratio -112-- as the mass of the fissioning nucleus increases. For example, the ratios of LI - for Th232, U238
1111
and CP2 are equal to 1.56; 1.36 and 1.31, respectively. Figure 2 is a curve for the fission fragment yield as a
function of -r?n2- - . The most probable value is 212- =1.56. This value coincides (within the limits of error
m1 E2
of the experiment) with the value of 1.52, obtained radiochemically [1]. The total energy distribution of the frag-
ments E = E1 + E2 is shown in Fig. 3. The most probable value of E is less and the half-width of the maximum of the
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curve is greater than the corresponding values for the case of U238 photofission. Figure 4 shows the total kinetic
energy distribution for various ratios of III In contrast to the curves for 08, the Fig. 4 curves have no clearly-,
expressed second maximum, although some hints of its existence can be seen on the curve for values of I-112? between
1.1 and 1.2.
Rotating the twin camera through 1800 about an axis perpendicular to the y -radiation beam did not affect
the results of the measurements.
In conclusion we give a table of values which are usually used to characterize the energy distributions of
nuclear fission fragments.
Characteristics of Energy Distribution of Th222 Photofission Fragments
Most probable values of fragment energies,
Mev
without corrections
for the target thick-
ness and ionization
defect
with corrections
for the target thick-
ness and ionization
defect
Heavy
Light
Heavy + Light
52? 2
89? 2
141? 3
52+ 2+ 6.8 = 61 ? 2
89 + 2+ 5.6 = 97 ? 2
143+ 2+12=157 ? 3
Half-width of peak
of total energy
Half-width of peak
of light and
heavy fragments
42 ? 2
28 ? 1
The authors would like to thank the group operating the synchrotron of the Institute of Physiotherapy, Academy
of Sciences, USSR for continuously operating the accelerator and also G. N. Nikolaev and K. Shvets for their technical
assistance in this work.
LITERATURE CITED
1. D. Hiller and D. Martin, Phys. Rev. 90, 581 (1953).
2. A. N. Protopopov, M. I. Kuznetsov and E. G. Dermendzhiev, ZhETF 38, 384 (1960).
3. B. A. Bochagov, A. P. Komar and G. E. Solyakin, ZhiTF 38, 1374 (1960).
4. R. Jensen and A. Fairhall, Phys. Rev. 109, 942 (1958).
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translation. A complete list of the cover- to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
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A PHOTOEMULSION FOR NUCLEAR INVESTIGATIONS (PR-2)
N. A. Perfilov, N. R. Novikova, V. I. Zakharov
and Yu. I. Vikhrev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 543-544.
December, 1961
Original article submitted April 27, 1961
The first high density (60 grains per 100 ?) in traces of relativistic particles was obtained in our specially
fine-grain emulsion (PR) by using the method of double sensitization: sensitization by gold and hypersensitization
by triethanolamine [1]. However, in some cases the poor preservation
40 of the photolayers hypersensitized in the triethanolamine means that
the second stage has to be left out.
In order to obtain sufficiently high density in traces of relativistic
particles without additional sensitization of the triethanolamine, ex-
periments were conducted to develop a new emulsion. Since the PR
emulsion sensitized only with gold records traces of relativistic particles
with a density of 20-25 grains per 100 ?, it should be expected that
under the conditions of synthesis of our emulsions (an excess of AgNO3
during emulsification) even a small increase in size of the micro-
crystal could lead to a considerable increase in the trace density.
In fact, in our experiments ,during the synthesis,an increase in the
most probable dimensions of the AgBr microcrystals from 0.08 to
0.12 ? led to an increase in trace density of the relativistic particles
to 40-45 grains per 100 ?.
o
y, 20
bO
0.04 0.08 0.12 0,16 0.2 0,24
d,
Fig. 1. Curve of distribution of AgBr
microcrystals in the finished emulsion
PR-2 (d is the crystal dimension).
a
Fig. 2. Microphotographs of traces of relativistic (a) and slow (b) electrons.
Figure 1 shows the distribution of AgBr microcrystals in the finished PR-2 emulsion. Figure 2 shows micro-
photographs of traces of relativistic and slow electrons recorded in the PR-2 emulsion.
LITERATURE CITED
1. N. A. Perfilov, N. R. Novikova and E. I. Prokoreva, Reports of the Conference on the Method of Thick-Layer
Photoemulsions [in Russian] Dubna, Nuclear Research Institute (1957).
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AN APPARATUS FOR STUDYING HEAT EXCHANGE IN FLUIDIZED-
BED REACTORS
N. I. Syromyatnikov, L. K. Vasnova,and Yu. N. Shimanskii
Translated from Atomnaya fiergiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 544-546,
December, 1961
Original article submitted March 28, 1961
Recently, papers have appeared on the leading designs of fluidized-bed reactors in which the nuclear fuel is
suspended in the stream of coolant circulating throughout the closed circuit (1, 2). These reactors have a number
of advantages over heterogeneous reactors. However, as yet fluidized-bed reactors have not been studied to any
great extent.
In the development of heat exchange equipment with a fluidized bed an important part is played by the ex-
perimental study of heat transfer from the particles (the sources of heat) to the medium cooling them. In the S. M.
Kirov Urals Polytechnical Institute a high-frequency method (3) has been developed to study heat exchange in a
fluidized bed, including heat exchange between particles and the medium under stationary conditions.
For processes of heat exchange between the particles and medium in a fluidized bed the thermal criteria, as
for ordinary conditions of heat exchange, are:
ad v
and rr=? ,
a
where a is the coefficient of heat transfer from the particles to the medium; d is the particle diameter; X is the
coefficient of thermal conductivity of the medium; v is the coefficient of kinematic viscosity of the medium; a
is the coefficient of temperature conductivity of the medium.
The determining criteria, describing the effect of the hydrodynamics of the process on the heat exchange
intensity, are the pseudoliquefaction number W or the Fedorov criterion Fe and also the Reynolds criterion Re. In
some cases we must add simplexes, giving the ratio of the reactor diameter to the particle diameter , to the
number of determining criteria.
Dr
It is known that heat exchange between the particles and medium in a fluidized bed with a ratio of ? 20
becomes self-simulating with respect to the reactor dimensions. This condition is observed even in apparatuses
with small diameters, starting with 20 mm, since the dimensions of the particles in the fluidized bed are fairly small.
The criterional equation is therefore written in the form
or, for a gas,
Nu= f (Re; Pr; W)
Nu= f ((Re ; W).
The operation of the proposed apparatus is based on a method where the continuous liberation of heat in the
volume of particles forming the fluidized bed is due to eddy currents of a high-frequency magnetic field. This
makes it possible to imitate the liberation of heat in the fuel of a fluidized-bed reactor and the transfer of heat
from the fuel elements to the medium. The control of the heat liberated by the eddy currents depends on the
frequency and intensity of the magnetic field, on the particle dimensions and the electromagnetic properties of
the particle material. To change the magnetic field intensity, various inductors must be used and the operating
conditions of the high-frequency generator must be changed.
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For each current frequency there is an optimum particle size for which the power liberated per unit volume
has the greatest value. The table gives these characteristics for copper and steel.
Induction tempering generators with a frequency of
Optimum Particle Sizes for Copper and Steel
Frequency of
current,
f. cps
Copper at 20?C. Steel at 20?C,
p =1.7.10-6 0.cm, p =io?io-en? cm,
1 j =100
?
300-500 kc can be used as the high-frequency source for
studying the heat exchange of the particles. Materials
with a low magnetic permeability must be used to obtain
fluidized-bed conditions when using the high-frequency
50 4.4 cm method for heating the particles. Ferromagnetic materials
2000 0.7 cm cannot be used for the particles since the particles would
106 0.3 mm be arranged along the magnetic lines of force. Our in-
vestigations showed that the most suitable particle
materials are copper, aluminum and graphite.
The heat liberation in the bed can therefore be controlled over wide limits by changing the inductor design
(diameter, height, number of turns), the quality of the particle material, the particle sizes and the field intensity;
high volume densities of the heat flow can then be obtained.
The diagram of an experimental apparatus for studying heat exchange is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a glass
reactor of diameter 20-40 mm, height 300-400 mm, with double walls. The air is evacuated from the space between
the walls. Particles with 0.2-2 mm diameters are poured onto the supporting grid. The flow of fluidizing medium
is measured by a valve arrangement, the temperature of the medium in the stationary process before and after the
reactor is measured by inertialess copper- constantan thermocouples of 0.1 mm diameter. The temperature of the
:32 cm
5 cm
2.3 cm
Fig. 1. Apparatus for studying heat
exchange: 1) charge forming the
fluidized bed; 2) supporting grid;
3) generator inductor; 4) thermo-
couples; 5) electronic potentiometer;
6) flow meter; 7) blower.
medium at the reactor outlet during the transitional pro-
cesses is recorded on the tape of an EPP-09 fast electronic
potentiometer or a loop oscillograph.
r,
t
1.
0.5
075
0,25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
.sec
Fig. 2. Cooling curve for the medium of the
fluidized bed.
The experiment was performed in the following
order. Before the start of the experiment the reactor was
filled with material, the amount of which was selected
to give a fluidized bed of a certain structure. The blower
was then used to set the charge into motion and a high-frequency voltage was applied to the inductor. When
stationary conditions were reached the temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the reactor and the flow of the medium
were measured. After this the high-frequency generator was switched off and the transitional cooling process
commenced, the temperature of the medium being recorded by an electronic potentiometer or oscillograph. To
determine the heat transfer coefficient from the measured values and the known total heat exchange surface it was
essential to know the temperature of the particle surface. It could be determined calorimetrically with a special
calorimeter or by the ?flow method, using the same reactor for this purpose.
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The following is used as the main calculation equation for stationary conditions
Qs
a=--
(IT?if)F
(1)
where Qs is the amount of heat transmitted by the particles to the stream of medium in the stationary process; F is
the total surface of particles in the fluidized bed; t T is the temperature of the particle surface; tf is the mean
temperature of the medium, equal to the arithmetical mean of the temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the
reactor. In Eq. (1) the amount of transmitted heat, according to the measurements, is equal to
Gc(t;-4), (2)
where G is the gravimetric flow of the medium; c is the specific heat of the medium; 4 and t? are the tempera-
tures'of the medium at the inlet and outlet of the reactor.
The thermal balance equation compiled for the period of cooling of the particles can be used to determine
the temperature of the particle surface t T with the condition of small internal thermal resistance of the particles
and with very small heat losses to the surrounding medium.
When using the "flow" method the flow of medium through the reactor in the cooling process remains the
same as under the stationary conditions.
The amount of heat under nonstationary conditions Qns is determined from the expression
Qns=Gc
(3)
where T is the period of cooling; tk is the mean integral temperature of the medium, obtained from the cooling
curve of the medium, taken with the potentiometer or oscillograph.
The cooling curve obtained experimentally for one of the systems is shown in Fig. 2 in dimensionless coordinates.
The value of Qns can be determined using this curve and the given equation. The particle temperature tT and then
the coefficient of heat transfer a are obtained experimentally from the found value of Qns from the equation of the.
thermal balance.
The experiments showed that the developed method is sufficiently simple and accurateeand is perfectly suitable
for studying heat exchange in reactors between particles and gas (liquid) and also for studying heat exchange during
boiling of the fluidizing medium.
LITERATURE CITED
1. J. Morris, C. Nicholls and F. Fenning, Trans. Instn. Chem. Engrs. 3, 4, 168 (1956).
2. B. V. Petunin, Heat Engineering in Nuclear Installations [in Russian] (Moscow, State Atomic Energy Press,
1960).
3. N. I. Syromyatnikov, A High-Frequency Method for Studying Heat Exchange in a Fluidized Bed. Transactions
of the S. M. Kirov Urals Polytechnical Institute, Collection 96 [in Russian] (Sverdlovsk, 1960), p. 70.
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical literature may well be available in English translatioh. A complete list of the cover- to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
1198
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MEASURING THE RELATIVE FAST-NEUTRON FLUX DISTRIBUTION
IN THE VVR-M REACTOR WITH SEMICONDUCTOR
DETECTING ELEMENTS
R. F. Konopleva and S. R. Novikov
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 546-547,
December, 1961
Original article submitted February 13, 1961
When using reactors to study the effect of nuclear radiation on the properties of a solid it is essential to know
the fast-neutron distribution in the experimental channels.
For the relative measurement of the fast-neutron flux the "threshold indicator' method is usually used, using
foils of sulfur, phosphorus and aluminum [11, the energy thresholds for which are between 1.5 and 6 Mev.
As well as this fairly simple method there is a method based on the use of the electrical conductivity of semi-
conductors during bombardment by fast neutrons (2].
When semiconductors are irradiated with fast neutrons crystal lattice defects are formed, the concentration of
which is proportional to the integral neutron flux. The appearance of defects leads to a change in the concentration
of current carriers, i.e., to a change in electrical conductivity.*
0.8
0.6
0 10 15
Integral flux, nvt ? 10-14
neutrons/cm2
Fig. 1. Dependence of electrical con-
ductivity of n-type germanium on the
integral fast-neutron flux.
Neutron flux, arbitrary units
50 150 250 350 450 550
Distance from bottom of channel, mm
Fig. 2. Relative fast-neutron flux distribution
in the vertical channel of the reflector.
*Crystal lattice defects form during irradiation of semiconductors by fast neutrons with energies exceeding a
certain critical value. The critical energy depends on the actual crystal structure of the semiconductor. For
example, for germanium Enr 300 ev. The defects can also be caused by y- quanta, however the number of
defects formed by one y -quantum = 1.8 -10") [3] is much less than the number of defects formed by a fast
neutron (Nn =1.6) [4]. Since in the described experiment the y -quanta flux (reduced to 1 Mev) was of the same
order as the fast-neutron flux, the fractions of defects caused by the y-quanta can be neglected.
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The dependence of the electrical conductivity of n-type germanium on the integral fast-neutron flux is shown
in Fig. 1 [5]. As can be seen from the figure, the electrical conductivity at first changes linearly with the flux.*
The rate of change in the electrical conductivity is proportional to the fast-neutron flux intensity, and we used this
fact to measure the relative fast-neutron flux distribution in the channels of the reactor in the A. F. Ioffe Physico-
technical Institute, Academy of Sciences, USSR.
The neutron-flux detecting elements were specimens of n-type germanium with a specific resistance of 1
ohm ? cm,measuring 10 x 1 x 1 mm. The specimens, in 0.5 mm thick cadmium containers, s* were placed in
the vertical channel of the reflector along the height of the active zone at an equal distance from one another.
g 0.5
2
(
42/51 62t0 M2 7.44 4/55 848 47 6/.0 149 21/58 30/54 343 WS,
Channels of reflector
Fig. 3. Relative fast-neutron flux distribution in the
experimental channels of a reactor at the level of the
center of the active zone: x) measurements using
the activation of gold foils; e) measurements using
the change in electrical conductivity of germanium.
Fig. 4. Arrangement of channels: 1) vertical
channels; 2) active zone; 3) water cavity;
4) beryllium reflector.
The electrical conductivity of the specimens was
measured during irradiation by the change in the current
intensity with a constant voltage applied to the specimen.
Figure 2 gives the relative fast-neutron flux distribution in one of the vertical channels of the reflector.
Figure 3 gives the relative fast-neutron flux distribution in all experimental channels at the level of the center of
the active zone. The given distribution was obtained for the arrangement of the active zone of the reactor shown
in Fig. 4. For comparison,Fig. 3 gives the curve of the relative resonance neutron flux distribution plotted for the
activation of gold foils.
This method can therefore be used for the fairly simple measurement of relative fast-neutron flux distributions
for energies above 300 ev.
LITERATURE CITED
1.
V. A. Dulin, V. P. Mashkovich, et al., "Atomnaya Energiya," 9,
4,
318
(1960).
2.
E. Aleksandrovich and M. Bartenbakh, "Atomnaya Energiya," 8,
5,
451
(1960).
" The value of the integral flux up to which the change in a will remain linear is determined by the initial re-
sistance of the specimen and can reach 1018 neutrons/cm2.
The activation of germanium under the action of thermal neutrons causes chemical impurities which also affect
the change in electrical conductivity of the specimens.
In our work the measurements were made in channels where the ratio of the thermal-neutron flux to the fast-
neutron flux did not exceed 10 and a 0.5 mm thick cadmium screen was sufficient to reduce the contribution of
thermal neutrons to the change in electrical conductivity to a value of about 10%.
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3. Fizika tverdogo tela. 1, 9, 1381 (1959).
4. Phys. Rev. 98, 6, 1742 (1955); Phys. Rev. 99, 4, 1171 (1955).
5. Uspekhi fiz. nauk. 50, 1, 51 (1953).
THE USE OF RADIOLUMINESCENCE, CAUSED BY a-RADIATION
OF Po215, TO ANALYZE ORES AND MINERALS
I. N. Plaksin, M. A. Belyakov and L. P. Starchik
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 548-549,
December, 1961
Original article submitted March 18, 1961
The radioluminescence of minerals has long been known and is a well-studied phenomenon [1] which can be
used to analyze ores and minerals. Luminescence under the action of x-rays and y -rays is used in industry. Cathodo-
luminescence is widely used for the analysis of ores and minerals [2].
Despite the successful design of the cathodoluminescence-apparatus
developed by the "Meldianobr" Institute [3], its use in the field is not
always convenient since it is comparatively heavy and needs an electric
power supply.
When using radioluminescence to analyze ores and minerals we
only need a radioactive isotope, the source of radiation. Beta- and
gamma-radiation excite a much weaker luminescence than a-radiation
of the same activity. Po215 is an especially convenient source of a-
radiation.
Fig. 1. Instrument for a-luminescence
analysis: 1) a-source holder; 2) Pou?
layer; 3) lens; 4) plate with minerals.
The half life of Pon? is 138.3 days; the energy of a-radiation
E = 5.3 Mev; the maximum path of the a-particles in air is 3.8 cm
(under normal conditions). The a- radiation of P02/5 is not accompanied
by the radiation of other forms; during the decay of polonium there is
only relatively weak gamma-radiation (one gamma-quantum per 105
a-particles), which means that this source is comparatively simple to
deal with. To prevent contamination of the surrounding objects by the polonium source it is sufficient to cover the
layer of polonium with a protective film or thin foil which does not absorb a-radiation, or the film can be applied
to the surface of the polonium source. Due to the loss in energy by the a- particles the intensity of luminescence in
the film decreases. This decrease is readily compensated for by a small increase in the activity of the polonium a-
source.
The visual analysis of ores and minerals with the excitation of luminescence by a-radiation of P0215 can be
performed with a very simple instrument (Fig. 1). The powder or lumps of rock (up to 20 mm diameter) are placed
in a plate under the a-radiator. The luminescence of the minerals is observed by the naked eye or through a lens
with appropriate magnification (when using finely-dispersed specimens). The method of analysis of ores and minerals
from the number of luminescent particles by means of an a-luminescence apparatus is the same as in cathodo-
luminescence analysis [3].
When working with such an instrument we used a source with 1.8 C activity. Radioluminescence was observed
in calcite, dolomite, fluorite, scheelite and beryl (Table 1).
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TABLE 1. Luminescence of Minerals Excited by the a-Radiation
of Po21?
Mineral
Color
Brightness
Afterglow
Calcite
Dolomite
Stheelite
Fluorite
Beryl
Red
Speckled
Violet-blue
Violet
Blue
Large
Very large
The same
Weak
?
Weak
?
Large
Very weak
The same
TABLE 2. Luminescence of Diamonds Excited by the a-Radiation
of Po21?
Weight, mg
Size, mm
Brightness
Color
339
? 8 + 4
Large
Blue
182.2
? 10 + 6
Medium
?
239.2
? 8 + 4
Very large
Milky-blue
272.6
? 8 +4
Large
Greenish
Under the action of a- radiation we also observed intensive radioluminescence of Yakutsk diamonds (Table 2).
This means that a-radiation can be used instead of gamma-radiation to sort diamonds.
The described instrument with a photocell (Fig. 2) makes it possible to perform quantitive analysis of minerals,
using the photocurrent, as in the cathodoluminescence apparatus [2]. We used the VAI-1 photoelectron multiplier,
working with a photocell.
7?
fr777.7'7745
Fig. 2. Diagram of device for radioluminescence
analysis using the photocurrent: 1) a-radiator;
2) photocell; 3) direct current amplifier; 4)
microammeter; 5) plate with mineral.
35
-30
as
25
5
9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 10
Content of Ca W0y. , %
Fig. 3. Dependence of photocurrent on the
percentage content of scheelite in the mixture
with quartz.
The photocurrent was measured by a direct current amplifier from a "Kaktus" microroentgenmeter with direct
current amplification of about 104 - 106. The photocell was also fed by a "Kaktus" radiometer since the working
voltage of the Fiti-1 and the ionization chamber of this microroentgenmeter are the same (220 v).
When determining scheelite in a mixture with quartz the radiator was Po21? with an activity of 70 mC. The
results of the measurements are given in Fig. 3. During the measurements the photocell was 15 cm from the speci-
men. By reducing this distance we could analyze specimens with a lower content of mineral. On the other hand,
by reducing the distance the Po21? activity could be reduced to 5-10 mC.
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This apparatus was used to compare the luminescence intensity of scheelite excited by 8- and a- radiators
with the same activity. The 8 -radiator was T1204 with an activity cf 70 mC (Tv = 2.71 years, the maximum
/2
energy of the 8 -particles Em = 0.77 Mev). A plexiglas screen protected the photocell from the direct action of
8 -radiation. On the average the intensity of radioluminescence under the action of a-radiation was four times
that under the action of 8-radiation and under optimum geometrical conditions of irradiation by an a-source it
was even six times greater.
In the proposed apparatus the a -radiator is used not only because it excites more intensive luminescence
than the 8- and y -radiators but also because of the low penetrating capacity of the a- particles in the material
(about 20 ? ). Since comparatively high activities are needed to excite radioluminescence, the use of an a-source
makes the device very simple and practically no shielding is required.
An a-radiator should therefore be used in devices which utilize radiation of radioactive sources to excite the
luminescence (for example in devices used to select diamonds). Furthermore, this a-source can be used to deter-
mine some elements from nuclear reactions that involve a-particles, as described earlier [4, 5].
LITERATURE CITED
1. K. Pshibram, The Color and Luminescence of Minerals [Russian translation] (Moscow, Foreign Literature
Press, 1959).
2. G. F. Komovskii and 0. N. Lozhnikova, Luminescence Analysis in the Study of Ores and Minerals [in Russian]
(Moscow, State Geology and Technical Press, 1954).
3. P. P. Soloviev, Recent Advances in the Enrichment of Minerals, Cathodoluminescence Analysis of Ores and
Their Enrichment Products, "Mekhanobr,' No. 91 [in Russian] (Moscow, Metallurgy Press, 1954).
4. I. N. Plaksin, V. N. Smirnov and L. P. Starchik, Dokl. AN SSSR 12/3, 6, 1208 (1959).
5. I. N. Plaksin, V. N. Smirnov and L. P. Starchik, Dokl. AN SSSR 127, 3, 618 (1959).
THE ACTIVATION ENERGY OF SOLUTION OF URANIUM DIOXIDE
IN A SULFURIC ACID MEDIUM WITH THE PARTICIPATION
OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE
E. A. Kanevskii and V. A. Pchelkin
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 549-550,
December, 1961
Original article submitted? November 9, 1960
Data are given in the literature characterizing the activation energy of solution of uranium dioxide in sulfuric
acid solutions in an atmosphere of oxygen (18 kcal/mole) [1] and in carbonate solutions (13.4 kcal/mole) [2]. In
connection with the widespread use of pyrolusite in the sulfuric acid leaching of uranium from ores it is of interest
to determine the activation energy of the process
002 4- MI102 2112SO4 2SO4 MnSO4 21120,
The effect of temperature on the solution of uranium dioxide in sulfuric acid,using manganese dioxide as the
oxidizing agent,was studied in the temperature range 20-80?C. The uranium dioxide used in the experiments was
obtained by reducing U308 with hydrogen at 900?C. The content of U (IV) with respect to the total U (IV) and
U (VI) was 98%. The "pure" grade of manganese dioxide was used. The grain size of the initial oxides did not
exceed 0.074 mm.
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The conditions of the experiments were: weight of UO2 2 g, concentration of H2SO4 ? 2N; the reaction was
carried out in an open beaker, volume of solution 100 ml, speed of stirrer 300 rpm; the temperature, the UO2:Mn02
ratio and the duration of the experiment were varied.
50
30
a)
2
bo
B o
0
A
0 1 2 3
Duration of solution, hr
Fig. 1. Effect of the duration of solution
and the ratio of the number of moles of
Mn02 and UO2 on the degree of transfer
of uranium dioxide into the sulfuric acid
solution. Ratio Mn02:UO2; A) 5:1;
B) 25:1; C) 125:1.
clst 2.3
'15 2.2
F2 2,1
??-? 2.0
7.2 1,9
0
E a
0 2,8 2.9 30 31 3,2 33
1/ T ? 103
Fig. 2. Dependence of the logarithm of the
solution rate of UO2 on the reciprocal of
the absolute temperature.
It can be seen from Fig. 1 that at 20?C the degree of
solution of uranium dioxide with an excess of manganese
dioxide depends linearly on the duration of the process.
It should be emphasized that this dependence is characteristic for the above reaction since the solution of UO2 in
the absence of manganese dioxide was allowed for by means of a blank experiment. In the solution of a relatively
small part of the uranium dioxide its rate of solution can therefore be determined readily and with satisfactory
accuracy.
As follows from Fig. 2, the solution rates of uranium dioxide in a sulfuric acid medium (mg/liter ? min) with
manganese dioxide used as the oxidizing agent are described by the Arrhenius equation. From this equation the
activation energy of the process was found to be approximately 6 kcal/mole. It should be pointed out that during
this process, in which two solid phases and a solution are taking part, steric factors, hindering the reaction, play an
important part [3].
LITERATURE CITED
1. T. Mac-Kay and M. Wadsworth, Trans. AIME 212, 597 (1958).
2. V. E. Shortman and M. A. De Sesa, Transactions of the Second International Conference on the Peaceful Uses
of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1958). Selected Reports of non-Soviet Scientists [in Russian] Vol. 7 (Moscow,
Atomic Energy Press, 1959), p. 45.
3. E. A. Kanevskii and V. A. Pchelkin, *Atomnaya Energiya," 10, 2, 138 (1961).
All abbreviations of periodicals in the above bibliography are letter-by-letter transliter-
ations of the abbreviations as given in the original Russian journal. Some or all of this peri-
odical' literature may well be available In English translation. A complete list of the coVer- to-
cover English translations appears at the back of this issue.
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THE PROBLEM OF AERIAL PROSPECTING IN WOODED REGIONS
A. V. Matveev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 550-552,
December, 1961
Original article submitted May 3, 1961
In DJ an incorrect estimation was made of the screening of y -radiation of rocks by trees and the authors
therefore decided that aerial prospecting in wooded regions was inefficient. In the first place, they used highly-
exaggerated data on the reserves of timber in the forests of the USSR, in the second place their method for cal-
culating the absorption of y -radiation was too approximate, since it did not allow for the anisotropy of the absorbing
medium and the dimensions of the localized anomalous sections involved (the calculation formula used in the
(lid) ,refers to the case of an infinite radiating half-space covered by a homogeneous absorbing
layer). Data obtained from more precise calculations and special experimental investigations point to the much
lower screening capacity of the trees.
The intensity of y -radiation at a height h over the center of an anomalous section with a concentration of
radioactive material which decreases with the distance from the center according to the law
q(x, y)=qmexp ( 4 x2?Y2
is determined by the following approximate expression [2]:
h2
n/2 ( 8 ?2,2 h \
exp
t tom exp ?hk22 ex -
sui 0 de,
cos 0
(1)
where fon,=-21thqmQ2/112 is the y -radiation intensity at the surface of the section in the center; pi and II 2 are the
effective linear absorption coefficients of the y -radiation for air and rock; e is the polar angle in spherical coordi-
nates with the center at the point of observation (0, 0, h)? N. corresponds to the radius of the section.
TABLE 1
Class
H, m
13, cm
No. of
trees per
1
hectare
Total wt.
uf trunks'
ton
I
28.4
33.0
625
680
Pine II
26.2
30.6
625
560
III
22.5
26.1
760
440
1
29.2
32.3
815
700
Spruce 11
25.4
27.2
1010
590
WE
21.4
22.2
1295
440
TABLE 2
x, rn
20
too
x
0.91
0.85
0.70
To allow for the attenuation of the radiation by the
trees we introduce in the expression after the integral the
factor M (o) = M1M2. The factor MI, determining the
screening effect of the trunks,has the apparent value M1 =
= 1? a(1? m) when a 1 and when a > 1,is approxi-
mated by the formula Mi=rna. Here m ?exp (??3D/2sin 0)
is the mean value of attenuation by the trunk, of y -
radiation directed at an angle of e (p8 is the radiation-
absorption coefficient for wood; D is the diameter of the lower part of the trunk); a - --- tan 0 is the degree of
2S0
"shadingw of the radiating surface by the tree trunks al is the height of the trunk, So is the specific area per tree
for a given forest density). The values a > 1 correspond to overlapping of' the shadows' of the trunks.
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The factor /112=exp(-14H/2Cos 0) determines the attenuation of the radiation by the tree tops which form
a continuous homogeneous layer of about II/2 thickness. The assumption as to the homogeneity of this layer is
justifiable when the degree of density of the tree tops is greater than 0.7-0.8.
Allowing for the tree cover, expression (1) has the form:
for local radiating sections
for an infinite radiating surface
h2 n/2
=/0? exp ( 8T) M (0) ex')
h2
x 8 -F-1-p1 h)
sin 0 de;
cos
n/2
M (0) exp h ) sin 0 dO.
cos
(2)
(3)
The corresponding formulas for woodless sections will be expressed for the sake of convenience in calculation
by the King function 0(z).-_-_-exp(?z)- -zEi (z):
for local sections
for an infinite surface
ha
I =Tom exp
x2 X2
(4)
100 (tti h). (5)
Among the conifers, which occupy about 80% of the whole wooded area of the USSR, mature and over-mature
trees predominate. Reference tables on the growth of dense plantations (31 show that the reserve of all timber in-
creases with the age of the plantation (up to the over-mature age), in contrast to the data given in M. Table 1
gives average data for mature (100 years old) pine and spruce plantations of the best classes with a degree of com-
pleteness equal to 1 (3).
Numerical calculations for the absorption of y -radiation were performed for a spruce forest of the second
class. The mass of the tree top in a dense forest is 10-15% of the mass of the trunk. We increase this figure to
30% to allow for the radiation absorption by the undergrowth and covering rock. The flight altitude h = 50 m is
the minimum safety limit for wooded regions. According to the experimental data (41 the effective value of the
mass absorption coefficient p /p, approximately allowing for the complex primary spectrum of the y -radiation
of elements in the uranium series and the Compton scattering in the absorber, is 0.03 cm2/g.
Table 2 gives calculated values of the coefficient of screening of the y -radiation by the trees K =4.4 /1 for
two local sections and an infinite surface. Calculation according to the formula I=100(p,d) ,with the same initial
data, gives K = 0.53. Consequently, because of the incorrect calculation method used in [1], the absorption of
radiation by the trees is overestimated by a factor of 5 when x = 20 m and a factor of 3 when X = 100 m (47%
instead of 9 and 15%, respectively).
In [1],for a similar case (100-year-old spruce forest), K = 0.109 and the weight of timber per hectare is 2934
tons, The overestimation of gamma-radiation absorption by the trees due to the incorrect data on the amount of
timber is still greater for younger forests. For a 40-year-old spruce forest a quite improbable value K =0.0056 is
given, i.e., 99.5% of the radiation is absorbed.
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When the flight is to one side of the center of the anomalous section, the screening effect of the forest is
greater than shown in Table 2. An analytical expression for the recorded y -radiation intensity in this case is very
complex and the numerical calculations had to be performed with transparent sheets divided into squares, similar
to those described in [5]. We used formula (3) to draw the squared sheet for the absorption by the trees. Calculated
graphs for the coefficient of screening K are shown in Fig. 1 as a function of the distance x from the center of the
section. It should be borne in mind that at distances greater than 100-150 m,sections with X < 100 m cannot be
recorded even when there are no trees since the intensity of radiation falls by a factor of more than 10.
b0
-50 0.8
112
a
0 0.6
o
' 0.4
0
a)
III
0 50 100 150 200
Distance from the center of the anomalous
section, m
Fig. 1. Dependence of the coefficient of y -
radiation screening by trees on the distance to the
center of the anomalous section: 1) X = 20 m;
2) X =100 m.
0
30 40 50 60
Flight altitude, m
?
?
C
0 \ ?
?
A
A'
\ 6A \
i
A
?
\
?
\
.
I
?
\
.. da
ea
?%.
s....
N -"??
s.
0
a ?
3
..." .".-.'"73C)....
A' ?
....
........
A:-
-.YA
a
????.
. --..
70
Fig. 2. Data of experimental determination of
screening capacity of forest: 1) K = 0; 2) K
= 25 m; 3) K = 50 m; ? without trees;
? with trees.
The absorbing capacity of the trees was determined experimentally by aerial measurements of the y -radiation
intensity of two identical sections, one of which was in a pine forest and the other in a field next to the forest
boundary. Anomalous sections were imitated using point radiators (Co" isotope) placed at the corners of a 10 x 10 rn
square. The results of one of these experiments are given in Fig. 2. The mean forest parameters were: H = 15 m,
D = 0.14 m and So = 4 m2. The values of K according to the data of Fig. 2 at h = 50 m are within the range 0.8 to
0.9, which agrees satisfactorily with the calculated data.
Paper [1] therefore incorrectly excludes wooded regions from aerial prospecting. The reduction in efficiency
of aerial prospecting in these regions is small and is due not so much to the absorption of y -radiation by the trees
as to the difficulty of correct mapping of the survey routes and, possibly, the specific geochemical processes in
wooded soils.
LITERATURE CITED
1. G. N. Kotel'nikov and N. I. Kalyakin, ?Atomnaya Energiya," 8 4, 370 (1960).
2. A. V. Matveev, *Problems of Exploratory Radiometry." Information Collection of the Ministry for Geology
and Preservation of the Mineral Resources of the USSR, No. 2 [in Russian] (Leningrad, 1960).
3. A Handbook for Forestry Workers [in Russian] (Minsk, Acad. Sci. Belorus SSR Press, 1959).
4. Radiometric Methods for Surveying and Exploring Uranium Ores, Edited by V. V. Alekseev [in Russian]
(Moscow, State Geological and Technical Press, 1957).
5. A. F. Yakovlev, Izv. AN SSSR, Ser. Geofiz. 1, 75 (1958).
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A STUDY OF THE FLUORIDES OF SOME MULTIVALENT METALS
BY POTENTIOMETRIC TITRATION IN NONAQUEOUS MEDIA
A. P. Kreshkov, V. A. Drozdov, E. G. Vlasova,
S. V. Vlasov and Yu. A. Buslaev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 553-554.
December, 1961
Original article submitted October 14, 1960
There are a number of papers on the properties of various salts in nonaqueous organic solvents [1-3]. Several
volumetric methods have been proposed for the analysis of inorganic materials in nonaqueous media [4] and studies
have been made of the chlorides of mono-, di-, and trivalent metals and ammonium [5-7]. Very little is known on
the fluorides of metals and there have been no investigations into the fluorides of quadri-, penta- and hexavalent
metals. In the literature there are only indications of the behavior of higher fluorides toward organic solvents. For
example, it is known that TiF4 dissolves in methanol and pyridine, whereas with ethanol it forms the compound
TiFe C2H6OH [8]. Niobium pentafluoride dissolves in toluene, ether and alcohol. Tungsten hexafluoride and
benzene give a compound with the composition WF6?C6H6 [9].
The fluorides of multivalent metals in aqueous media have been comparatively well studied. The potentio-
metric titration of niobium, tantalum and molybdenum fluorides [10] has shown that during titration with alkali
there is gradual decomposition according to the scheme 1I2Nb0F5 -+ K,[1\lb0 F6 Nb205. TaF6 is completely
decomposed by alkali to tantalum pentoxide. Molybdenum hexafluoride reacts with alkali forming the metamolybdate
K2Mo4012 which is further decomposed to K2Mo04. The titration of fluorides of multivalent metals by alkalis in
aqueous media is accompanied by the hydrolysis of the fluorides
by water. In the fluorides of the multivalent metals the fluorine
my atoms are replaced by oxygen atoms. The replacement of
fluorine atoms by oxygen-containing groups has not been studied
before.
vis oma, ml
Curves for the potentiometric titration of the
higher fluorides of metals in methylethyl ketone
by a 0.1 N solution of sodium methylate: 1)
niobium pentafluoride; 2) tungsten hexafluoride;
3) molybdenum hexafluoride; 4) tantalum
pentafluoride; 5) titanium tetrafluoride.
The higher fluorides of molybdenum, tungsten, niobium,
tantalum, zirconium and titanium have been studied. Methods
are described in the literature for preparing the higher fluorides,
based on fluorination with elementary fluorine [11, 12] and
interhalide compounds, for example C1F3 [13]. In the present
work we used the method of fluorination by elementary fluorine,
which was obtained in a cell [14] with a working temperature of
110-120?C 'and electrolyte composition KF ? 21-IF ? 40?10 HF.
A column packed with potassium, fluoride tablets was used to
remove electrolyte vapors from the fluorine. A quartz reactor
with external heating was used for the fluorination. The fluorides
were condensed in quartz vessels, cooled by a mixture of dry
ice and alcohol. The obtained products were purified by
repeated distillation in a quartz apparatus.
During the preparation of the initial 0.1 N solutions of
fluorides in absolute methyl alcohol and when removing samples
of fluorides for titration all necessary precautions were taken to
prevent hydrolysis of the fluorides. The titrating solution was a
0.09840 N solution of sodium methylate in methyl alcohol.
The fluorides were titrated in methylethyl ketone and a mixed solvent ? methylethyl ketone-benzene. The
methylethyl ketone was purified according to the method described in [15]. The benzene used as the cosolvent
("pure for analysis') was dried over metallic sodium and redistilled; the condensate was kept over potassium hydride
and then twice redistilled using a fractionating column.
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The LP-5 tube potentiometer was used in the titration. The reference electrode was a calomel electrode
filled with a saturated solution of KC1 in methyl alcohol. The indicating electrode was a glass electrode. The
potentials of the investigated system were measured after adding each quantity (0.04-0.06 ml) of the titrating solution.
We found that the higher fluoride of zirconium is insoluble in methylethyl ketone, dioxane, methyl alcohol
and acetonitryl and was therefore not studied by the potentiometric method. The figure shows curves for the
potentiometric titration of individual fluorides of titanium, niobium, tantalum, molybdenum and tungsten in methyl-
ethyl ketone. As can be seen, for certain ratios of sodium methylate to the fluorides there are clearly expressed
discontinuities in the potentials. At different stages of titration the solutions being analyzed become turbid due to
the precipitation of sodium fluoride.
In the titration of titanium tetrafluoride (curve 5) one discontinuity in potential can be observed at a ratio
CH,ONa
- 2 corresponding to the splitting-off, of two fluorine atoms as a result of the alcoholysis reaction
TiF4
TiF4+2CH3ONa = (cH30)2TiF2+2NaF.
In the titration of niobium pentafluoride by sodium methylate (curve 1) the discontinuity in potential of the
analyzed system is observed at a ratio CH3ONa - 2 which corresponds to the formation of the dimethoxytrifluoride
NbF6
of niobium in accordance with the following equation:
NbF6+2C1-130Na=(C1-130)2NbF3+2NaF.
The stoichiometric calculations in the titration of molybdenum hexafluoride by sodium methylate in a
methylethyl ketone medium show that the first discontinuity in titration (curve 3) corresponds to the titration of
two fluorine atoms, the second ? a small discontinuity ? coincides with the quantitative substitution of the third
fluorine atom in MoF6 by methoxy groups.
The titration of TaF6 by sodium methylate is accompanied by a sharp drop in the potentials of the analyzed
system. The character of the curve (curve 4) and the stoichiometric calculations show that the process takes place
In two stages. At first, according to the equations
TaF6+ CH,ONa=CH30TaF4+ NaF;
CI-130T04-1-3C1130Na=(CH30)4TaF+3NaF;
the methoxy groups substitute one and then another three fluorine atoms.
In tungsten hexafluoride (curve 2) the methoxy groups substitute five fluorine atoms according to the equation
WF6+5CH6ONa=-(C1130)6WF+5NaF.
In all cases of titration the replacement of methylethyl ketone by the mixed solvent methylethyl ketone-
benzene (volumetric ratio 1 :1) only led to a decrease in the potential discontinuities, preserving their clarity and
the previous stoichiometry of the process.
Experiments showed that the suggested titration can be used for the quantitative determination of these fluorides.
In the quantitative determination of accurate weights of WF6 the error is ? 1.2%; NbF6 ? ? 0.6%, MoF61 according
to the first discontinuity in titration, ? 1.0%; TiF4 ? ? 2% and TaF6 ? ? 1.3%.
LITERATURE CITED
1. A. P. Kreshkov, Report to the Eighth Mendeleev Congress, Abstracts of Reports of the Analytical Chemistry
Section [in Russian] 3, 34 (1958).
2. N. A. lzmailov, The Electrochemistry of Solutions [in Russian] (Kharkov, Gorkii Kharkov State University
Press, 1959).
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3. A. P. Kreshkov, A Manual on Acid-Base Titration in Nonaqueous Media [in Russian] (Moscow, D. I. Mendeleev
Moscow Institute of Chemical Technology Press, 1958).
4. R. Shanti, F'alit, MeIdir Natkh Das and G. R. Somayadzhulu, Nonaqueous Titration [in Russian] (Moscow, State
Chemistry Press, 1958).
5. C. Hennart and E. Merlin. Chim. analyt. 40, 5, 167 (1958).
6. N. A. Izmailov and E. I. Bail', "Ukr. khim. zh..? 23, 5, 662 (1957).
7. R. Cundiff and P. Markunas, Analyt. Chim. Acta 21, 68 (1959).
8. 0. Ruff and R. Jpsen, Ber. 36, 17'77 (1903).
9. H. Priest and W. Schumb, J. Am. Chem. Soc. '70, 2232 (1948).
10. N. S. Nikolaev and Yu. A. Buslaev, ?Zh. neorg. khim.,? 4, 554 (1959).
11. 0. Ruff and F. Eisner, Ber. 40, 2926 (1907).
12. 0. Ruff, J. Zedner and E. Schiller, Ber. 42, 492 (1909).
13. N. S. Nikolaev, Yu. A. Buslaev and A. A. Opalovskii, ?Zh. neorg. khim., 3, 8. 1732 (1958).
14. Fluorine and its Compounds, Vol. 1, Edited by J. Simons [Russian translation] (Moscow Foreign Literature
Press, 1956).
15. A. Weissberger et al., Organic Solvents [Russian translation] (Moscow, Foreign Literature Press, 1958).
THE THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF URANIUM AMMONIUM
PENTAFLUORIDE
N. P. Galkin, B. N. Sudarikov and V. A. Zaitsev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 554-555.
December, 1961
Original article submitted February 1, 1961
A number of papers [1-4] have dealt with the thermal decomposition of uranium ammonium pentafluoride.
The conditions of decomposition and the composition of the resulting products have been described. It has been
observed that uranium ammonium pentafluoride decomposes into uranium tetrafluoride and ammonium fluoride
according to the reaction
NH4UF5 :--> UF4+
The present work forms a part of investigations conducted by the authors into the reaction between uranium
hexafluoride and ammonia. As already mentioned [5-7], uranium hexafluoride is reduced by ammonia in the
temperature range 100-200?C with the formation of uranium ammonium pentafluoride, containing about 10%
free ammonium fluoride. The results of a thermal gravimetric analysis of this product are shown in the figure.
The figure shows three endothermic effects at temperatures of 220-280. 320-360 and 420-450?C. At these
temperatures the specimens lose weight. At a temperature of 220-280?C the loss in weight is 9.401o, which corre-
sponds to almost complete removal of the free ammonium fluoride. After this only uranium ammonium penta-
fluoride is found in the residue. Its decomposition commences at about 320?C, the reaction occurring in two stages:
At temperatures of 320-360?C the loss in weight is 5.9010 and at 420-450?C it is 4.201o. The product, roasted at tem-
peratures above 450?C, is uranium tetrafluoride.
The ammonium fluoride combined with the uranium tetrafluoride therefore splits off in two stages, in approxi-
mately equal amounts. It might be assumed that this is due either to the difference in the bond strength of the
separate ammonium fluoride molecules or to the difference in the bond strength of the ammonia and the fifth fluorine
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Composition of Gases Obtained on Roasting Uranium Ammonium Pentafluoride and a Mixture of it With
Ammonium Fluoride in a Current of Argon. Time of Roasting at Each Temperature is 2 hours.
Composition of initial
products
Temp. of
roasting,
0C
Loss in wt.
of specimen,
010
'ammonia
Composition of gases
in percent
in moles per mole of
ammonia
'fluorine
ammonia
fluorine
90,5% NI-14UF6+ 9.5% NILIF*
280
11.8
58.1
41.9
1.0
0.6
The same
360
4.9
82.5
17.5
1.0
0,2
0 0
400
2.3
16,1
83.9
1.0
4.7
NH4UF5**
280
3.1
59.2
40.8 1.0
0.6
The same
360
4.6
85.1
14.9 1,0
0.2
? 0
460
2.5
17.0
83.0 1.0
4.4
? A mixture of uranium ammonium pentafluoride with ammonium fluoride was obtained by the reaction of
uranium hexafluoride with ammonia at 100?C.
?? Uranium ammonium pentafluoride was obtained by crystallization from aqueous solutions and was
dehydrated in vacuum.
ion. This problem can only be resolved by a direct
analysis of the gases obtained due to thermal dissociation
of the uranium ammonium pentafluoride at different
temperatures. These experiments were performed and
the date are given in the table.
As can be seen from the table, at 280?C there is
quantitative removal of free ammonium fluoride; at this
a)
temperature there is also partial decomposition of the
uranium ammonium pentafluoride with the preferential
a) splitting-off of ammonia. At 360?C the decomposition
E-1
of the ammonium pentafluoride is mainly due to the
removal of ammonia; the fluorine ion undergoes very
little splitting-off. Finally, at 460?C mainly fluorine
Is removed from the remaining product.
The investigations indicate that in uranium
ammonium pentafluoride the fifth fluorine ion is more
pentafluoride containing 10010 free ammonium fluoride, firmly bound to the uranium than ammonia; in the tem-
The thermal
Time
decomposition of uranium ammonium
perature range 280-460?C the uranium fluoric acid HUF5
is apparently stable, this acid being unknown in aqueous
solutions.
LITERATURE CITED
1. J. Impe Van, Chem. Engng. Progr. 50, 5, 230 (1954).
2. H. Bernhardt et al., Nucl. Sci. Abstrs. 10, '792 (1956).
3. S. Gasco and C. Fernader, An. Real. cos. asp. fis. y chem. B54, 3, 181 (1958).
4. V. Dadape and N. Krishna Prasad, Report No. 1668 Presented by India to the Second International Conference
on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1958).
5. B. Ayers, Report CC-1504 (1944).
6. R. Spenceley and F. Teetrel, USAEC Report FMPC-400 National Lead Company of Ohio (May 6, 1953).
7. N. P. Galkin, B. N. Sudarikov and V. A. Zaitsev, "Atomnaya inergiya," 8, 6, 530 (1960).
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NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ATOMIC ENERGY AT THE SOVIET EXPOSITION IN LONDON
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 556-557,
December, 1961
One of the divisions of the Soviet Trade and Industrial Fair last summer in London was devoted to a display
of the Soviet Union's achievements in the peaceful uses of atomic energy. The exhibit presented a telling illustra-
tion of the scope of work carried out along this line in the USSR. Exhibits of nuclear reactor models and accelerator
models available for export from the Soviet Union, a list of isotopes proposed for sale, and the exhibit of sophisticated
equipment could not help but attract the attention of specialists and representatives of business circles in 'Britain.
Fig. 1. The British Prime Minister H. Macmillan and I. S. Patolichev, Minister of Foreign Trade of the USSR,
viewing a model of the I. V. Kurchatov nuclear electric power station atBelyy Yar.
photo by A. Stuzhin
The most popular exhibit was again, as in other Soviet expositions abroad, the model of,the atomic icecutter
LENIN. The model never failed to attract a crowd of admirers. Many of the visitors expressed the view that the
icecutter LENIN was an example of the most economical and best justified use of atomic power.
There was an ample supply of materials giving a rounded picture of large-scale industrial experiments under-
way in the Soviet Union on optimizing reliability and minimizing costs in nuclear electric power stations. The
attention of visitors was drawn to excellently fabricated models of the I. V. Kurchatov nuclear power station at
Belyy Yar and of a nuclear power station built around a fast-neutron reactor. The fuel reloading process and the
how of coolant through the pipes of the coolant system were clearly represented in the operating models (Fig. 1).
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Fig. 2. The OGRA thermonuclear facility.
photo by A. Stuzhin
A 1 :5 scale model of the OGRA facility highlighted
the exhibit on fusion research (Fig. 2). Specialists be-
stowed particular attention on the UDP-1 plasma diagnostic
device designed to investigate the state of the plasma at
the machine output, and to monitor the energy of hard
gammas and neutrons. A high-pressure gas scintillation
counter with continuous circulation of make-up gas,
designed for fast-naitron spectrometry, is the first of its
kind in the world to find practical use. The scintillation
counter can be used to determine the temperature of a
deuterium plasma upward of a million degrees with high
accuracy, independently of the presence of any back-
ground gammas.
'A line of electronic measuring apparatus for nuclear
research included pulse amplifiers, scaling circuits, pulse-
height analyzers, and gamma-ray spectrometers. Among
the pulse analyzers, we may note the miniature AI-50
50-channel analyzer with transistorized circuitry. The
memory unit is assembled from magnetostrictive (nickel)
delay lines. The AI-5 gamma-ray spectrometer is a
single-channel analyzer with automatically varied dis-
crimination level; the exposure time may be set over a
0.75-200 min. range, and resolving time is approximately
2 ?sec. The AI-3 analyzer records the number of pulses
received from each of 100 consecutively scanned channels
on the screen of a memory tube (skiatron), and records
numerical data on paper tape. Standardized components
and printed circuitry are used in these analyzers.
In the section devoted to isotope applications in science and industry, a large selection of instruments and
devices were on display. Some of these instruments were making their debut at international expositions. Among
these were the noncontacting BTP-1 beta coating thickness gage, the ROT OP-3A radiation thickness gage for
measuring depth of settled coal dust in mines, the RPSN-3 instrument for determining sulfur content in petroleum,
and many others.
The health monitoring instrument which enjoyed greatest popularity among visitors was the ILK-2 designed
for personnel, dosimetric monitoring; an activated phosphor contained in the device scintillates upon exposure to
infrared light. Specialists gave a high evaluation of the RV-3 portable aerosol radiometer, and the portable transi-
storized radiometric station designed for measurement of total gamma background, activation of surfaces and water,
etc.
The "Atoms for Peace' section of the Soviet exhibit at London was a consistent success with visitors. There
is no doubt that this section, as well as the exposition as a whole, contributed to better understanding between the
peoples of the Soviet Union and Britain.
V. A.
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ATOMIC ENERGY AT THE FRENCH NATIONAL EXPOSITION
IN MOSCOW
(August 15 to September 15, 1961)
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 557-560,
December, 1961
The display devoted to France's achievements in the field of nuclear power and associated applications, at the
French national exposition in Moscow, was accommodated at two stands exhibiting the activities of the Commissariat
de l'Energie Atomique and French "nuclear" firms.
The exhibits on display included materials used in nuclear reactor construction, and components made of those
materials. High-purity magnesium and its alloys, with 0.5% zirconium, A-5 aluminum (99.0% pure), A-9 aluminum
(99.99% pure), aluminum-magnesium and aluminum-iron-nickel alloys with excellent corrosion resistance in con-
tact with hot pressurized water have made definite headway in France in fuel element cladding.
Experimental specimens of nuclear fuel made in ceramic form and fuel elements to be used in the Chinon
nuclear power station now under construction, where fuel meat will be uranium with 0.5% molybdenum added,
were on display.
The central point of the exhibit on the first stand was a model of the dual-purpose uranium-graphite reactor
G-2, in operation since 1958 at Marcoule (Fig. 1).
The core of the G-2 reactor is a graphite stack 10 x 10 meters and weighing 1270 tons, containing 1200
channels. 28 units consisting of uranium rods enclosed in a magnesium jacketing with transverse ribs 30 cm in
length are accommodated in each channel. The entire reactor contains 33,600 such units. Loading of nuclear fuel
and removal of spent uranium slugs are handled by a special load transfer machine during operation of the reactor.
Fig. 1, Model of the G-2 reactor.
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The slugs are cooled with carbon dioxide gas. The exit temperature of the coolant gas is 350?C. The thermal
rating of the G-2 reactor is 200 Mw, and the electrical power rating is 30 Mw. The reactor is housed within a
cylindrical hermetically-sealed horizontal containment shell'of prestressed concrete.
A model of the RAPSODIE fast-neutron reactor (Fig. 2), which is slated for startup at the Cadarache nuclear
research center sometime during 1963, was also operated at the exhibit. The RAPS ODIE is France's first experimental
breeder reactor, rated at 10 Mw, with sodium coolant. Uranium and plutonium pellets are burned as fuel, and the
breeder material is a uranium molybdenum alloy. Coolant temperature is 540?C.
? Fig. 2.- Model.Of the RAPSODIE fAst-neutron-reactor. -
Highenergy research was represented by a model Of a bubble cha.ffiber,. a panel representing the?SATURNE
synchrotron, another representing the linear accelerator at'Orsay; and some photographs showing results of inter-
actions between high-energy particles.
An *Isotopes" stand constitutedan independent feature of the exhibit. The "Isotopes" stand demonstrated
equipment for isotope production and labeled-compounds synthesis, an inventory of 'isotope Products available for
delivery from the Commissariat .,cle l'Energie Atomique, And shipping containers for isotope deliveries.
By 1960, France counted no less than 981 organizations -engaged in the use of .sotopes, including 93 medical
institutions, 3LOO scientific research outfits and 588 industrial firms. The entire range Of applications of radioactive
elements was distributed in the following smanner: level and thickness gaging: 44610; gamma radiography: 24%;
applications of tracer atoms to technical research and activation analysis: 10%; batcli.mixing controls: 8%; petro-
leum lease transfer control: 3%; radiation chemistry: 30%; pharmacological research: -'3%; agricultural research:
1%; miscellaneous applications: 1010. -
One trend in French research is currently geared to development of techniques utilizing secondary x-rays in
the analysis of the composition of substances. Two separate'facilities are being assembled, one of them using spent
fuel elements from the EL-3 reactor, the other using two plastic irradiators assembled from Co" gamma sources with
a total activity of about 160,000 gram-equivalents of radium.
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A broad line of equipment for handling radioactive substances (glove boxes, manipulators, lead bricks, etc.)
were displayed.
Special "Kenriman" containers of 9 liters and 500 liters volume are being used to transport high-level liquid
wastes. The center of gravity ii designed low and the oval shape assures high stability under any shipping conditions,
avoiding any hazard of the container tipping over.
Apparatus, instrumentation, and equipment used by French industry for scientific research and isotope applica-
tions were on display at the industrial pavilion, along with individual experimental samples of electronic devices
developed by the electronics department at Seclin.
?
Some of the instruments repeated to a certain degree the exhibits presented in 1960 at the Moscow French
exhibit of electronic instruments (at the Polytechnic Museum in .Moscow).
Specimens of electronic instruments developed by the electronics division of the Commissariat de l'Energie
Atomique were also displayed.
One outstanding feature of the electronic and physical instrumentation exhibited' was the impressive number
of instruments assembled from modular components. At the present stage, the electronics division has developed
and put into production over 25 functional modular components meeting various needs, including proportional and
pulse amplifiers, high-speed decade scalers with a resolving time of 0.1 ?sec, count-rate meters with digital readout,
discrimination devices and pulse selectors for gamma-ray spectrometers, coincidence circuits, millimicrosecond
pulse generators, supply packages, etc.
One example representative of this line of instruments is the SGS-1 gamma-ray spectrometer, for which errors
in the size of recorded pulses as a function of energy remain within 2% of true value over the 0.62 to 3 Mev range.
French instrument designers devote close attention to the use of semiconductor ferrite components in new in-
struments.
Fig. 3. 40-channel analyzer.
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A 400-channel analyzer (Fig. 3) exhibited featured the following characteristics: linearity 0.5%, resolving
time 12 ? sec ? 0.5 ?sec, maximum counting rate for a single channel 50.104 cps, channel capacity of 100,000
counts. All of the basic components are transistorized.
Also on display were electrostatic generators, and an "L" type neutron generator of 0.6 ma ion current, 10 to
200 p sec pulse width, pulse repetition rate from 500 to 1000 pulses per second. The neutron flux attains 107 neutrons/
/sec per microampere for the (d, t) reaction.
Equipment for quality control of reactor materials was represented by an induction vacuum melting furnace
for uranium and an arrangement for testing hermetic sealing of nuclear fuel slugs loaded into the pile. The latter
operates on the principle that the slugs are loaded into special casings which are then filled with pressurized helium,
and the slugs are left inside for some time. The slug is then tested with a helium leak detector for the presence of
leaks. If helium is detected, it is assumed that the slugs are not leakproof.
French specialists were on hand during the period from September 6 to 9 to deliver lectures of various trends
In research in the field of the uses of nuclear energy.
L. P.
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DIRECT-CYCLE REACTOR WITH DIPHENYL COOLANT
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 562-564,
December, 1961
A project for a direct-cycle reactor with diphenyl coolant, DCDR, has been developed for the Marquardt firm
in the course of a year (see Fig. I). This reactor is an improved version of the OMR type reactor. The improvement
consists in the use of a direct coolant cycle and graphite-clad fuel elements. The graphite makes it possible to
lengthen the reactor run between loadings, improves the fuel temperature characteristics, and introduces additional
moderator material into the pile core.
The use of the direct cycle and the low costs of the structural steel employed (in combination with a working
fluid of low vapor pressure and low corrosive activity) opened the way for increased savings. The cost of the system
turbine was appreciably lowered because of the excellent thermodynamic properties of diphenyl, use of which permits
a low pressure level at the turbine entrance, low turbine runner speed, and fewer turbine stages.
Steam admitted to the turbine expands without compensation,is heated in the turbine exhaust duct and is con-
densed in a conventional heat exchanger where the condensate returning to the reactor is heated. The heat evolved
2
3
4
-7
9
10
12
1.3
f4
'all1111;;;17
411111""--
co
CO
Fig. 1. A cross section through the reactor:
1) reactor vessel top; 2) rotating shielding
screen for fuel-transfer control; 3) concrete
biological shielding; 4) reactor vessel; 5)
coolant exit; 6) thermal barrier; 7) peripheral
annular support fuel-assembly grid; 8) fuel-
element assembly; 9) thermal shielding; 10)
lagging; 11) coolant entrance; 12) support plate;
13) control-rod thimble; 14) reactor well; 15)
control rod drive.
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Section through AA
Fig. 2. DCDR reactor fuel assembly: 1)
positioning rod; 2) positioning pins; 3) fuel
element; 4) annular fuel assembly head;
5) graphite; 6) 12.7 mm diameter uranium
carbide fuel element; 7) 5.3 mm diameter
coolant channel; 8) positioning pin hole;
9) thermal barrier; 10) displacer; 11) fuel
assembly sections.
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as a result of the condensation of spent diphenyl vapor may be utilized for space or process heat, again opening up
possibilities for further reduction in system costs. The cost of coolant makeup is further minimized as a result of
the presence of graphite and the engineering of a thermal barrier in the reactor vessel, which reduces the volume of
hot diphenyl above the core.
Diphenyl (C121-110), with a molecular weight of 154, belonging to the group of aromatic hydrocarbons, is the
working fluid used in the pile. Diphenyl melts at 69?C, boils at 255?C. The vapor pressure of diphenyl is 23 atm
at the peak surface temperature of the fuel elements. The amount of radiolysis is for diphenyl about the same as
for terphenyl, but the former's thermal stability is somewhat superior to that of the latter.
The thermodynamic properties of diphenyl encourage the use of a simple turbine with a relatively reduced
number of stages, since bleeding and steam preheat stages are unnecessary.
The coolant gains access to the core from below, and from there proceeds through the fuel elements between
the core and thermal barrier to the plenum chamber formed by the core and thermal barrier above the core. The
in-pile volume of diphenyl is successfully reduced by means of the thermal barrier with pyrolysis of the diphenyl
checked at the same time. A tank filled with cold diphenyl (at a temperature of 200?C) is situated above the top
thermal barrier, and functions as a biological shield. Over 15% of the volume of core diphenyl serves as a reflector.
The core is surrounded by an annular steel thermal shield, a steel support structure and a steel positioning grid.
Control rods not in contact with coolant channels will be placed in 19 of the core's 373 hexagonal cells. They are
designed to be driven into the core from below by magnetically-actuated drive mechanisms.
Control rods may be replaced via the reactor vessel top. Coolant exits from the reactor at a temperature of
455?C and pressure of 23 atm and is led to a separator where 16% of the diphenyl is vaporized at a temperature of
443?C and pressure of 18.5 atm. This saturated vapor is then brought to the turbine where it is expanded and
becomes superheated with a temperature of 350?C and pressure of 0.035 atm. The vapor is then brought to satura-
tion once more in a regenerator unit and later condenses. The condensate is compressed to the same pressure level
as obtained in the separator, and is heated to 310?C in the regenerator. The condensate is then mixed with diphenyl
arriving from the separator, and this mixture is returned to the reactor at a temperature of 432?C and pressure of
25 atm.
To avoid release of fission products from the fuel elements (Fig. 2) into the coolant flow, a ternary barrier is
provided for in the design. A material such as niobium, capable of resisting prolonged exposure to elevated tem-
peratures, will be used for fuel cladding. The second, graphite, cladding will function as a barrie; blocking diffusion
of fission products, and, finally, the surface of the graphite in contact with the coolant will be covered with poly-
graphite. Each pile fuel assembly will consist of eight hexagonal sections (30 cm high) connected to a central guide
rod. Each of the three fuel elements in the assembly will be surrounded by ten channels (5.3 mm diameter) for
coolant flow.
The lower values of working pressure in the coolant loop act to markedly reduce any hazard of tube and
sealing failures. Thanks to the absence of water and high pressure levels, hazards associated with coolant leaks are
likewise averted. Calculations show that the DCDR reactor has a negative temperature coefficient of reactivity,
which is sufficiently large to assure stable reactor performance during load transfers and power transients. The basic
characteristics of the DCDR reactor are the following:
Net electric power, Mw
20
Net cycle efficiency, ?Jo
31
Reactor vessel height, m
8.5
Reactor vessel diameter, m
3
Core height, m
2.44
Core diameter, m
2.44
Number fuel elements
354
Fuel element diameter, mm
12.7
Pitch of triangular lattice, cm
7.3
Uranium enrichment, To
1.55
U235 loading, kg
64
Initial conversion ratio
0.505
1219
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Coolant flowrate, tons/hr 2530
Pressure drop across core, atm 2
In-pile temperature rise of coolant, ?C 32
Maximum fuel-element surface
temperature, ?C 482
Average fuel-element surface
temperature, ?C 455
Average coolant flowrate, m/sec 4.57
Average thermal flux, kcal/mz-hr 1.31.
Peak
Peak thermal flux, kcal/m2. hr 3.1710
The Marquart company reports that studies were carried out on structural materials for the DCDR reactor.
An experimental loop was used to test boiling and condensation of the organic fluid.
V. B.
1220
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A NOTE ON NEUTRON IRRADIATION EFFECTS ON THE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEELS
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 566-570,
December, 1961
The problem of embrittlement in low-carbon and low-alloy steels exposed to neutron bombardment has
attracted much attention of late, since it is related to the problem of promoting maximum safety in the operation
of large-scale nuclear reactors. This problem was spotlighted in the reports delivered to a symposium on reactor
steels (London, December, 1960, under the auspices of the Iron and Steel Institute).
Fig. 1. Electron microphotograph of copper in a
transmitted beam following irradiation by an inte-
gral flux of 1.4 1020 neutrons/cm2 (the loops formed
by coalesced imperfections are clearly visible).
A. Cottrell considered some questions involving the
nature of hardening and embrittlement of metals exposed
to radiation, and expressed the view that the radiation
hardening process is similar to precipitation hardening and
is related to the formation of disperse clusters of defects
which may take the form of loops (Fig. 1). His report dis-
cussed some possible mechanisms active in hardening;
anchoring of dislocations and increase in resistance to the
motion of dislocations through the crystal. On the basis of
an analysis of the yield limit of irradiated steels as a function
of grain size, Cottrell suggested that hardening of the steels
was associated predominantly with an increase in the re-
sistance to motion of dislocations through the crystal, while
anchoring of dislocations is almost independent of radiation
exposure. This view of the mechanism underlying brittle
fracture provided the basis for a semi-empirical formula
expressing the shift of the ductile-to-brittle transition tem-
perature as a function of the neutron exposure dose AT
1/
= 55 (cot) 3 , where WO is the integral flux of neutronshaving
energies > 1 Mev, expressed in units of 1018 neutrons/cm2.
TABLE 1. Typical Neutron Fluxes in Irradiation Facilities
Reactor and position of
facility
Neutron flux, neutrons/cm2- sec
Flux ratio, fast-
neutron flux to
thermal flux
Time taken to
reach a dose of
5.1018 ,
neutrons/cm2
(E> 1 Mev)
th
thermal
fast
E > 1 Mev
E > 9 Mev
Brookhaven reactor, reflector
Oak Ridge reactor, next to core
Oak Ridge reactor, core
MTR reactor, next to core
8.1012
5.1012
1 ? 1013
5. 1013
5 ? 1011
2.1012
3. 1012
1 ? 1013
9. 1010
2.5. 1011
8- 1011
7. 1011
1/15
1/3
1/3
1/5
5 months
5-6 weeks
3 weeks
6 days
A report by F. Harris et al. cited results of a study of the shift in transition temperature as a function of the
integral flux of fast neutrons (E> 2.9 Mev). The fast-neutron flux was determined with the aid of a S32 threshold
detector having an effective threshold of 2.9 Mev. The results of tests of samples cored from various sections of
welded steel plates were graphed over a range determined by the equations AT = 27.3 cr's and AT = 56.7 cps
where A T is the transition temperature shift, in ?C; cos is the integral flux of neutrons of energies > 2.9 Mev in
units of 1018 neutrons /cm2. The shift in transition temperature is determined on standard Charpy V-notched
specimens in both static and impact bending tests. The top curve, apparently representing the most cautious estimate,
is in fairly satisfactory agreement with Cottrell's estimate. However, R. Berggren's data indicate that the equation
= Acp " will yield values slightly low of the mark at large exposure doses.
1221
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The presence of a certain correlation between the shift in transition temperature and the flux of fast neutrons
> 1 Mev) is demonstrated in a paper by J. Hawthorne. The techniques used in recording fast-neutron flux are
surveyed in a paper by L. Steel. This paper provides an analysis of applications of several detectors: Co? detector
in a cadmium steel shell (120 ev); S32 (2.9 Mev) and Ni58 (5 Mev). Further experiments were conducted on a pre-
liminary determination of neutron spectra, using RIM, Np232 and U. Irradiation took place in reactors of various
types with different flux and neutron spectrum characteristics (Table 1), enabling the researchers to compare findings
obtained under different sets of exposure conditions.
TABLE 2. Chemical Analysis of Steels
.
Material, type 1"..) i p
'A co -
H a E
Impurity content, 50
C
3In
St
r
S
Ni
Cr
other
impuritie
A30213 hardfaced metal (argon
0,55
welding)
100
0.23
1.48
0.23
0.015
0.018
0.1
0.16
1.17
A302B. hardfaced metal (argon
welding)
140
0.1
1.37
0.41
0.01
0.17
0.72
0.09
0.49
A21213, hardfaced metal (argon
welding) . . . .
160
0.07
0.7
0.45
0.012
0.024
0.14
0.09
0.48
Forging SA330
280
0.19
0.65
0.26
0.011
0.014
0.79
0.4
0.64
0.12'
A302B, sheet steel
100
0.22
1.37
0.30
0.015
0.011
0.2
0.26
0.64
A302B, sheet steel
'150
0.20
1.31
0.25
0.012
0.023
0.2
0.17
0.47
A212B, sheet steel
160
0.29
0.79
0.28
0.014
0.030
0.13
0.06
0.03
A212B, sheet steel
100
0.26
0.76
0.24
0.011
0.031
0.22
0.2
0.02
A201, sneet steel
150
0.28
0.69
0.20
0.010
0.032
0.12
0.1
0.01
A201, sheet steel
50
0,10
0.62
0.24
0.010
0.026
220
16'5. 5
110
1-2
A 55.5
1 1 1 11111
a
1 1 1 1 1111
j 1 1 1 1111
10" 1019 1019 10"
Integral neutron dose, neutrons! cm2
Fig. 2. Shift in transition temperature as a function
of integral flux of fast neutrons of energy > 1 Mev:
a) A201 steel; 0) A212B steel; 0) A302B steel;
0) SA336 steel; 01) Hardfaced metal A; 0)
hardfaced metal B.
1222
120
100
6'0
40
050 150 250 350
Exposure temperature, ?C
.????
_... ,
--
..?
.1
.0"-*
..?
1
.---.? ......+.........,
??? ..." .....
????
\
....
...,
SNS
\
3
2
4
Fig. 3. Effect of irradiation temperature on impact and
tensile properties of A212B steel (integral flux of neutrons
2.1019 neutrons/cm2 at E> 1 Mev); 1) tensile strength;
2) uniform extension; 3) transition temperature for
notched specimens tested for impact bending; 4) yield
limit,
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Table 2 offers the brands and constituents of steels and hardfaced metals subjected to irradiation. The experi-
mental values for shift in transition temperature contained in J. Hawthorne's report, obtained for fluxes with different
ratios of thermal and fast neutrons, are directly proportionally to the logarithm of the integral flux of neutrons having
energies > 1 Mev (Fig. 2), which attests to the restricted role of the softer portion of the neutron spectrum.
To date, it has been assumed that mechanical properties were independent of irradiation temperature in the
low-temperature region, and that mechanical properties deteriorated as the irradiation temperature was raised.
However, the data adduced in the papers of Berggren and Harris indicate that the effect of temperature (at least in
reference to steels) is of a much more complex nature, and that there exists a temperature range (100-300?C) within
which radiation effects attain their maximum effect (Fig. 3). One typical feature is that different properties vary in
different ways as the temperature is changed, and that the effect of temperature is essentially dependent on the
composition of the steel (Table 3).
TABLE 3. Brittle Temperature Increase for Steels Irradiated in Integral Flux 5-1018 Neutrons/ cm2 (E> 1 Mev)
at Temperatures 80 and 315?C (V-notched Charpy specimens)
Steel
Brittleness temperature, *c
Increase, 'c
AT(315? C)
prior to
irradiation
after
irradiation
at 80?C
after
irradiation
at 315?C
at 80? c
at 315 9;
AT( 300 C)
A212B
hot-rolled
?57
0
?39
57
18
0.31
A21213
normalized
?48
14
?33
62
15
0.25
A212
normalized (anneal 645?C)
?34
21
4
55
38
0.70
A285A
hot-rolled
0
102
46
102
46
0.45
A285A
normalized
?15
60
43
75
58
0.78
A30113
cooled (in furnace, from 925 to
595? C)
?9
82
27
91
36
0.39
The effects of post-exposure annealing on the properties of steels were reported in several papers. Berggren
showed that recovery of the mechanical properties of A212B steel upon annealing proceeded in several distinct
stages. For example, the change in the critical brittleness temperature delineated two such stages.
The recovery process proceeds under tension in a more complex manner and can be broken down into at least
four distinct stages. The most characteristic phenomenon is a certain extension of tensile strength and yield point
over the early stage of annealing at temperatures somewhat in excess of the irradiation temperature. A similar
effect was noted in a paper by L. Trudeau who detected an increase in the critical temperature as a result of
annealing A201 steel and nickel-alloyed fine-grained and coarse-grained steels at 204?C, all of which were exposed
to an integral flux of 6 .1018 neutrons/cm2 at temperatures below 100?C. Anneals at temperatures above 300?C as
a rule lead to appreciable recovery from the consequences of exposure.
The results of dynamic tests carried out by J. Hawthorne demonstrated that the anneal elicited the recovery
of properties of some carbon steels irradiated at 100 and 300?C. For example, an 80-hour anneal at 315?C of
specimens of A212B steel irradiated at 100?C reversed the change in transition temperature by as much as 75%.
The increase in exposure time to 162 hours was without effect on the transition temperature, although the energy
of rupture in the ductile region attained the initial value. Raising the annealing temperature to 370?C contributes
to an almost complete recovery of radiation-induced alteration of both the transition temperature and energy of
rupture in the ductile region (Fig. 4). A comparison of the results of an anneal of A212B steel exposed to various
integral fluxes shows that the rate of recovery speeds up as integral flux is increased. We then see that the modifica-
tions introduced by irradiation at a higher temperature are more stable, and that recovery of properties proceeds at
a slower rate. However, the composition of the steel has little effect on recovery rate.
1223
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TABLE 4. Effect of Neutron Bombardment at 156?C on Critical Brittleness Temperature for Aluminum-Killed
Low-Carbon Steel (0.13% C; 0.034% S; 0.034% P; 1.05% Mn; 0.1% Si)
Specimen shape and tests
Integral neutror
flux, neut/cm2
(at 2.9 Mev)
Critical temp. for mode of
I fracture (50% ductile fracture),
?C
Shift in transi-
don temp.)
?C
pre-exposure post-exposure
Large specimens tested for
static bending
8.8.1018
0
110
110
V-notched Oharpy specimens,
impact-tested
8. 1 . 1017
15
90
75
9.4.1018
15
90
75
L. Trudeau has studied the effect of several metallurgical factors on changes in the mechanical properties of
steels following irradiation, and has shown that a decrease in impurity content and free-carbide content in steel
attenuates radiation embrittlement to some degree, while the value of the transition temperature following irradia-
tion, for an alloy of iron with 3.25% nickel, depends on grain size and on the initial transition temperature.
Some compellingly interesting static bending tests
performed on large notched steel specimens (50 x 70
x 500 mm), reported upon by D. Harris, have shown that
the values of the shift in transition temperature in impact
tests of standard Charpy specimens came out slightly lower
0
"zt
100
SO
60
40
20
0
13,80
11.05
8.28
5.52
2.76'
0
-73 -51 -21 -6 6 15.5 38 60 82 105
Temperature, *0
Fig. 4. Cold-shortness curves for A212B steel (100 mm
sheet thickness) subsequent to exposure and reanneal-
ing: 1) prior to exposure; 2) after exposure (T
> 100?C at flux of 8 .1018 neutrons/cm2; E> 1 Mev);
3 to 5) following exposure and anneal 3) at 260?C,
168 hours; 4) at 315?C, 168 hours; 5) at 370?C,
168 hours).
i
1i - ?
/
iiii:
:
II
I
i
-
?
?
34_.5`..../
f
67?
/.
? Sr-
_
1
/
.5 - ?,,,,
f ?
.
555,
/
_
?1
.....?
'''' '?
/
.4. ?
I
3
I
el
2
I
1
I
I
i
_
103?
/
55.5?
125 148
0
0
'd
4:1
0
ductile fractureA
80-
80
70
6.0
50
40
30
20
10
1.28
5.90
152
4.24
2,78
1.38
0
4.24
2 75
.
1.38
?x
.?
x4?
? ?
21
jIt
2
.41.-LT?
t
1
L.A.-
?-
1
?
I
-30 0
SO RD SO 120 150
Temperature, ?C
Fig. 5. Cold-shortness curves for large specimens
(50 x 70 x 500 mm) of low-carbon boiler-plate steel,
aluminum-filled (0.13% C, 1.03% Mn): 1) prior
to irradiation; 2) subsequent to irradiation.
than the true values (Table 4). The shift in transition
temperature was arrived at in terms of the nature of
fracture experienced, but the values obtained were in
harmony with those found from the change in energy of formation and in energy of crack propagation (Fig. 5). The
latter circumstance allows us to proceed with great confidence in using the experimental findings in order to
evaluate the behavior of a steel memberencountered in practice.
1224
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Considering the question of reliability of reactor pressure vessels, A. Cottrell indicated that maintaining the
vessel temperature higher than some minimum value would be an effective way to enhance reliability, more so than
lowering allowable stresses, since, should the vessel temperature fall below the critical mark, brittle fracture would
occur in the case of large pressure vessel thickness, despite the
18.5 fact that effective stresses would be much lower than the yield
point. This critical temperature is most reliably arrived at
via the Robertson method, which is however extremely cumber-
15:5
some for irradiated specimens.
.2
12.5
,9.35
????
e???
????
?????
ce
*sfi
3
5.25 -80 -SO -40 -20 0
Temperature, ?C
Fig. 6. Typical results of Robertson tests (iso-
thermal and in the presence of a temperature
gradient) on low-carbon boiler-plate steel,
aluminum-killed (specimen thickness 50 mm,
specimens prepared from sheet steel 100 mm
thick): 1) tests in presence of temperature
gradient; 2) isothermal testing (critical state):
3) isothermal testing (no propagation of cracks).
Cracks were observed to propagate parallel to
rolling direction.
20
D. Harris suggests pretesting of reactor pressure vessel
materials by the Robertson method (Fig. 6) followed up by
radiation-induced shifting of the transition temperature as a
viable method for determining the minimum operating tem-
perature (or the allowable exposure dose for a given tempera-
ture level). The transition temperature shift is measured by
impact testing of Charpy specimens in this method. To arrive
IL
at preliminary data, the formula AT = 55 cps may be used.
Periodic testing of Charpy specimens placed directly in contact
with the wall of the pressure vessel has been suggested as a
method for monitoring changes in the properties of the reactor
pressure vessel during reactor operation. Tests of such speci-
mens irradiated for 30 months at temperatures of 140 and
300?C in a neutron flux of 1.4.108 neutrons/cm2 and E>
> 2.9 Mev (Calder Hall and Chapel Cross reactors) failed to
reveal any changes of properties in tension or shift in the
ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. It is true that this
shift should be one of approximately 10?C according to a
tentative estimate, and this is generally speaking pretty much
commensurable with the spread of testing data.
P. A. Platonov
1225
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
NEW BOOKS AND SYMPOSIA
Translated for Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 10, No. 2, P. 573.
J a de rna En er gie 7, No. 12 (1 9 6 1) a periodical issued by the Czechoslovak Atomic Energy Commission
attached to the State Committee on Industrial Development
Contents:
F. Behounek: Effect of radiations from nuclear facilities on the surrounding locality.
V. Kovanicova: Dimensional stability of uranium in thermal cycling.
B. A. Ushakov: Thermionic energy converters.
J. Kubalek: Pulse generators for electronic-measurements instrumentation.
Abstracts.
Correspondence and Information.
Survey of the literature.
1226
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INDEX
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF ATOMIC ENERGY
Volumes 10 and 11, Numbers 1-6
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. DollezhaV
D.V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
( Editor-in-Chie f )
B. V. Semenov
V.!. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAY A ENERGIY A,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated January, 1961)
Vol. 10, No. 1 November, 1961
CONTENTS
Time Variation of Spatial and Energy Distribution of Neutrons from a Pulsed Source.
I. G. Dyad'kin and E. P. Batalina
Fragment Yield in the Fission of U233 and Pu239 by Fast Neutrons. E. K. Bony ush kan ,
Yu. S. Zamyatnin, V. V. Spektor, V. V. Rachev, V. R. Negina,
and V. N. Zamyatnina
PAGE
1
10
RUSS.
PAGE
13
The Optimum Temperature for Regenerative Water-Heating Systems at Atomic Power
Stations with Water-Cooled and Water-Moderated Power Reactors (WWPR).
Yu. D. Arsen'ev
15
19
Boundary Conditions in the Method of Spherical Harmonics. G. Ya. Rumy an tsev
22
26
The Red Coloration of Minerals in Uraniferous Veins. Yu. M. Dymkov and
B. V. Brodin
33
35
The Connection Between the Structure and Anisotropy of the Thermal Expansion of Uranium,
Neptunium and Plutonium. N. T. Chebotarev
40
43
The Structure and Thermal Expansion of 6- and 71 -Plutonium. S. T. Ko no be ev s kii
and N. T. Chebota.rev
47
50
Some Problems in the Localization of Radioactive Isotopes in Connection with Their Safe
Burial. P. V. Zimakov and V. V. Kulichenko
55
58
A Method for Determining Doses in the Inhalation of Radon Decay Products.
I. I. Gusarov and V. K. Lyapidevskii
61
64
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Average Numbers v and II of Neutrons in the Fission of U233 and Pu239 by 14 Mev Neutrons.
N. N. Flerov and V. M. Talyzin
65
68
Efficiency of Waveguides Used as Accelerating Systems in Electron Synchrotrons.
A. N. Didenko and E. S. Kovalenko
67
69
Transformation of the Energy of Short-Lived Radioactive Isotopes. M. G. Mi tel 'man ,
R. S. Erofeev, and N. D. Rozenblyum
70
72
Data on the Separation of Boron Isotopes in the Form of Volatile Compounds. I. Kiss.
I. Opauszky, and L. Matush
72
73
Experimental Determination of Axial Self-Absorption in Cylindrical Co? Sources.
K. K. Aglintsev, G. P. Ostromukhova, and E. A. Khol'nova
76
75
Attenuation of Gamma-Radiation by Concrete and Some Naturally Occurring Materials.
P. N. V'yugov, K. S. Goncharov, V. S. Dementii, and
A. M. Mandrichenko
78
76
Annual subscription 75.00 @ 1961 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N.Y.
Single issue 20.00 Note: The saleof photostatic copies of any portion of this copyright translation is expressly
Single article 12.50 prohibited by the copyright owners.
1229
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CONTENTS (continued)
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Tenth International Conference on High-Energy Physics. A. A. Ty a pki n
International Conference on Instrumentation for High-Energy Physics. A. A. lyap kin
[Plans for Atomic Power Station Reactors
[Equipment of the Atomic Power Station in Dungeness
PAGE
81
85
RUSS.
PAGE
80
83
86]
Source: Nuclear Energy 14, 408 (1960)
91]
[Construction of the Reactor in Chinon, France
Source: Nucleonics 18, 28 (1960)
92]
[Trends in Developments in the Uranium Industry in France
Source: R. Bodu, Recent Developments in the Chemical Treatment of Uranium Ores
in France, International Mineral Processing Congress (London, 1960)
93]
A Device for the Measurement and Automatic Control of Liquid Discharge by Means of
Radioactive Radiation. N. N. Shumilovskii and Yu. V. Gushchin
88
93
Brief Communications
90
95
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature. Books and Symposia
91
99
Note. The Table of Contents lists all materials that appears in Atomnaya gnergiya. Those items that originated
in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets. Whenever possible,
the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given. Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc.
Page
655
620
1230
ERRA TA
VOL. 9, NO, 2
First equation
Table 5, 1st column, 8th row
Reads
[E(o) + E (d)1
C = C0 1 +
2E0
Charge in grams of ele-
mentary boron per. 1 cm2
of column cross section
per 1 hr receiver
Table 5, 1st column, 10th row Temperature in re-
ceiver of column, ?C
Should Read
E(o) E(d)]
C - C0[1 +
2E0
Charge in grams of ele-
mentary boron per 1 cm2
of column cross section
per 1 hr
Temperature at top of
column, ?C
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOM NAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhalt
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated February, 1961)
Vol. 10, No. 2 November, 1961
CONTENTS
Using the Method of Moments to Calculate the Space-Energy Distribution of Neutron
Density from Flat and Point Sources in an Infinite Medium. A. R. Ptitsyn
The Creation of a Magnetic Field with an Azimuthal Variation. R. A. Meshcherov
and E. S. Mironov
The Thermoelastic Stresses in the Walls of a Reactor Housing with Internal Sources of Heat
in Nonstationary States. B. I. Maksimenko, K. N. Nikitin, and
PAGE
109
122
RUSS.
PAGE
117
127
L. I. Bashkirov
126
131
The Reaction between Solid UO2 and Mn02 in a Sulfuric Acid Solution.
E. A. Kanevskii and V. A. Pchelkin
133
138
A Study of the Properties of Uranium Hexafluoride in Organic Solvents. N. P. Gal kin ,
B. N. Sudarikov, V. A. Zaitsev, D. A. Vlasov, and V. G. Kosarev
138
143
Methods of Reducing Uranium Hexafluoride. N. P. G al kin , B. N. Sud a ri kov , and
V. A. Zaitsev
143
149
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
The Mechanism of Reaction of Fast Nucleons with Nuclei. V. S. Bar ashen kov ,
V. M. Mal'tsev, and E. K. Mikhul
150
156
Measuring the Radiation Capture Cross Sections of Fast Neutrons of 1127.
Yu. Ya. Stavisskii, V. A. Tolstikov, and V. N. Kononov
153
158
A Beta-Source Based on Au198 for the Investigation of Physical Properties of Substances during
Irradiation. M. A. Mokul'skii and Yu. S. Lazurkin
156
160
A Generator Producing a High Flux of 14 or 2.5 Mev Neutrons. V. I. P etr ov
159
163
The Effect of Radiation on the Electrochemical Behavior of 1Kh18N9T Steel.
V. V. Gerasimov and V. N. Aleksandrova
161
164
A Method of Investigating Processes of Retardation of Fission Fragments in Metals and Alloys.
N. A. Protopopov, Yu. B. Shishkin, V. M. Kul'gavchuk, and
V. I. Sobolev
164
166
The Melting Point and Other Properties of the Lower Oxides of Niobium. 0. P. K olchin
and N. V. Sumarokova
167
168
The Hardness of Some Niobium-Base Alloys at High Temperatures. I. I. Korn ilov and
R. S. Polyakova
170
170
The Characteristics of Irradiated Glasses. Zd en e k Spurn jr
172
172
The Build-Up Factors for Heterogeneous Shielding. L. R. Kimel '
174
173
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CONTENTS (continued)
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
Solution of the Kinetic Equation for a Medium with a Point Monodirectional Source.
E. B. Breshenkova and V. V. Orlov 176 175
The Effect of Inelastic Scatter of Neutrons in Uranium on the Moderation Length in Water.
B. A. Levin, E. V. Marchenko, and D. V. Timoshuk 179 177
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
International Conference on Radioisotope Applications in the Physical Sciences and in
Industry. V. V. Bochkarev and A. S. Shtan' 182 180
[Third Conference on Training Reactors, USA 185]
[Nuclear Power Development Program in the USA 187]
[The Present State and the Outlook for Nuclear Steam Superheat
Source: Nucl. Engng. 5, No. 52, 355 (1960) 189]
Brief Communications 189 190
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature 190 192
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all materials that appears in Atomnaya gnergiya. Those items that
originated in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets.
Whenever possible, the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given.
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOM NAYA gNERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal'
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAY A ENERGIY A,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated March, 1961)
Vol. 10, No. 3
January, 1962
CONTENTS
r The Livermore Variable-Energy 230 cm Cyclotron. H. Hernandez, J. Peterson, B. Smith,
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
and C. Taylor. Nuclear Instruments and Methods 9, 287-302 (1960); North Holland
Publishing Co. Also UCRL Report No. 5971, Reprint No. 1961-106
205]
The Selection of the Optimum Parameters for an Atomic Electric Generating Station.
A. Ya. Kramerov
201
211
Corrosion Resistance of Steels and Zirconium Alloys in Boric Acid Solutions at Different
Temperatures. M. A. Tolstaya, S. V. Bogatyreva, and G. N. Gradusov
213
222
On the Character of Residual Defects in Deformed and Neutron-Irradiated Monocrystals.
E. V. Kolontsova
218
227
The Separation of Radium from Impurities by Means of Ammonium Carbonate. N. P.
Galkin, A. A. Maiorov, G. A. Polonnikova, V. G. Shcherbakova, and L. V. Utkina.
223
233
The Effect of Radioactivity of Substances on Their Physicochemical Properties. L. M.
Kopytin and Yu. V. Gagarinskii
28
238
Application of Stable Boron Isotopes. S. P. Potapov
234
244
Investigations of the Radiation Purity of Atmospheric Air and of the River Neva in the
Region of Berth Tests of the Atomic Icebreaker Lenin. Yu. V. Sivintseva, V. A.
Knizhnikov, E. L. Telushkina, and A. D. Turkin
242
253
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Production of Monoenergetic Beams of Accelerated Particles. F. R. Arutyunyan and
I. P. Karabekov
248
259
Cross Section of the (d,p) Reaction on Various Nuclei. M. Z. Maksimov
250
260
Theory of the Effective Cross Sections of Heavy Nuclei in the Region of Partial Neutron
Resonance Overlapping. A. A. Luk'yanov and V. V. Orlov
252
262
Fast Neutron Capture Cross Sections for Niobium, Nickel, and Iron. Yu. Ya. Stavisskii and
A. V. Shapae.
255
264
Some Remarks Concerning the Determination of the Photoneutron Yield of Thick Specimens.
V. I. Gomonai, D. I. Sikora, and V. A. Shkoda-UPyanov
257
265
Calculation of Mutual Shielding of Lumps in a Tight Lattice. N. I. Laletin
258
267
Effectiveness of a System of Absorbing Elements Symmetrically Arranged in a Ring in the
Active Zone of a Reactor with Reflector. V. I. Nosov
262
269
On the Approximate Solution of the Transport Equation by the Method of Moments. Sh. S.
Nikolaishvili
263
271
The Growth of Vapor Bubbles Moving in a Volume-Heated Fluid. V. K. Zavoiskii
266
272
On the Theory of Hasiguti, Sakairi and Sugai Concerning the Irradiation-Induced Growth
of a-Uranium. Yu. N. Sokurskii
269
274
Annual subscription $ 75.00 ?1962 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
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CONTENTS (continued)
Phase Composition in Nickel-Rich Alloys of a Nickel-Molybdenum-Boron System. P. T.
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
Kolomytsev and N. V. Moskaleva
270
276
Separation of Uranium from Impurities by Means of Ammonium Sulfite. N. P. Galkin and
G. A. Polonnikova
272
277
Quantitative Spectral Analysis of the Isotopic Composition of Boron.
B. V. L 'vov and V. I. Mosichev
274
279
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
IX Session of the Learned Council of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Studies. V. Biryukov
278
282
Conference on Representatives of 12 Governments. V. Biryukov
282
285
Symposium on Inelastic Neutron Scattering in Solids and Fluids. M. G. Zemlyanov
282
285
Symposium on Physics Research with Pile-Produced Neutrons. A. M. Demidov
284
287
[International Colloquium on Electrostatic Generators
Source: Nucl. Engng. 5, No. 54, 524 (1960)
288]
[Second International Accelerator Conference
Source: Nucl. Engng. 5, No. 54, 523 (1960)
289]
International Colloquium on Radioactive Isotope Applications in Construction
286
289
West German Atomforum Conference. Yu. Mityaev
287
291
[Problems of Uranium Geology and Geochemistry Reviewed at the Convention
of the US Society of Economic Geologists
292]
[First Results of Studies on the CERN Proton Synchroton
293]
[Revised Swedish Reactor Building Program
Source: Nucleonics 18, No. 12, 30 (1960)
294]
[American High-Temperature Gas-Cooled HTGR Reactor
Source: Nucl. Energy No. 150, 539 (1960)
295]
[The Nestor Research Reactor
Source: Nucl. Engng. 5, No. 54, 506 (1960)
297]
[Amalgam Methods in Nuclear Engineering
299]
[Isolation of Pure Beryllium Compounds, Technique Based on the Insolubility of Basic
Beryllium Acetate
Source: Chem. and Engng. News 38, No. 39, 112 (1960)
300]
[Removal of Strong Acids from Solutions Using Sulfate Anion Exchange Resins
Source: Chem. and Engng. News 38, No. 39, 67 (1960)
301]
[Ion Exchange Method for Holdback of Ions
Source: Chem. and Engng. News 38, No. 39 (1960)
301]
Brief Communications
289
302
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature
290
304
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all materials that appear in Atomnaya nergiya. Those items that
originated in the English language are not included in the translation and are ghown enclosed in brackets.
Whenever possible. the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given.
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. DollezhaP
D. V. Efremov
V. S. EmePyanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAY A ENERGIY A,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated April, 1961)
Vol. 10, No. 4 January, 1962
CONTENTS
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
Five Years of Activity of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Studies. D. I. Blokhintse v.
305
317
Thermionic Energy Transformers. B. A . Us ha ko v
330
343
The Effect of Neutron Irradiation on the Internal Friction of Zinc Monocrystals and Poly-
crystals. N. F. Pravdyuk, Yu. I. Pokrovskii, and V. I. Vikhrov
334
347
The Use of Ion-Exchange Membranes in the Hydrometallurgy of Uranium. B. N.
Laskorin and N. M. Smirnova
340
353
Radioactive Properties of Fragmental Products. A . G. By kov , P. V. Z im a kov ,
and V. V. Kulichenko
348
362
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
A Rotating Plasma Arc in a Discharge in a Magnetic Field. A . V. Z ha rin ov
353
368
Use of the Principles of Similitude in Solving Particle Transfer Problems. S h. A.
Guberman
354
369
Mean Number of Neutrons from Fast Fission of Np237. V . I. L e be de v and
V. I. Kalashnikova
357
371
Tertiary Fission of the Nuclei U-233, U-235, Pu-239 and Pu-241. T. A. M osto v a y a
359
372
Note on the Theory of an Annular Cyclotron. A. P. Fateev
360
373
A Traveling-Wave Cascade Generator? A New High-Voltage Supply for Accelerator Tubes.
E. M. Balabanov and G. A. Vasil'ev
363
375
Measuring the Characteristics of Kinetics of a Reactor by the Statistical p-Method.
A. I. Mogil'ner and V. G. Zolotukhin
365
377
Distribution of the Counting of a Neutron Detector Placed in a Reactor. V. G.
Zolotukhin and A. I. Mogil'ner
367
379
The Density of a Volume Heated Steam Water Mixture. V. K. Z avoiskii
369
381
Study of the Spectra of Thermoneutrons in Test Reactors with a Monochromator.
Yu. Yu. Glazkov, B. G. Dubovskii, F. M. Kuznetsov, V. A.
Semenov, and Pen Fan
370
381
Turbulent Heat Transfer in a Stream of Molten Metals. V. I. S ubbotin, M. K h.
Ibragimov, M. N. Ivanovskii, M. N. Arnol'dov and E. V.
Nomofilov
373
384
Power Losses and the Initial Torque of a Shaft in a Frozen Sodium Seal. A. V.
Drobyshev and N. M. Turchin
376
386
Calculating the Streaming of Fast Neutrons Along the Cylindrical Channels in a
Biological Shield. B. R. Bergel'son
378
388
The Spectrum of Scattered y -Radiation. V. S. A na st a s e vich
381
389
Annual subscription $75.00 ID 1962 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
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CONTENTS (continued)
The Monte Carlo Calculation of the Passage of y -Radiation from a Plane Directed Source
of Cs132 through Aluminum under Conditions of Barrier Geometry. A . F.
Akkerman and D. K. Kaipov
A Radiometric Method for Determining the Uranium Concentration in Solutions Con-
Ionitun. N. N. S ha sh ki n a
The Problem of the Scaling Factor for the Quantitative Interpretation of y -Logging.
PAGE
383
385
RUSS.
PAGE
391
392
A. M. Lebedev, S. G. Troitskii, and V. L. Shashkin
387
394
Preparation of Uranium Dodecaboride. Yu. B. Pa de rn o
390
396
A Universal y -Apparatus for Radiation-Chemical Studies. N. G. Ale ksee v,
K. N. Emel`yanov, G. K. Klimenko, B. V. Rybakov, and
A. A. Rostovtsev
391
396
Selecting a Radioactive Isotope to Check Materials Based on the Use of Scattering of
y-Radiation. A. S. Rudnitskii
395
400
Change in the Activity of en and Pu239 Fission Products with Time. F. K.
Levochkin and Yu. Ya. Sokolov
398
403
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Intercollegiate Conference on Techniques for Separation of Rare Metals of Similar
Properties. A. N. Z elikm an
400
405
Fourth All-Union Conference on Physicochemical Analysis
402
406
Materials of the Kingston (Ontario) Conference on Nuclear Structure. A. I. B a a'
and V. M. Strutinskii
403
407
Symposium on Atomic Powered Ships
406
409
New Research in the Study of the Genesis of Uranium Deposits. A. T ug a ri no v
407
410
A Timely and Topical Exhibit on *The Uses of Radioactive Isotopes in Automation
and ProcessControl." V. M. Patskevich and S. A. Perepletchikov ...
409
412
Nuclear Power in West Germany
413
415
[The Hanford Dual Purpose Reactor
Source: Power Reactor Technol. 3, No. 4, 75 (1960) P
? ?
?
415]
[Fuel Element Failure in the WTR Reactor
Source : Nucleonics 18, No. 9, 104 (1960)
417] .
[Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing
Source : Nucleonics 18, No. 12, 23 (1960)
418]
[Geothermal Waters Seen as a Potential Lithium Source
Source : S. Wilson, ''Lithium and other minerals in geothermal waters,* Paper 127,
Fourth Triennial Mineral Conf., New Zeland (1959)
419]
New General-Purpose Enclosure for Handling Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Emitters.
G. N. Lokhanin and V. I. Sinitsyn
.
414
420
The M-2 Manipulator. 0. M. gnatI 'ev
416 ,
421
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature
418
425
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all materials that appear in Atomnaya gnergiya. Those items that
originated in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets.
Whenever possible, the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given.
Consultants Bureau Enterprises. Inc.
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V.1. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Aerietant Editor)
A. P. Zeflrov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAY A ENERGIY A,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated May, 1961)
Vol. 10, No. 5 March, 1962
CONTENTS
Glory to the Soviet Scientists, Builders, Engineers, Technicians, and Workers ? The
Conquerors of Space'
PAGE
429
RUSS.
PAGE
Frontis-
piece
A Fast-Neutron Pulse Reactor. G. E. Blo khin et al
430
437
Behavior of Graphite in Nuclear Reactor Stacks. V. I. Kli men kov
439
447
An Iron-Current Magnetic Channel for the Exit and Injection of Charged Particles.
A. A. Arzurnanov, N. I. Venikov, E. S. Mironov, and
L. M. Nemenov
451
461
A Study of Accelerating Systems Operating with Waves Similar to H. P. M. Z eidlits
and V. A. Yamnitskii
459
469
The Space-Energy Distribution of Neutrons in a Stratum Containing a Bore Hole.
0. A. Barsukov and V. S. Avzyanov
467
478
An Automatic Cascade Device for Producing Highly Concentrated Heavy Nitrogen Isotope.
I. G. Gverdtsiteli, Yu. V. Nikolaev, E. D. Oziashvili,
K. G. Ordzhonikidze, G. N. Muskhelishvili, N. Sh. Kiladze,
V. R. Mikirtumov, and Z. I. Bakhtadze
475
487
The Propagation in Air of Gamma Radiation from a Momentary Point Source.
0. I. Leipunskii, A. S. Strelkov, A. S. Frolov, and
N. N. Chentsov
482
493
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Emission of the Beam and Controlling the Energy in a Cyclotron with Azimuthal Variation
of the Magnetic Field. A. A. Arzumanov, R. A. Meshcherov,
E. S. Mironov, L. M. Nemenov, S. N. Rybin, and
Ya. A. Kholmovskii
489
501
CsI(T1) Scintillators for Recording a-Particles. L. M. Bel y a ev , A. B. Gil 'v arg ,
and V. P. Panova
491
502
Scintillation Glasses with Increased Light Yield for Detecting Neutrons.
V. K. Voitovetskii and N. S. Tolmacheva
492
504
A Method of Detecting a-Particles and Fission Fragments by a Scintillation Counter on a
Background of Intensive 8-or y -Radiation. V. K. Voitovetskii and
I. L. Korsunskii
494
505
Preparing and Using Resonance Polarized Neutrons. A. D. Gul 'ko and
Yu. V. Taran
495
506
Annual subscription $ 75.00 /0 1962 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
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CONTENTS (continued)
Radiation Capture Cross Sections of Neutrons with Energies of 0.03-2 Mev by the Isotopes
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
Mn55,Cu65,Ba138, Th232. Yu. Ya. Stavisskii and V. A. Tolstikov
498
508
Passage of Neutrons with Energies of 0.5 and 1.0 Mev Through Water and Mixtures of
Water with Heavy Components. V. I. Kukhtevich and B. I. Sinitsyn
501
511
Distribution of Neutrons in Media with a Cylindrical Interface Boundary and Off-Axis
Source Distribution. A. E. Glauberman, V. B. Kobylyanskii, and
I. I. Tal'yanskii
503
513
Radiation from a Volume Source in the Presence of Surface Activity. E. E. K ov al ev
and D. P. Osanov
505
515
Measurements of the Spectra and Temperature of the Neutron Gas in a Graphite-Water
Reactor. E. Ya. Doil'nitsyn and A. G. Novikov
508
517
Plotting of Entropy Diagrams by Using Experimental Data on the Velocity of Sound.
I. I. Novikov and Yu. S. Trelin
510
519
Steady-State Boiling of Volume-Heated Liquids. V. K. Z a v ois kii
513
521
Critical Thermal Loads in Forced Motion of Water Which is Heated to a Temperature Below
the Saturation Temperature. D. A. La bun tsov
516
523
Investigation of Metal Corrosion in the Experimental Channel of the IRT Reactor.
A. V. Byalobzheskii and V. D. Val'kov
519
525
Determination of the Isotopic Composition of Lithium by Activation Analysis.
L. P. Bilibin, A. A. Lbov, and I. I. Naumova
522
528
Electrochemical Reduction of U (VI) to U (IV) from Hydrochloric Acid Solutions Using
Cationite Membranes. B. N. Laskorin and N. M. Smirnova
524
530
Gamma-Spectrometric Determination of Small Amounts of Uranium, Thorium, and
Potassium in Rocks. N. P. K a rtashov
526
531
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
A New General-Purpose High-Precision Beta-Ray Spectrometer. V. M. K el 'man,
B. P. Peregud, and V. I. Skopina
529
534
[Nuclear Power Station at Sizewall, Source: Nuclear Engineering 6, No. 56, 7 (1961)
536]
[Biological Shielding Calculations for the Trawsfyndd Reactor, Source: Nuclear Engineering
6, No. 56, 16 (1961)
537]
[Fuel Element Testing Power, Source: Nuclear Power 5, No. 55 (1960)
539]
Ion Exchange Extraction of Uranium from Dense Pulps by the "Floating Resin" Technique.
A. Zarubin
532
540
Conference on Radiation Effects in Materials. Yu. N. So kurski i
532
540
[New Kinds of Beryllium Occurrences in the USA
542]
Radioisotope Applications in East Germany
535
543
New Rules Governing Shipping of Radioactive Materials. N. I. Leshchinskii and
A. S Shtan'
536
544
New Regulations on Radiation Shielding Adopted in West Germany
538
545
Radioactive Isotopes in Tracer Monitoring of Seepage Flow Patterns. N. Flekser
540
546
Conference on Seed Irradiation Prior to Sowing. V. M. Pa ts kev i ch
543
549
[Brief Communications
551]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature
546
553
NOTE. The Table of Contents lists all material that appears in Atomnaya anergiya. Those items that
originated in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brack-
ets. Whenever possible, the English-language source containingthe omitted reports will be given.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/09/25: CIA-RDP10-02196R000600070004-8
EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA gNERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V.!. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAY A ENERGIY A,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated June, 1961)
Vol. 10, No. 6 March, 1962
CONTENTS
A Partial Fuel Reloading Schedule for Nuclear Reactors
E. I. Grishanin, B. G. Ivanov, and V. N. Sharapov
Contribution to the Theory of Radiation Effects on Some Properties of Graphite
V. M. Agranovich, and L. P. Semenov
Neturon Yield of the Reactions Li6 (t, n) and Li7 (t, n)
PAGE
561
?569
RUSS.
PAGE
565
572
A. K. Val' mer, P. I. Vatset, L. Ya. Kolesnikov, S. G. Tonapetyan,
K. K. Chernyavskii, and A. I. Shpetnyi
574
577
The Effect of Certain Compounds on the Oxidation of Uranium in Acid Media
G. M. Nesmeyanova and G. M. Alkhazoshvili
583
587
Investigation of the PuO2F2?HF ?H20 System (20?C Isotherm)
I. F. Alenchikova, L. V. Lipis, and N. S. Nikolaev
587
592
Wall Surface Coatings for Radioactive Room Interiors
A. N. Komarovskii
597
597
Some Questions of Thermal Strength in Reactor Construction
Ya. B. Fridman, N. D. Sobolev, S. V. Borisov, V. I. Egorov,
V. P. Konoplenko, E. M. Morozov, L. A. Shapovalov,
and B. F. Shorr
601
606
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Anisotropy of the Fission Fragments from the Nuclei Pu246 and PU236
V. G. Nesterov, G. N. Smirenkin, and I. I. Bondarenko
613
620
Decay Half Life of Cs137
M. P. Glazunov, A. I. Grivkova, B. A. Zaitsev, and V. A. Kiselev
615
622
The Question of the Thermodynamic Cycles of Atomic Electric Stations
D. D. Kalafati
617
623
Effect of Uranium Ore Composition on Its y -ray Scintillation Spectrum
A. G. Grammakov, A. K. Ovchinnikov, Yu. P. Lyubavin,
V. M. Ovchinnikov, and A. M. Sazonov
619
624
Aerial Determination of the Radium, Thorium, and Potassium Content pf Rocks
N. D. Balyasnyi, L. I. Boltneva, A. V. Dmitriev, V. A. Ionov,
and I. M. Nazarov
621
626
Use of CaSO4:Sm for Dosimetry
A. R. Krasnaya, B. M. Nosenko, L. S. Revzin, and V. Ya. Yaskolko .
625
630
Annual subscription $ 75.00
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CONTENTS (continued)
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
Maximum Allowable Concentrations of Radioactive Isotopes of Inert Gases
of Fission Fragment Origin
Yu. V. Sivintsev 626 631
Thermal Diffusion Separation of Neon Isotopes
L. S. Kotousov, E. M. Martynov, and U. P. Stepanov 628 632
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Balance Sheet on the Vienna Conference of January, 1961 on Waste Disposal in Sea
and Ocean Waters 630 634
[Storage Ring of the Frascati Electron Synchrotron
Source: C. Bernardini et al. Il Nuovo Cimento, XVIII, No. 6, 1293 (1960) 632]
[Computer Codes for Reactor Design
Source: Nucleonics, 19, No. 1, 5 (1961) 637]
[CAN-1 :Fog-Coolant Project
Source: Nucleonics, 19, No. 1, 86 (1961) . 637]
[A Fast Pulsed Reactor
Source: Nuclear Engineering 6, No. 57, 51 (1961) 6391
[Start-up of a Plutonium Fuel Cycle Testing Reactor
Source: Nuclear Engineering 6, No. 57, 68 (1961 6391
[Materials for Gas Cooled High Temperature Reactors
Source: Power Reactor Technology, 3, No. 4, 58 (1960) 640]
[Fuel Elements for the Dounreay Fast Reactor
Source: Nuclear Engineering 2, No. 15, 230 (1957); Nuclear Engineering g, No. 16,
286 (1957); G. Cartwright, Proc. of the Second Annual Conf. on the Peaceful Uses
of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1958). Extracts of Reports of Foreign Scientists (Moscow,
Atomizdat, 1958), Vol. 4, p. 430; Nuclear Engineering 3, No. 30, 494 (1958); K. Turner
and L. Williams, Proc. of the Second Annual Conf. on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy
(Geneva, 1958). Extracts of Reports of Foreign Scientists (Moscow, Atomizdat, 1958),
Vol. 6, p. 570; Nuclear Engineering 6 No. 57, 82 (1961) 6431
[Mobile Leaktight Glove Box 645]
[Geobotanical Uranium Prospecting in the USA 646]
Brief Communications 634 647
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature. Books and Symposia 635 650
Note. The Table of Contents lists all materials that appears in Atomnaya E-nergiya. Those items that originated
in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets. Whenever possible,
the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given. Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc.
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA gNERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal
D. V. Efrernov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V.1. Velcsler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zeflrov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAY A ENERGIYA,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated July, 1961)
Vol. 11, No. 1
? March, 1962
CONTENTS
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
Study of the Physical Constants of a Uranium Graphite Reactor Lattice by Means of a
Sub-Critical Assembly. Yu. Yu. Glazkov, L. A. Gerasev a ,
B. G. Dubovskii, A. K. Krasin, I. M. Kisil', F. M. Kuznetsov,
Yu. M. Serebrennikov, V. P. Shelud'ko, V. N. Sharapov,
and Peng Fang 641 5
Operating Experience from the First Atomic Electric Station. Yu. V. Ev do kim ov ,
V. Ya. Kozlov, V. G. Konochkin, L. A. Kochetkov,
A. K. Krasin, V. V. Lytkin, V. S. Sever' yanov,
B. A. Semenov, and G. N. Ushakov 648 12
Some Methods of Neutron-Physical Calculation in the Profiling of Power Reactors.
N. N. Ponomarev-Stepnoi and E. S. Glushkov 654 19
662 26
Some Problems in the Theory of a Cyclotron with Azimuthal Variation of the Magnetic
Field. Yu. A. Zavenyagin, R. A. Meshcherov, and E. S. Mironov
On the Possibility of Accelerating Heavy Pulsed Currents in Linear Electron Accelerators.
N. A. Khizhnyak, V. T. Tolok, V. V. Chechkin, and
N. I. Nazarov
A Heavy-Current Electron Accelerator. V. T. Tolok, L. I. Bolot in ,
670 34
V. V. Chechkin, N. I. Nazarov, and N. A. Khizhnyak 677 41
682 46
The Analysis of Reactor Fuel and Materials in the Department of Analytical Chemistry in
the Institute for Nuclear Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
J. Minczewski
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Calculating Neutron Cross Sections of Tungsten in an Optical Model of the Nucleus.
V. A. Tolstikov, V. E. Kolesov, and V. S. Stavinskii 691 56
Two-Dimensional 1024 Channel Pulse Amplitude Analyzer (DMA-1024).
A. A. Rostovtsev, Yu. I. Ii 'in, A. S. Beregovskii, V. G. Tishin,
V. E. Zezyulin, and B. A. Ermakov 694 58
The Radiometry of 8-Active Gases Using Spherical Ionization Chambers. A. D. Turkin 696 60
A Graphic Method for Determining the Activity of Irradiated Specimens.
Slavcho Popov 698 61
The Hardening of Molybdenum during Irradiation by Neutrons. Sh. Sh. Ibragimov,
and A. N. Vorob'ev 702 65
The Hydrolysis of Uranium Tetrafluoride. N. S. Nikolaev and
Yu. A. Luk'yanychev 704 67
Annual subscription $75.00 ? 1962 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
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CONTENTS (continued)
The Effect of the Weight of Uranium Ores and the Thickness of the Layer of Iron Absorber
on the Scintillation Spectrum of Their y -Radiation. A. G. Gramma kov
A. K. Ovchinnikov, Yu. P. Lyubavin, V. M. Ovchinnikov,
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
and A. M. Sazonov
707
69
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
The Uranium Industry in the Capitalist Countries (A Review of Its Present Status).
V. L. Andreev
710
72
The Status of Nuclear Power Development in Switzerland.
V. G. Kirillov-Ugryumov
719
79
The West German Nuclear Power Station at Kahl-Am-Main
721 I
81
Ultramicroscopic Techniques in the Production and Study of Californium
724
83
Electronic Computers Calculate Radiation Damage in Metals. A. Orlov
725
84
[Radiation Levels in EBWR
Source: Nucleonics, March, 1961
87]
[New AEC Rules on Reactor Siting
Source: Nucleonics, March, 1961
88]
A Storage Receptacle for Radiation Sources
729
89
BRIEF COMMUNICATIONS
729
90
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature
730 I
93
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all materials that appear in Atomnaya Energiya. Those items that ,
originated in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets.
Whenever possible, the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given.
Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc:
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/09/25: CIA-RDP10-02196R000600070004-8
EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA 2NERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar.
N. A. Dollezhal
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
, V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAY A ENERGIY A,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated August, 1961)
Vol. 11 No. 2 March, 1962
CONTENTS
Use of Burnable Poisons in Nuclear Reactors. V. S. Volkov, A. S. Luk'yanov,
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
V. V. Chepkunov, V. P. Shevyakov, and V. S. Yamnikov
'745
109
Study of a Spent Fuel Element from the First Atomic Electric Station. A. P. Smirnov-Averin,
V. I. Galkov, V. I. Ivanov, V. P. Meshcheryakov, I. G. Sheinker, L. A. Stabenova,
758
122
N. N. Krot, and A. G. Kozelov.
Stored Energy in the Graphite Stack of the IR Reactor. V. I. Klimenkov and
762
126
A. Ya. Zavgorodnii
Heat-Transfer from the Turbulent Flow of Liquid Metals in Tubes. V. I. Subbotin,
769
133
M. Kh. Ibragimov, M. N. Ivanovskii, M. N. Arnol'bov, and E. V. Nomofilov
Rotating-Cylinder Electrostatic Generator with Hydrogen Insulation. N. J. Felici.
7'76
140
The Present Level of the Technology of Uranium Ore Processing.' A. P. Zefirov,
789
153
B. N. Laskorin, and B. V. Nevskii
The Effect of Ionizing Radiation on the Corrosion Behavior of Metals in Carbon Tetrachloride
A. V. Byalobzheskii and V. N. Lukinskaya
805
170
Delayed Coincidence Measurement of y -Ray Time Distribution in Wood.
A. I. Veretennikov, V. Ya. Averchenkov, and M. V. Savin
812
177
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Loading with the Current of a Linear Accelerator Buncher. G. I. Zhileiko
816
181
The Distribution of Particles in a Charged Beam in Storage Systems. V. K. Grishin
819
183
The Fast Neutron Flux Determining Radiation Damage in Materials.
N. N. Ponomarev-Stepnoi
.821
184
The Thermodynamics of Reduction of Thorium Dioxide by Calcium. Yu. I. Zarembo
823
185
Attenuation of y -Radiation of Co", Cs137, and Au1.98 by a Cylindrical Lead Shield.
Z. S. Aref'eva, V. V. Bochkarev, L. M. Mildiailov, and L. V. Timofeev
825
186
Universal Tables for Calculating Tungsten and Uranium Shielding against y -Radiation.
L. M. Mikhailov and Z. S. Aref'eva
826
187
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Kiev March, 1961 Conference on Uses of Atomic Energy. G. Fradkin
828
190
Conference on Nondestructive Testing Techniques. V. M. Patskevich
830
192
First Results of Plant Radiobiology Research in the Estonian SSR. T. Orav
833
194
Atomic Energy on Display at the British Expos1ti3n in Moscow
834
194
[British Atomic Exhibit in London
198]
Brief Communications.
838
199
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature
839
200
Annual subscription $75.00
Single issue 20.00
Single article 12.50
? 1962 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
? Note: The sale of photostatic copies of any portion of this copyright translation is expressly
prohibited by the copyright owners.
1243
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/09/25: CIA-RDP10-02196R000600070004-8
EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zellrov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAYA ENERGIY A,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated September, 1961)
Vol. 11, No. 3 March, 1962
CONTENTS
Acceleration of Hes up to 35 Mev in the One and One-Half Meter Cyclotron.
N. I. Venikov, G. N. Golovanov, V. P. Konyaev, N. V. Starostin,
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
and N. I. Chumakov
857
213
Silicon Counters for Nuclear Spectrometry. S. M. Ryv kin, L. V. Maslov, ,
0. A. Matveev, N. B. Strokan, and D. V. Tarkhin
861
217
Two-Dimensional Boundary Problem for Two-Dimensional Square Lattices. L. Trlif ai .
865
221
Diffusivity of Sodium and Lithium. I. I. Rudnev , V. S. Lyashenko, and
I
M. D. Abramovich
877
230
Vasilii Savvich Lyashenko
01
232
Preparation of Highly Pure Beryllium by the Chloride Method. I. E. Vii 'komirskii,
,
G. F. Silina, A. S. Berengard, and V. N. Semakin
882
233
The Separation Factor of Lithium Isotopes during Vacuum Distillation.
S. G. Katal'nikov and B. M. Andreev
889
240
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
The Angular and Energy Dispersion of 7r --Mesons in the Scatterd Magnetic Field of a Six-Meter
Synchrocyclotron.V. G. Kirillov-Ugryumov, A. A. Kropin,
V. S. Roganov, and A. V. Samoilov
894
245
Improving the Monochromaticity of an Ion Beam in a Cyclotron. N. I. Venikov and
N. I. Chumakov
898
247
The Angular Anisotropy of Fission of Even-Even Nuclei. V. G. Nes terov ,
G. N. Smirenkin, and I. I. Bondarenko
901
248
The Possibility of the Practical Use of Isomers. Yu. V. Petrov
903
250
The Space Distribution of Fast Fission Neutrons in Iron. V. P. Mashkovich and
S. G. Tsypin
905
251
The Problem of Thermal Contact Resistance during Heat Transfer to Liquid Metals.
. P. Astakhov, V. I. Petrov, and 0. S. Fedynskii
910
255
The Thermodynamics of the Reduction of Uranium Tetrafluoride by Calcium.
N. P. Galkin, U. D. Veryatin, and Yu. V. Smirnov
914
257
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Tenth Session of the Learned Council of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research.
V. Biryukov
918
261
International Conference on Theoretical Aspects of Phenomena Occurring at Very High
Energies. V. S. Barashenkov
919
262
Annual subscription $ 75.00
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Single article 12.501
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CONTENTS (continued)
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
Use of Tritium in Physical and Biological Research. Y a.? M. Vars ha vskii and
A. A. Ogloblin 922 .264
Seminar on the Use of Isotopes and Nuclear Radiations in Blast-Furnace Production.
P. L. Gruzin 927 268
[Trends in the Design of British Nuclear Power Stations
Source: Nucl. Engng. 6, 100 (1961) No. 58 269]
[The Role of the AGR in British Power Program
Source: Nucl. Engng. 6, No. 59, 151 (1961) 270]
[First News on Operation of the Yankee Power Station
Source: Nucleonics, March, 1961 271]
[Nuclear Power Costs
Source: Nucl. Engng., 6, No. 60, 216 (1961) 273]
[In-Pile Testing of Nuclear Direct Conversion Device
Source: R. Howard et al. ARS Space Power Systems Conf., Sept., 1960 275]
[Metals Compatability in Gas-Cooled Reactors
Source: Nucl. Engng., 6, No. 60, 217 (1961) 277]
[On the Use of Carbon Steel in the NPR Reactor
Source: Nucleonics, March, 1961 277]
[A New Radiometric Separator for Enriching Uranium Ores, and Its Application
Sources: Mine and Quarry Engng., 25, No. 1, 46(1959); Engng. and Mining J., 160,
No. 2, 158 (1959); S. Afric. Mining J., 72, No. 3551, 409(1961) 279]
[A New Concept in Manipulators
Source: Nucl. Engng. 6, No. 59, 173 (1961) 282]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature 933 287
Engineering and Physics Journal Inzhenerno-Fizicheskii Zhumal 943 294
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all materials that appear in Atomnaya Energiya. Those items that
originated in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets.
Whenever possible, the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given.
Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2013/09/25: CIA-RDP10-02196R000600070004-8
EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V.1. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAY A ENERGIY A,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original datedOctober, 1961)
Vol. 11, No. 4 April 1962
CONTENTS
Atomic Science and Technology and the Building of Communism. V. S. Em el 'y a no v . .
Interaction of Charged-Particle Beams with Plasma. Ya. B. F a inber g
Magnetic Traps with Opposing Fields. S. Yu. Lu k ' y a nov and I. M. Po dgornyi. .
Physical Investigations in the Cyclotron Laboratory of the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic
Energy. N. A. Vlasov and S. P. Kalinin
A Survey of Nuclear-Reactor Design Methods. G. I. Marchu k.
The Future of Fast Reactors. A. I. Leipunskii, 0. D. KazaChkovskii, and
M. S.?Pinkhasik
Some Results and Perspectives of Nuclear Radiation and Isotope Use in Russian Science and
Industry. P. L. Gruzin
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
The Elastic Scattering of Neutrons with an Energy of 15 Mev by Nuclei of Copper, Lead, and
U238. B. Ya. Guzhovskii.
Measurement of the Cross Sections for Inelastic Interaction of Neutrons with an Energy of 13 to
20 Mev using Certain Isotopes. Yu. G. De gt revya and V. G. Nadtochii.. .
The Inelastic Scattering of 14 Mev Neutrons by Sodium, Iron, Nickel, and Lead Nuclei.
V. I. Sukhanov and V. G. Rukavishnikov
The Attenuation of Neutron Flux in the Reinforced-Concrete Shielding of a Synchrocyclotron.
M. M. Komochkov.
The Long-Lived Isotope A126 in the Aluminum used in the Construction of a Nuclear Reactor.
S. S. Vasil'ev, T. N. Mikhaleva, N. P. Rudenko,
A. I. Sevast'yanov, and V. S. Zazulin
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Review of Gosatomizdat (State Atomic Press) Publications for 1960 and 1961
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
947
301
958
313
980
336
989
345
1000
356
1017
370
1027
379
1041
395
1043
397
1044
398
1046
399
1048
401
1050
404
Note to subscribers? The author index for volumes 10 and 11, 1961 will be published in volume 11, no. 6.
Annual subscription $ '75.00
Single issue 20.00
12.50
Single article
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOM NAYA NERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V.1. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zeflrov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated November, 1961)
Vol. 11, No. 5
May, 1962
CONTENTS
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
On the Decrease of the Ion Pulse Duration and Ion Pulse Rate in a Cyclotron. N. I. V en ik ov
1065
421
The Calculation of Heat Transfer in Tubes for the Turbulent Flow of Liquids with Small
Prandt1Numbers(Pr