SOVIET ATOMIC ENERGY - VOL. 39, NO. 3

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Release Decision: RIFPUB
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• Document Page Count: 98
• Document Creation Date: January 4, 2017
• Document Release Date: September 24, 2013
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: March 1, 1976
• Content Type: REPORT

, ? \ ,
..
. f , IT- , - __', 1 . N -
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/24: CIA-RDP10-02196R000400060002-3 - 2,
''S
,
'
' - v' ' Russian _
Original Vol 329, No. 3,? September,)1975
?
;
1 V.
/
V.
, , z,
,/_,,,? , ,,,,T - ' -,,, /.. -./.?,..
\ ) \ ) . ' 1 '1 `
_ ? :r? .1,, -,:., k? ,' - "! ;
/ j (, ) - " ' ." '-
\ / --- I' 1 C - / . ' I
-i 1 ?---( '' ? . ' " SAEAZ I? I, , T '39,0) 771-862!(1'95) T, )
., ? , ---, ?.?
s'N
-1 . ; ''! - j'f? IN i i'.,, ?:.--/ ):: ,.? , .,...k / i\. ," '? \ ,/,'\?'. . '\ : . " -, VI,
\.,
1 ? :- , t .?-,. ' ? A, ? ....?, i__? / , It ? 1 \ ' /
/1 1 / ; (. ,.,?r 2, )
',(..- ? ,
1 . , , , -) .- . -.1 ? . )) ,
I, 5 - .I1
i '
I L -7... . k. ' 1! ' ?. . ( ? .1
C
I, - .! - s _.
.. .,, - ..,
_.-1 \ _
, 7 - - I
.... i , _' 4 \ . ) . ,,
.., \ ', ?-'' , r- r
, k,. , / ' ? ,
' 21:
, . ?
47,
\
I?
;
r
,??-? ? ? ,
; .
-..._ .-:-...? -/- .?
? ....-- /S _ .
/ ) /,---
,Ci, _
> '1,
? - e
'r
(,)
i'I
c., , ?-.. 1_ ' 1
7' .. -
\ 1 ? 1
7 , ? /_, -? " "\ .
. _ , ? (..
? ? _e' .-i,,?
r
,
sAT0MH141?,,3HE-Prlifl
'1Ai-OMNAYA\ iNtiGIYA)
-TRANSLATED FRDM RUSSIAN
(
\
0.
,
/55 VVVSVVVV
-
?
0.1-0.2 ? sec . The rate of decrease
of intensity in both regions, their duration, and the contributions to the time integral of the intensity depend
on the distance ttoR and the source energy E0. For all source energies a slowing down of the rate of de-
crease of intensity with increasing 110R is observed, leading to an increase in the time the scattered
?
10-3 I I III 1 1 III 1
mrz
a
?
fiR=3
Jul? 1
R=8
1 1 III 1 1 III I L 111
IT
T, psec
to-2 70-1 10?
Fig. 1. Time dependence of intensity of scattered gamma radiation for source
energies E0= a) 30 and b) 100 keV.
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 217-222, September, 1975. Original
article submitted January 6, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
832
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/24: CIA-RDP10-02196R000400060002-3
1.020,-3 10-2 to-I
10
102
701
7
0
1111 111111 11 11 /0 1 1111 1 1 1 1 1 1
100 0-5
a T,psec
102
10?
Fig. 2. Time dependence of intensity of scattered radiation from sources of
hard gamma radiation with E0 = a) 1 and b) 6 MeV.
radiation is effective. Moreover, for source energies from 50 to 250 keV, times ~0.1-0.25 ?sec, and
distances ?oR"=,' 6-8, an increase of intensity is observed (Fig. lb).
The character of the change of intensity of the scattered radiation at short times can be found from
an analytic treatment of the transport processes. To do this the time dependence of the intensity of singly
scattered and doubly scattered radiation was computed by numerical integration. In the first scatter the
angular and energy dependences of the scattering cross section were taken into account, and for E0k- 100
keV Rayleigh scattering and the effect of screening in Compton scattering were also taken into account; in
:salculating the second scatter the scattering cross section was assumed isotropic. The total intensity of
TABLE 1. Coefficients in Eq. (1) for the Intensity of Scattered Radiation
1 NWT n 1A2 ,MeV
IA
R /Psec cl"Pse- /p'sec
TLpsec 7.2,psec
73,psec
AL MeV
/psec a,psec 2 Nk:1/
/p.sec IThpsec
1-2,psec
p&psec
? 4=30 keV
E0=.40 keV
1
1,05
0,0085
0,06
0,100
0,072
0,033
-1,40
0,012
0,13
0,140
0,128
0,037
2
0,95
0,0230
0,18
0,120
0,075
0,068
1,20
0,034
0,47
0,160
0,128
0,075
4
0,88
0,0520
0,51
0,135
0,079
0,080
1,10
0,0887
1,53
0,200
0,145
0,100
8
0,83
0,1159
1,86
0,200
0,082
0,100
1,00
0,160
5,42
0,280
0,150
0;152
4=100 keV
E0=.500 keV
1
2,70
0,022
0,46
0,200
0,285
0,077
11,00
0,014,
0,71
0,170
0,458
0,060
2
2,25
0,066
2,07
0,250
0,295
0,137
- 8,10
0,051
2,46
0,220
0,510
0,111
4
1,80
0,170
11,53
0,350
0,305
0,270
- 6,70
0,130
9,53
0,320
0,555
0,190
8
1,60
0,220
70,49
0,480
0,330
0,560
5,40
0,180
42,80
0,420
0,570
0,250
E0=1MeV
4.=.4 MeV
1
21,5
0,009
0,75
0,140
0,550
0
140
0,0025
0,53
0,100
0,650
0
2
16,0
0,035
2,20
0,180
0,600
0
90
0,0110
1,37
0-,120
0,670
0
4
13,0
0,090
6,30
0,255
0,650
0
65
0,0350
3,40,
0,150
0,670
0
8
10,0
0,150
22,30
0,350
.0,680
0
57
0,0670
8,00
0,180
0,670
0
/30=8 MeV
4.12 MeV
1
460
0,00125
0,39
0,092
0,650
0
600
0,00095
0,33
0,090
0,650
0
2
260
0,0056
0,90
0,110
0,650
0
380
0,0048
0,72
0,110
0,650
0
4
190
0,0180
1,80
0,135
0,650
0
280
0,0140
1,53
0,140
0,650
0
8
150
0,0420
4,87
0,170
0,650
0
.230
0,0370
4,10
0,170
0,650
0
833
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04
?
? 1 itAR94 -
? /
? 1
? . .
/ , ja.R.19
r / ., ...,
,t1 ' '
'0=1
/.
?
/ / .
. .
. it
, FR./ / i l
..? 4 I .1
/ /I?
/ 1
/1/ ' /
I. -Y /
// /
.
..../". i 1
.......% JUR =4 / i-
if /1
.?.'', ,08-8
d

, e R-1 /
/
/
/
JU8=4 /
/ /
/ /
- ? /uR-8
10-2 10-1 too 10-2
T, psec
10-1
100
Fig. 3. Time buildup of the intensity and ab-
sorbed gamma energy for Eo =a) 20 keV; b)
100 keV; c) 10 MeV; d) 1 MeV.
singly and doubly scattered radiation I(1,2) calculated
in this way is shown in Figs. land 2 by the dash-dot
curves. Taking account of double scattering satisfac-
torily describes the change of intensity for times up to
-50 nsec for all initial energies when ?0R..2, and over
the whole range of distances considered up to ?oR =8,
for E0-.40 keV. For energies above 40 keV and dis-
tances ?OR> 2 the values of 1(1,2) are smaller than the
values obtained in statistical calculations, which shows
the necessity of taking account of higher orders of scat-
tering, thus in general giving the problem a diffusion
character. Since the contribution of singly scattered
radiation to the total energy flux at short times, even
for ?0R6-8, amounts to several tens of percent, the
behavior of I(t) is qualitatively similar to that of the
energy flux of singly scattered radiation.
To make it more convenient to use the time dis-
tributions obtained, an analytic formula was chosen to
approximate the time behavior of the intensity of scat-
tered radiation from t R-12 nsec:
/ (4, noR, t)=-Aie ln (1 +.2r)
A2e-tpc2 (i e-i/T3). (1)
The first term in Eq. (1) has a singularity at t=0 corresponding to the singularity of singly scattered radia-
tion. The second term represents the contribution of multiply scattered radiation. The values of the coef-
ficients in Eq. (1) are listed in Table 1.
The time dependence of the radiant energy absorbed e(E0, uoR, t) is practically the same as that of
I(E0, goR, t). The only difference is in the small increase in the energy release time, i.e., the time to
decrease to a definite level, for example to 10-3 of the initial value, in comparison with the corresponding
time for the intensity. However, in considering the time distribution of absorbed energy it must be kept
in mind that the energy release time consists of the time of a random walk of a photon before the forma-
tion of a Compton or a photoelectron, and the time for the electron to transfer the energy to the air. The
latter can amount to -0.1 ?sec for electron energies higher than 1 MeV, and can be comparable with or
TABLE 2. Coefficients in Eq. (2) for the Absorbed Energy
110 R
AiX103
A2X 103 Ti
1
T3
Ai X103
A2X103 T1
T2
T3
IX 103
A2X 108
Ti
T2 Ts
4=30 iteV
4=40 keV
4=50 keV
1
0,10
0,02
0,032
0,09
0,025
0,072
0,019
0,042
0,140
0,029
0,059
0,017
0,051
0,192
0,043
2
0,14
0,036
0,032
0,095
0,052
0,11
0,076
0,042
0,137
0,070
0,092
0,086
0,051
0,190
0,098
4
0,22
0,138
0,035
0,093
0,120
0,17
0,317
0,042
0,137
0,140
0,16
0,397
0,051
0,190
0,215
8
0,38
0,576
0,035
0,095
0,210
0,33
1,85
0,042
0,137
0,440
0,32
2,70
0,051
0,192
0,55
4=60 key
E0 ==80 keV
4=100 keV
1
0,053
0,016
0,054
0,24
0,054
0,054
0,017
0,054
0,30
0,086
0,062
0,018
0,054
0,335
0,090
2
0,084
0,084
0,054
0,24
0,130
0,086
0,088
0,054
0,31
0,189
0,097
0,089
0,054
0,347
0,182
4
0,15
0,48
0,054
0,24
0,290
0,15
0,638
0,054
0,31
0,485
0,17
0,705
0,054
0,355
0,535
8
0,26
3,42
0,054
0,24
0,700
0,27
5,22
0,054
0,31
1,270
0,33
5,96
0,054
0;380
1,410
4=-150keV
4=250 keV
4=500 keV
1
0,09
0,019
0,054
0,420
0,07
0,15
0,019
0,057
0,520
0,065
0,29
0,014
0,057
0,660
0,060
2
0,14
0,088
0,054
0,428
0,16
0,23
0,073
0,057
0,528
0,135
0,42
0,068
0057
0,665
0,115
4
0,24
0,60
0,054
0,455
0,46
0,37
0,477
0,057
0,555
0,350
0,65
0,313
0057
0,682
0,184
8
0,42
5,46
0,054
0;475
1,34
0,60
4,06
0,057
0,565
0,960
1,12
1,46
0,057
0,698
0,275
834
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a
,4?i????
. ? _
10-2
10?
?scg??
10
/1010- 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
101 2404 104
EN MeV
Fig. 4. Characteristic buildup times of the intensity and absorbed energy
functions of the source energy.
100
700
as
larger than the initial averaging intervals assumed in the calculation of the intensity. Therefore, the first
minimum averaging interval for energy absorption, found under the assumption that the electrons are ab-
sorbed instantaneously, is 0-0.125 ?sec.
The time dependence of the energy release is approximated by the expression
g (E0, ?0R, t)==Aie
0-0,05 t-0.05 t? 0.05
J? A2 e- T2 (1?e ) MeV/cm ? ? sec.
(2)
with the coefficients.for E0-5_500 keV given in Table 2. The coefficients are chosen in such a way that the
average rate of energy release, including the energy release from unscattered radiation, agrees with that
obtained from statistical calculations to within 10-15% in the first interval.
The average accuracy of approximate formulas (1) and (2) is 5-15%. At isolated points the differ-
ences may reach - 30% for extremely long and short delay times, which of course agrees with the sta-
tistical error in these intervals. Examples describing I (E0, ?0R, t) by Eq. (1) are shown in Figs. 1 and 2
by solid curves plotted on the histograms.
By using the differential distributions it is possible to trace the shaping of the radiation field in time
and to calculate the time buildup factors B(E0, ?0R, t). Figure 3 shows the time dependence of 61 defined
by the relation
t
Ro S I (E0,.11oR, t)d?
BE (4 PO, R, 0
6/ (E0s 110R9:1)? (E0, lioR) ?
Eo +S I (Ro, PoR, t)dt
0
(3)
A comparison of the values of 61 for various source energies shows that stationary values of the intensity
are reached most rapidly for source energies of 20-30 keV and 6-12 MeV. The rate of formation of sta-
tionary radiation intensity levels can be characterized quantitatively, for example, by the buildup times
to 50 or 993j of the total intensity:1I 0 . 5 orlI0. 9.
The change of characteristic times .11 for a change of the source energy E0 is shown in Fig. 4a and
b. The graphs have a maximum, as is shown particularly clearly for k a., (E0). We note that the largest
value of fi occurs at E0P-1100 keV and above, i.e., for those energies for which the stationary buildup fac-
tors are maximum [9]. The values of ti decrease with increasing source energy only for E0=1-2 MeV,
although for these energies the stationary buildup factors are decreased by more than an order of mag-
nitude (u0R =8) in comparison with the maximum values.
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The rules for the foi-mation of stationary distributions of the absorbed energy are very similar to
those 'for the radiation intensity discussed above (cf. Fig. 3 where the values of Se (E0, poR, t), defined
similarly to OD are plotted by open curves) although the characteristic times te are 10-313 longer than
the corresponding times t1, as can be seen from Fig. 4c and d.
In conclusion, we note that the characteristic buildup times 11,6 can be used to determine the tem-
poral properties of the source. Comparing t1,e with the characteristic time of development of the effect
produced by the action of the source or with the time of its action it can be judged whether the source is
instantaneous or steady with respect to the phenomena considered.
LITERATURE CITED
1. I. G. Dyad'kin, B. N. Krasil'nikov, and V. N. Starikov, At. Energ., 35, 272 (1973).
2. A. V. Zhemerev et al., At. Energ., 35, 438 (1973).
3. V. G. Morozov and S. A. Kholin, At.Tnerg., 18, 62 (1965).
4. V. M. Kochetkov, Zh. Vychisl. Matem. i Matem. Fiz., 8, 1152 (1968).
5. W. Yingling and C. Bridgman, Nucl. Sci. and Engng., 53?, 123 (1974).
6. 0.1. Leipunskii et al., At. Energ., 10, 493 (1961).
7. N. A. Seleznev, At. Energ., 31, 271 (1971).
8. A. I. Veretennikov, V. Ya. Averchenkov, and M. V. Savin, At. Energ., 11, 177 (1961).
9. M. N. Vrubel', S. N. Sidneva, and A. S. Strelkov, At. Energ., 34, 47 (1973).
10. S. N. Sidneva and A. S. Strelkov, At. Energ., 36, 135 (1974).
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REACTIONS OF OXYGEN AND OXIDES OF NITROGEN AND
CARBON WITH 02SbF6, XeFSbF6, AND KrFSb2F11
A. A. Artyukhov, V. A. Legasov, UDC 546.29
and B. B. Chaivanov
A number of recently published studies have dealt with the chemical binding of noble gases released
into the atmosphere during the operation of radiochemical plants and atomic power stations.
It was shown that the chemical trapping of radioactive radon and xenon is possible in theory. Thus,
radon is bound in a solid, nonvolatile compound when it interacts with C1F2+BbF6-, BrFfSbFi', 02SbF6, and
other compounds [1, 2].
Xenon is practically completely trapped when it is passed through a column filled with dioxygenyl
hexafluoroantimonate [2]. Theoretical calculations show that such binding is possible by means of N2F+SbF6-;
this assumption still requires experimental verification [3].
The reactant most widely used for binding radon and xenon seems to be dioxygenyl hexafluoroanti-
monate. The compound is thermally stable and relatively simple to obtain; the reaction with Xe and Rn
yields oxygen.
In connection with the chemical binding of noble gases, it is of interest to study the reactions of
dioxygenyl, xenon, and krypton complexes with gases produced during the operation of radiochemical plants
(NO, NO2, CO, CO2, and 02). Reactions with H2 and H2O were not studied, since the nature of this type
of reaction is obvious.
Experimental Part
Initial Reactants. The dioxygenyl complex was obtained by photochemical means; the system 02 + F2
+SbF5 was irradiated with light from a high-pressure mercury lamp. To speed up the process, the reac-
tion mixture was heated to 70-80?C. The complex of xenon difluoride with antimony pentafluoride was ob-
tained by a method described in [41. The complex with composition KrF2 ? 2SbF5 was synthesized in the
manner described in [5]. The synthesis of NO, NO2, and CO was carried out by appropriate methods as
described in [6]. In the present study we used industrial carbon dioxide gas and oxygen. The purity of the
gaseous reactants was determined by means of infrared analysis.
The reactions of the complexes with NO, NO2, co. CO2, and 02 were carried out mainly in a quartz
reactor. Some experiments were carried out in a reactor made of nickel. A prescribed quantity of dioxy-
genyl, xenon, or krypton complex (~1 g) was charged into the reactor in a dry argon box; then the reactor
was connected to a vacuum stand and thoroughly vacuumed, and the appropriate reactant was introduced.
An analysis of the reaction products was carried out by the method of infrared spectroscopy; the solid re-
action products were subjected to hydrolysis. The results of the experiments are shown in Table 1.
Evaluation of the Results
Reactions with Nitrous Oxide. Each of the three complexes interacts actively with nitrous oxide.
The most violent reaction is the one with the krypton complex. This is understandable, since KrF2 ? 2SbF5
is a more powerful fluorooxidizer than 02SbF6 and XeF2 ? SbF5.
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 222-224, September, 1975. Original
article submitted January 10, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
837
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/24: CIA-RDP10-02196R000400060002-3
TABLE 1. Results of the Experiments
Reactants
Reaction products
Equation of the reaction
Remans
gaseous phase
condensed
phase
02SbF6 +NO2
SiF4 a, 02
NOI-SbFi b
02SbF6 + NO2 -,-
-4- NO2SbF6 + 02
a SiF4 is formed when intermediate
reaction products act on the re-
actor wall
bN 02 is produced during hydrolysis
XeFSbF6+ NO2
?
SiF4, XeF2,
Xe
XeF2 c,
NO2SbF6
2NO2+ 2XeFSbFe -3-
-4 2NO2SbF6+ Xe+ XeF2
cll.' one of the experiments
xenon difluoride was col-
lected in substantial amounts
and identified from its in-
frared spectrum and its reac-
tion with water
,
KrFSb2F55 +NO2
SiF4, Kr
NO2SbF6
KrFSb2Ft1 + 2NO2 -,-
->- 2NO2S1R6 + Kr
_
O2SbF6+ NO
SiF4, NO2
NOSbF6 d
02SbF6 + 3N 0 -4
-4- NOSbF6 +2NO2
dN C.)2 is produced during hydrolysis
XeFSbFe +NO
SiF4, NO2 e
NOSbFe
XeFSbF6+ 2N0 -4-
-4. NOSbF6 + Xe + NOF f
NO is oxidized to N 02 by the ox-
ygen produced from the walls of
the reactor
The infrared spectrum does not in-
clude the bands due to NOF ab-
sorption; this is probably due to the
- fact that NOF interacts actively
, with quartz
02SbF6+'CO
CO '
02SbF6
The reaction does not take
place at room temperature
XeFSbF6 + CO
COF2, Xe
SbF6
XeFSbF6+ CO -4-
-4 COF2+ SbF2+ Xe
?
02SbF6 +CO2
CO2
02SbFe ,
The reaction does not take
place at room temperature
_
XeFSbF6+ CO2
CO2
?XeFSbF6
The same
?
KrFSb2F11 +CO2 g
CO2
KrFSb2Fu
The same ?
= 300 torr
KrFSb2F11+ 02
Kr, F2
02Sb2F55
21(rFSb2F11+ 202 --0-
-4- 202Sb2F51 +Kr+ F2
?
Infrared analysis of the gaseous products indicates in every case that the reaction products do not
include any nitrogen oxyfluorides, but there is indirect evidence to show that oxyfluorides are formed as
intermediate compounds in the reaction of NO2 with the complexes of oxygen, xenon, and krypton. The
appearance of silicon tetrafluoride in the reaction products is explained by the action of nitrogen oxyfluo-
rides on the walls of the reactor. Another indication of the formation of NO2F is the appearance of xenon
difluoride in the products of the NO2 +XeFSbF6 reaction. The reaction takes place in several stages:
2N0+ XeFSbF6 -4- 214102F + Xe +SbF6;
NO2F +XeFSbF6 --4.NO2SbF6 + XeF2;
NO2F+OliF5 NO2SbF6.
(1)
The summary equation of the reaction is
2NO2 + 2XeFSbF6 2NO2SbF6 +Xe +XeF2. (4)
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Xenon difluoride is formed as a result of a reaction in which the cation XeF+ is displaced by the
cation NO (2), since the latter has a lower ionization potential. Analogously, oxygen is produced in the
NO2 +02SbF6 reaction. It is probable that the reaction of NO2 with KrF2 ? 2SbF5 takes place in the same
way, but krypton difluoride is an unstable and extremely reactive compound, so that it is natural that it
is not found among the reaction products. The infrared spectrum of the solid powder formed as a result
of the reaction of the complexes with NO2 has a characteristic band in the 666 cm-1 region attributable
to the oscillations of the Sb-F bond in the anion SbF6-. Hydrolysis of the powder takes place with the pro-
duction of NO2, which indicates that the cations O. XeF?, and KrF+ are displaced by the cation NO4- in
the corresponding complexes.
So far as trapping is concerned, this means that the presence of NO2 is inadmissible at the stage of
binding of radon, xenon, and (if this is possible) krypton; there must be a preliminary removal of NO2 from
the gases. The absence of chemically active substances from the gaseous products of the NO2 +02SbF6 re-
action confirms the possibility of using the dioxygenyl complex for preliminary binding of the NO2; this
appears to be reasonable if the NO2 content in the emitted gases is low.
Reaction with NO. The dioxygenyl and xenon complexes react with NO more intensively than with
nitrous oxide, probably because of the higher chemical activity of nitric oxide; the mechanisms of interac-
tion of nitrogen oxides with these complexes are apparently analogous. In the first stage there is fluori-
dation of the nitric oxide and breakdown of the complex. Then the nitrogen oxyfluoride which has been
formed reacts with the free antimony pentafluoride and the remaining complex, forming with a cation con-
taining nitrogen. In the reaction with 02SbF6 the oxygen formed as.a result of the breakdown of the dioxy-
genyl complex oxidizes the NO to nitrous oxide.
Unlike the reaction with NO2, when XeFSbFG reacts with NO, no formation of XeF2 is observed, pos-
sibly because NO is more intensively fluoridated by xenon difluoride than NO2 is. The infrared spectrum
of the gaseous products of the reaction of 02SbF6 with NO is characterized by bands attributable to the ab-
sorption of NO2. Nitrous oxide is formed in the reaction of XeFSbFG with NO as well, but in this case the
oxidation of the nitrogen takes place as a result of the oxygen produced from the walls of the reactor. The
hydrolysis of the solid reaction products takes place with NO2 production.
Judging by the results of the experiments, if we are talking about the possibility of trapping noble
metals, nitric oxide is just as inadmissible in the emitted gases as nitrous oxide. Moreover, reaction
with the dioxygenyl complex produces nitrous oxide, which must be removed from the emitted gases.
Reactions with CO. The reaction of XeFSbFG with carbon dioxide is apparently a special case of
fluoridation of CO to COF2. The results of infrared analysis confirm this assumption. The%equation for
the reaction is
CO + XeFSbF2:?. COF2 + Xe + SbF2.
(5)
At the same time, contact between CO and 02SbF6 does not lead to fluoridation of the carbon dioxide. The
infrared spectrum of the gaseous phase contains only bands attributable to the absorption of CO. Carbon
monoxide does not interact with 02SbF6. This indicates that CO, although it passes unimpeded through a
layer of dioxygenyl complex, will break up the xenon complex, as a result of which radioactive xenon and
a fluorine compound will be emitted into the atmosphere.
Reactions with CO2 and 02. Unlike carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide does not react either with
02SbF6 or with XeFSbF6, nor even with such strong fluorooxidizers as KrF ? 2SbF5. This fact can probably
be utilized for removing carbon monoxide from emitted gases by oxidizing it to CO2.
Oxygen is oxidized by the krypton complex to O at room temperature. In the IR spectrum of a speci-
men of KrF+Sb2FTi kept in contact with oxygen for 2-3 h we find an intense line in the 1,862 cm-1 region,
which is characteristic of the oscillations of the 0.-2P cation.
Thus, most of the above-mentioned main components of emitted gases interact with the dioxygenyl,
xenon, and krypton complexes. Consequently, for chemical binding of noble gases, in addition to searching
for appropriate fluorooxidizers we must solve the problem of first removing from the emitted gases of
radiochemical plants such impurities as water vapor, hydrogen, nitrous and nitric oxides, carbon monoxide,
and oxygen.
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LITERATURE CITED
1. L. Stein, Science, 175, 1463 (1972).
2. L. Stein, Nature, 243, 30 (1973).
3. J. Liebman, Nature, 243, 84 (1973).
4. V. A. Legasov et al., Preprint IAE-2163 (1971).
5. V. D. Klimov, V. N. Prusakov, and V. B. Sokolov, Dokl. AN SSSR, 217, 1077 (1974).
6. G. Brauer (editor), Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry, Academic Press (1965).
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FROM THE COUNCIL FOR MUTUAL ECONOMIC AID (CMEA)
TWENTY-EIGHTH CONFERENCE OF THE PERMANENT COMMISSION
FOR THE UTILIZATION OF ATOMIC ENERGY (PKIAE)
Yu. I. Chikul
The 28th Conference of the Permanent Commissionforthe Utilization of Atomic Energy, Council for
Mutual Economic Aid (PKIAE SEV)1 was held on June 17-20, 1975 in Rostock (DDR). Delegations from
Bulgaria, Hungary, DDR, Cuba, Poland, Rumania, USSR, and Czechoslovakia participated in the work
of the Commission. Representatives of "Interatominstrument," "Interatom?nergo," the Joint Institute
for Nuclear Research, and the Coordination Center for the Development of Medical Techniques were present
by invitation of the Commission.
The Conference discussed measures taken by the Commission in the field of nuclear power generation,
associated with carrying out the resolutions of the Executive Committee of the Council and also the com-
mittees of the Council for Mutual Economic Aid through collaboration in the field of systematic activity and
scientific?technical collaboration. Proposals were considered for cooperation in the possible routes for
future utilization of reactor technology, problems about the state of development and production of nuclear
equipment in the period up to 1980, and the trends for its development in the member countries of CMEA
up to 1990, cooperation in the field of radiation techniques and technology, including unified health regula-
tions for the installation and operation of high-powered radioisotope y facilities, and also problems con-
cerning the standardization of instruments and products of nuclear technology.
The Commission considered a report on the work undertaken in 1974 and on future activities.
Appropriate recommendations and resolutions were accepted on all the problems discussed.
JOURNAL OF COLLABORATION
A meeting of representatives of PKIAE SEV and the Permanent Commission for Electric Power was
held on March 25-26, 1975 in Moscow. The meeting discussed the problem of the coordination of actions
for ensuring radiation safety. This problem occurs in the "General comprehensive program of collabora-
tion between member countries of CMEA and the Socialist Federated Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRYu) in
the period up to 1980, in the field of protection and improvement of the environment and the rational utiliz-
ation of natural resources allied to this." The meeting reviewed the complex of work carried out in the
field of radiation safety within the framework of CMEA and approved the agenda periods of development
and the discussion of the work plans on this theme.
A Symposium on the Scientific Aspects of Radiation Sterilization of Medicinal Products took place
on April 7-9, 1975 in Brno (Czechoslovakia).
The Symposium created great interest and 75 specialists participated in its work. The participants
in the Symposium heard and discussed 34 reports on the principal problems of radiation sterilization of
medicinal products:
1. Technologies of processes in the sterilization of pharmaceutical preparations, antibiotics,
vaccines, transplants, etc.
2. The choice of radiation dosage.
Translated from Atomnaya *Energiya, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 225-227, September, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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3. Stability of preparations to the action of radiation.
4. The application of combined methods of development.
5. The choice of packaging materials, etc.
From the presentations of the papers at this symposium and the symposium of the IAEA on the utiliza-
tion of ionizing radiation for the sterilization of medicinal products and biological tissues (Bombay, Decem-
ber 9-13, 1974) it follows that the problem of radiation sterilization of medicinal products and biological
tissues occupies a notable place in the medicinal industry of many countries; the method of radiation steri-
lization is effective and sometimes also is the only method of guaranteeing the sterility of a number of
medicinal preparations and transplants.
The Foundation Meeting of the Temporary International Collective Body on Radiation Sterilization of
Materials and Manufactured Products for Medicinal Purposes (VMK-RS) took place on April 9-11, 1975
in Brno.
The participants at the meeting recorded that investigations into the radiation sterilization of mate-
rials and products for medicinal purposes are being conducted over a wide front and that the existing ex-
perience allows collaboration to be organized between the member countries of CMEA in this field: the
development of unified methods for determining the sterilization dosages of radiation and monitoring of the
irradiated output, carrying out its clinical tests, specialization and coordination of production, etc.
The radiation facility with a cobalt irradiator, operating in Czechoslovakia in the Faculty of the Scientific-
Research Textile Institute (in Veverska Bitushka), which is equipped with the necessary apparatus, at
present is a suitable base for carrying out the joint work.
The meeting considered and discussed the project of agreement on the setting-up of the VMK-RS,
its program of work, problems concerning its financing and shared participation of its negotiating parties.
The Ninth Conference of the Commission for Scientific and Technical Collaboration ? Radiation
Techniques, was held on April 8-11, 1975 at Brno.
The Council considered and passed resolutions on a number of problems including:
Approval of the "Technical proposal concerning the organization for member countries of CMEA
for the production of radiation-modified polymers and rubber ?technical goods, and recommendation of
its presentation for consideration at the next meeting of the PKIAE? SEV.
Consideration and agreement of the final edition of the project Unified Health Regulations for the
installation and operation of high-powered radiation y facilities ("ESP-gamma"), and also preparation of
the draft for submission of this problem to the PKIAE ?SEv.
Heard information from the Secretariat Division of CMEA concerning the course of exploitation for
forecasting the development of radiation techniques and technology, considered it expedient, as a basis
for exploiting the forecast, to set up an inventory of applied developments in radiation techniques and tech-
nology in the member countries of CMEA.
Endorsement of the information from the Czechoslovakia delegation concerning the results of technico-
economic calculations in the field of radiation sterilization of materials and products for medicinal purposes.
Took note of the information from a number of delegations concerning the course of preparation of
reference ?procedural documents on the radiation sterilization of materials and products for medicinal
purposes.
Refined the agenda and periods of presentations of data on a number of points, for the long-term
complex plan for scientific ?technical cooperation between member countries of CMEA in the field of
radiation sterilization of materials and products for medicinal purposes.
Took note of the statement from the USSR delegation concerning the organization in October 1975 in
Leningrad of a conference of specialists of member countries of CMEA, on the radiation sterilization of
materials and products for medicinal purposes, and on working out unified reference documents in this
field.
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Discussed the results of the symposium of specialists from member countries of CMEA on the
scientific problem of radiation sterilization of medicinal preparations which took place on April 7-9, 1975
in Brno, and noted its great importance.
Considered and approved the report of the Commission for Scientific and Technical Cooperation
? Radiation Techniques (KNTS-RT) concerning the work in 1974 and future activities.
Approved the preliminary notification of the day of the Tenth Conference of the KNTS-RT, which is
to take place from September 30 to October 3, 1975 in Minsk.
The Fifth Meeting of the KNTS on Research Nuclear Reactors took place on May 13-16, 1975 in
Warsaw. Generalized proposals were considered for future collaboration in the field of research reactors
in 1976-1980, prepared by the delegation of specialists from Rumania, based on information from the sym-
posium on "Experience in the Operation and Utilization of Research Reactors" (October 1974, Predyal,
Rumania). A review report from the delegation of specialists from Hungary was heard and discussed, con-
cerned with the future collaboration of member countries of CMEA in the field of utilization of low-power
research reactors, critical and subcritical assemblies for the training of personnel, and also reports
from the country delegations on the course of the work in carrying out a program of cooperation on the
theme: "Development and investigations in the field of intrareactor measurement techniques" and "Monitor-
ing and control of research nuclear reactors." Specialists from the German Democratic Republic (DDR)
informed the participants of the conference of the results of work on the noise diagnostics of reactors and
intrareactor measurement techniques.
The preparation of work plans for scientific ?technical cooperation between member countries of
CEMA was also considered at the conference, on the theme of problems of the "Development and improve-
ment of research nuclear reactors and the execution of work in them in the field of reactor physics and
techniques." Agreed recommendations were accepted for all the problems discussed.
A Conference of specialists on Problems of the Safety of Sodium ?Water Steam Generators was held
on June 9-13, 1975 in Moscow. The following problems were discussed: the concept and prospects for
the development of steam generators from the point of view of safety and reliable operation of nuclear
power stations with fast reactors, schemes and designs of steamgenerators, numerical methods for esti-
mating safety and optimization of structural layouts of steam generators, fundamental structural and tech-
nological solutions in respect of increased safety; the choice of structural materials for sodium ?water
steam generators; heat-exchange in steam generators, thermal fatigue and corrosion? thermal fatigue
defects of units of the steam generator, irreversible change of form of materials under conditions of heat
exchange and estimation of the resistance to irreversible change of form; the water cycle and corrosion;
quality standards of water, organization and methods of flushing; technology and monitoring during manu-
facture and assembly of steam generators, assurance of efficient quality control; analysis of processes_
and situations leading to emergencies; development of hazards in steam generators, physicochemical proc-
esses in the case of hazards created by the interaction of sodium with water, the dynamics of develop-
ment of leaks, stability of materials in the zone of interaction; leak-detection methods, existing and future
systems for the detection of leaks, circuits and instrumentation for detection systems; experience in the
operation of steam generators on test benches and facilities. It was noted that within the framework of
cooperation on the problem being considered, considerable scientific-research and experimental-design
work is being carried out. It was acknowledged to be essential to continue collaboration according to the
agreed program.
The 10th Conference of "Interatominstrument" took place on May 13-17, 1975 in Warsaw. The Con-
ference heard an account by the Director of the Society, Z. Tvardonya, about the work undertaken in1974,
the execution of the resolutions of the Council, passed at previous conferences, and about the progress in
achieving the "Program of Actions of the Society in the Period 1974-1980." An account was heard also
of the revised Commission and the results of financial ?economical actions of the Society in 1974. The
proposals of the director were considered and the finance plan for 1976 was approved.
Information presented by the director was discussed, concerning the specialization and coordination
of production, information on the course of work for founding the faculties of the Institute of Nuclear
Research in relation to the technical servicing of instruments and facilities for nuclear techniques, and
the preparation of data which are essential for creating, within the framework of the Institute of Nuclear
Research, a factory for the production of nuclear-physics equipment for the monitoring and control of
nuclear power stations. The Council passed appropriate resolutions on these problems.
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Preliminary notification was given for the data of the Eleventh Conference, which will take place
on November 11-15; 1975 in Warsaw.
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CONFERENCES AND CONGRESSES
FOURTH ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON DISSOCIATING GASES
V. B. NeSterenko
The fourth All-Union Conference on Dissociating Gases as Coolants and Working Substances in
Nuclear Power Stations took place in Minsk on June 2-6, 1975. The Conference took place under the aus-
pices of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR with the participation of the State Commission for the Use
of Atomic Energy, the State Commission for Inorganic Fuel, the Department of Physicotechnical Power
Problems (Academy of Sciences of the USSR), and the Scientific Council of the Academy of Sciences of the
USSR on Heat Physics. Taking part in the work of the Conference were 350 representatives from 75 scien-
tific-research institutes, undertakings, and organizations, as well as those of a number of Soviet Minis-
tries and Departments.
Six review papers on the general tendencies of investigations into dissociating gases were read to the
plenary sessions; the section meetings received 205 papers and communications.
Seven sections took part: These respectively considered atomic power stations, circuits, and cycles
involving dissociating gases; the thermophysical properties of dissociating gases and liquids; heat transfer
of dissociating coolants; gasdynamics of dissociating coolants; construction and fuel materials, working
parts and technology of dissociating coolants; the physics of fast reactors incorporating dissociating cool-
ants; the dynamics, control, and regulation of nuclear power installations using dissociating coolants.
Those present at the Conference discovered that, in the three years since the Third All-Union Con-
ference, complex fundamental investigations had been carried out into the thermophysical, physicochemi-
cal, and technological properties of N204 in the temperature range 25-500?C at pressures of 1-170 atm and
also into the properties of the construction materials used in conjunction with N204 up to 750?C. Consider-
able progress had been made in adopting N204 technology in more than 50 test systems of the Institute of
Atomic Energy (Academy of Sciences of the Belorussian SSR), the State Institute of Applied Chemistry,
and other institutes; two years experience had been gained in the use of a reactor loop system incorpora-
ting H204. In addition to fundamental scientific investigations relating to N204 and a large number of ex-
periments, design work in connection with nuclear power stations based on dissociating gases had been
carried out.
Cooperation between three Academies of Sciences (Ukrainian, Moldavian, and Belorussian) is actively
developing in relation to the complex problem "Development of the scientific ?technical foundations for the
creation of fast-neutron reactors with dissociating coolants." The experimental base of the Institute of
Atomic Energy (Academy of Sciences of the Belorussian SSR), the State Institute of Applied Chemistry,
and other institutes have been supplied with new modern experimental equipment facilitating research and
design on a high scientific level. A great achievement in the adoption of N204 technology is the creation
and successful operation of an N204 reactor loop installation for more than 13,000 h.
The Conference noted the principal scientific achievements in the solution of the problems in hand.
On the basis of complex research into the physicochemical and thermophysical properties of N204 up to
170 atm and 500?C, a reference book has been compiled for the thermophysical and physicochemical prop-
erties of N204. One great advance has been the scientific development of a new modified coolant "nitrine,"
based on N204 with certain technological additives, in the Institute of Atomic Energy (Academy of Sciences
of the Belorussian SSR) and the State Institute of Applied Chemistry, and the execution of the first steps in
studying the physicochemical and thermophysical properties of this coolant. Two- and three-dimensional
mathematical models have been created for calculating the laminar and turbulent heat and mass transfer
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 229-230, September, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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of N204 in a circular tube 'and an assembly of rods, allowing for the kinetic characteristics of the chemical
reactions, and preliminary numerical results have been obtained. A number of experimental investigations
have been carried out into single-tube and multiple-tube regenerators and condensers; the possibilities of
intensifying heat transfer by a factor of two to five times in single-phase N204 flows, as well as during the
condensation of N204 in a tube, have been established. Experimental work has been carried out on deter-
mining the flow coefficients and the velocity of sound in nozzles, and models of various stages in N204 gas
turbines have been tested; new results have been obtained in tests carried out on bearings and sealing sys-
tems for N204 pumps and turbines. The IRT-R reactor has been reconstructed and its power increased to
4 MW; a gas loop installation has been constructed and successfully operated since 1973 ? it has a thermal
power of 100 kW and nuclear heating for the reactor; reserve (life) tests have been conducted in the latter
on various construction materials, fuel composites, and fuel elements in an N204 atmosphere. Reserve
tests have been carried out on construction materials subject to thermal cycling under stress and operating
in the presence of phase transitions of the coolant; general laws have been established as to the interaction
between these materials and N204, so providing a scientific basis for selecting and developing corrosion-
resistant steels and alloys for N204 parts and components. Construction materials have been chosen,
recommended, introduced, and successfully operated in active N204 test-beds.
Tests with experimental thermophysical test-beds in the reactor loop installation have revealed clear
technological advantages of the new modified dissociating coolant (nitrine); considerable advances have been
made in maintaining the required properties of the coolant by the periodic operation of a rectification
column; chromatographic methods have been developed for operatively monitoring the composition of the
dissociating coolant. Investigations have been conducted into the physical and thermophysical optimization
of the parameters of gas-cooled fast reactors, together with comparative calculations for the physical
characteristics of fast reactors respectively incorporating sodium, helium, and N204. The physical char-
acteristics of the fast N204 reactor may well have a substantial effect in reducing the demand of develop-
ing nuclear power for natural uranium. As a result of the adoption of N204 at 150-170 atm and 450-500?C
in the active test-beds, together with experimental investigations into the thermophysical characteristics
of the coolant and tests on construction and fuel materials, it has been shown that it is technologically pos-
sible to obtain specific thermal intensities of 1000-1200 kW/liter in gas-cooled N204 fast reactors, together
with high nuclear-fuel breeding characteristics (conversion ratio 1.5-1.6, T2=4.5-5 years).
These investigations have facilitated the development of technical proposals for a single-circuit
nuclear power station with an output of 1000-1200 MW (electrical), including a duly-justified choice of
the parameters of the thermal system (150 atm 450?C) of the gas-cooled N204 reactor, the heat-transfer
equipment, the gas turbine, pumps, and auxiliary systems; questions relating to the technology and safety
of such power stations have also been elaborated.
The conference extensively discussed the projected characteristics of the BRIG-75 nuclear power
station [maximum fast-neutron flux 7 ? 1015 neutrons/(cm2 ? sec), cassette dimensions, thermal power of
the reactor 250 MW]. It was accepted that the parameters chosen were fairly representative for carry-
ing out reserve tests on the fuel and fuel cassettes of a reactor of the BRGD-1000-1500 MW (electrical
nuclear-power-station type, but it was suggested that the N204 gas turbine should be enlarged to 75-100
MW, while maintaining three or four reactor-cooling loop circuits (from considerations of safety in the
single-circuit system of the nuclear power station).
It was noted in the plenary sessions, sections, and working groups of the Conference that the level
of scientific-technical and design work, the degree of understanding in connection with the thermophysi-
caland technological properties of N204, and the number of large thermal test-beds and reactor loop in-
stallations operating successfully over a number of years constituted a sound basis for the development
of technical projects relating to the BRIG-75 nuclear power station. It was also noted that work on dis-
sociating gases in the last few years had demonstrated a fruitful combination of fundamental investigations,
scientific-technical development, and basically new planning decisions. The promising nature of con-
tinued work on nuclear power stations incorporating fast N204 reactors was acknowledged; so was the
necessity of expanding scientific-research work in connection with a complex study of the thermophysical
and technological properties of the modified dissociating coolant and the development of designs for a
prospective nuclear power station with gas-cooled fast N204 reactors developing a power of 1200-1500 MW
(electrical); recommendations were made that the creation of the experimental BRIG-75 nuclear power
station should be expedited. The main lines of investigation for the tenth five-year plan were outlined and
a date was set for the next Conference in 1978.
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FIRST EUROPEAN NUCLEAR CONFERENCE
V. A. Sidorenko
The First European Nuclear Conference ? the first conference of the European Nuclear Community
? took place from April 21-25, 1975 in Paris. The motto of the conference was "The Maturity of Nuclear
Power." About three thousand people from 47 countries participated in the conference. Papers were or-
dered as well as offered by the participants themselves. The ordered papers were heard at plenary and
special sectional meetings, and the offered papers were heard at supplementary parallel sectional meetings.
The inaugural address at the opening of the conference was given by the French Prime Minister, Msr.
J. Girac.
In the papers presented at the plenary sessions, the following problems were discussed: requirements
on energy and resources; the role of nuclear power generation in the production of energy and achieve-
ments; disposition and the surrounding medium; safety and protection; provision of fuel (uranium, plutonium,
thorium); irradiated fuel cycles; other applications (in addition to electric power generation); cost of con-
struction of nuclear power stations; operating costs of nuclear power stations; heavy-water reactors, ex-
perience in their operation; light-water reactors, operating experience; gas-cooled reactors, operating
experience; high-temperature reactors, operating experience; experience in the operation of the prototype
fast reactors "Phoenix" and Dounraey; industrial and commercial application of fast reactors in various
countries.
At the subsidiary sessions the following were considered: projects and designs; operating experience;
construction of the active zone components; fuel handling; nuclear safety and protection; guarantee of quality
and reliability; fuel manufacture; reprocessing, transportation and handling of nuclear wastes; low- and
high-temperature technological heat, hydrodynamics and heat transfer. At the special sessions, with the
invited speakers, the following were discussed; linearization, fusion; special applications (nuclear ships,
explosions for peaceful purposes, etc); methods of enrichment; financing and insurance; the teaching and
training of personnel.
In all, approximately 500 papers were presented to the conference, and the Organizing Committee
selected about 350 papers. Before the start of the conference, a collection of comprehensive summaries
of all papers was issued. The papers, or theses of the papers of the plenary sessions and complete texts
of the papers at the subsidiary sessions, were not circulated,but in the autumn of 1975 it is proposed to issue
the papers of the conference in two volumes, published by Pergamon Press.
The main interest of the assembly was concentrated on the plenary sessions. The subsidiary ses-
sions simultaneously studied 11-13 different themes and it was possible for speakers to describe only
briefly the data contained in the papers. The structure and content of the plenary sessions reveal the pur-
poseful directivity of the conference and the nature of the principal problems of interest to specialists in
nuclear generation in various and, first and foremost, in the European countries.
The greatest attention at the conference was on the successful scales of development of nuclear
power generation and fuel resources, comparison of the different paths for the development of nuclear
power generation and the role of breeder reactors, economics of nuclear power generation and its com-
mercial supply, cooperation of different countries and standardization of technical resolutions and organiz-
ation factors, safety of nuclear power generation, the effect on the surrounding medium, problems of fuel
transportation, storage of waste, protection of stations from incidents and sabotage, problems of the fos-
tering of favorable public opinion in relation to nuclear power generation.
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 39, No. 3 pp. 230-232, September, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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Mainly, practical workers and managers of nuclear power generation were assembled at the con-
ference in order to?demonstrate their achievements, to determine the most suitable forms of collaboration,
and to conduct a broad propaganda in favor of nuclear power generation under conditions of extremely un-
favorable public opinion and an increasing opposition in relation to it, in the majority of capitalist countries
with the simultaneous objective necessity for increasing its role in industry, widening the sphere of appli-
cation also by an actual increase of scales. The discussion of practical problems associated with the ex-
pansion of the scales of nuclear power generation were very specific and directed at a rational organization
of production and operation (standardization, organization, and unification of plant maintenance and ser-
vicing, training of personnel, simplification of licensing procedures, etc.). In the report from the Direc-
tor General of Euratom, Msr. F. Spaak, the tendencies are analyzed toward increasing the requirement
for different energy resources in the world, increasing the energy requirements in different countries and
regions of the world, stocks of the various energy sources, and a conclusion was drawn about the scales
of development of nuclear power generation in the countries of the European Community by 1985. It had
been assumed initially that the fraction of nuclear power generation amounted to a. At the present time,
due to the changing conditions in the petroleum market, this figure has been reconsidered and increased
to 13-1a. The Chairman of the French Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique (CEA), Msr. A. Giraud,
based on the fact that under conditions in France, the derived cost of electric power from nuclear power
stations will amount to 0.98 in 1977, and 0.51-0.55 in 1979-1980 of the cost of power obtained by the use
of conventional fuel, considers various models of the development of nuclear power generation, the neces-
sary resources of natural uranium, and the capacity of the concentration industry. Several variants are
proposed in the report for the development of nuclear power generation, using only light-water reactors
and different combinations of fast breeder reactors with light-water, high-temperature, and heavy-water
reactors.
The report by A. Angelini (President of the Italian National Committee on Electric Power) was de-
voted to a consideration of all facets of the problem of nuclear fuel: resources, uranium enrichment, fuel
element manufacture, the use of plutonium in thermal reactors, standardization of fuel, the role of fast
breeder reactors in the change of requirement for uranium, in the uranium ?thorium cycle. The total
requirement on uranium by 1990 will increase to 1.5 to 2 million tons and by 2000 A. D. to 3.5 to 5 million
tons. The estimated resources of uranium, with extraction costs of up to $ 33/kg U308, are sufficient for
confidently building up the capacity for nuclear power generation.
At the present time, the systematic searches for uranium are proceeding on a relatively small part
of the earth's surface; further efforts, undoubtedly, will lead to the discovery of new deposits, although
the cost of recovery of this uranium may be increased. In order that the existing resources should match
the requirements, technical and financial efforts will be necessary. By 2000 A.D. several tens of mil-
lions of dollars will have to be injected into uranium extraction, although this amounts to a small percen-
tage of the total expenditure on the development of nuclear power generation. The possible role of the
uranium?thorium cycle in the next 15-20 years is estimated to be limited. With the assumed increase
in cost of uranium, in the long-term plan an increased interest in thorium can be expected.
F. Mandel (Federal German Republic) analyzes the tendencies to change of the economic indexes of
nuclear power stations, in the first place by the example of a nuclear power station in the Federal German
Republic. By 1980 it is expected that the cost of electric power from the nuclear power station with a
capacity of 1300 MW will be less by a factor of two than that from a solid-fueled thermal power station
with a capacity of 730 MW. All the components responsible for the increased costs of installation of
the nuclear power station are discussed. From 1968 to 1974 the cost of the various elements of the power
station has increased by a factor of two to three. For example, from 1971 to 1974, the steam generator
was dearer by 3CP/o, the reactor hull by 6, the containment shell by 30fo, etc. An increase of the con-
struction period for the nuclear power station by 15 months (from 63 to 78 months) incre.ases the cost of
electric power production in the nuclear power station by more than leo, which corresponds to an increase
of nearly 20% of the contract costs of the nuclear power station. A delay in the start of operation of the
nuclear power station, with a capacity of 1300 MW, under conditions in the Federal German Republic,
leads to an overexpenditure of 800,000 DM/day.
L. Minnick (USA) in his report on experience in operating light-water reactors in the USA draws
attention to the fact that now, in the USA, permission has been granted for the operation of 51 power-
generating water-reactors during which in the last eight years the average annual increase of nuclear
power constituted 60%. This has created its difficulties. As a result, the average output per MW has
been in operation (from the time of obtaining authorization) less than three years. This index reached the
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maximum value (6 years) in 1967. Now in the USA it is commonly accepted that the maturity of nuclear
power stations is achieved after the second fuel recharging. The average load factor of all stations from
the start of their commercial operation amounts to 57% and for stations past the second recharging it is
74%. It is noted that during transition from the individual production of fuel elements and assemblies to
mass production, their operating reliability has deteriorated; in particular, the contamination factor of the
fuel has revealed foreign contaminants.
In other reports devoted to operating experience with light-water reactors, values are given for the
load factors of nuclear power stations in countries (not in Europe) during their entire period of operation
up to the end of 1974. Thus, for heavy-water reactors it is 69.7%; for gas-cooled reactors it is 65.1%;
for pressurized light-water reactors it is 61% and for boiling light-water reactors it is 57.13. Attention
is drawn to the importance of solving the many operating problems: decontamination, reduction of the
dosage received by personnel during maintenance, optimization of the principles of plant maintenance,
provision of a maintenance basis, spare parts, instruction of operating personnel on training equipment.
Various plant defects are discussed, including the various causes of defects in steam generators.
From the reports about operating experience with reactors of other types, it is observed that in the
British heavy-water, channel, boiling reactor, six channels went out of action in the second year of opera-
tion. Start-up of the first commercial power station with this reactor, with a capacity of 660 MW, is ex-
pected by 1983.
In the channel reactor of the Pickering (Canada) nuclear power station, 17 tubes (channels) have been
replaced. It is not expected in Canada that in the near future reactors will operate in a controlled load
cycle. The Peach Bottom (USA) high-temperature reactor was shut down after 400 days of operation at
a capacity of 30 MW. An increase of 137Cs was observed. This reactor will not be operated in future be-
cause it is uneconomical. The Port St. Vrain high-temperature reactor, which for a long time after phys-
ical start-up did not come on power because of helium leakage through the circulator, has been running
at 51:1k capacity. The feasibility of a further increase of capacity is being discussed.
In the report of the Director of the International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis, V. Heffel,
the prospects of other applications of atomic energy are considered in addition to the production of electri-
city. The requirement for electric power as the ultimate form of energy amounted in 1970 to only 1t1X
of the world's total energy requirement. It is expected that in 1985 this figure will amount to 14% and in
2000 A .D. to 21%.
At plenary sessions problems of the position of nuclear power stations, protection of the environment,
and the safety and protection of nuclear power stations were discussed.
In addition to the conventional problems of safety (the reduction of thermal and radiation effects of
nuclear pwer stations, choice of areas), great attention was paid to the protection of nuclear power stations
from terrorists. The possibility of such a method of putting out of action a nuclear power station and the
subsequent radiation effects on the surroundings and the population is being considered very seriously. It
is probable that the acuteness of the posing of this problem is associated with the opposition to the develop-
ment of nuclear power generation in many capitalist countries. As if to emphasize the seriousness of this
problem, there was an incident (the explosion of two bombs) at one of the nuclear power stations in France
several days after the conclusion of the conference.
The conference held undoubtedly was an important event in international cooperation in the field of
nuclear power generation at the new stage of its development, which truly is characterized by the motto:
"maturity of atomic energy."
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON THE RELIABILITY
OF NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS
A. V. Karpov
An IAEA Symposium on the "Reliability of Nuclear Power Stations" was held from April 14-18, 1975
at Innsbruck (Austria). Two hundred and three specialists from 40 countries and eight international or-
ganizations participated in the work of the symposium. Forty-eight papers were read. The greater part
of the papers (22 papers) was devoted to procedural problems of calculating the reliability and the applica-
tion of reliability analysis during the planning of nuclear power station systems. The papers discussed
methods of calculating the reliability characteristics in the absence of authentic statistical data, and the re-
sults of reliability analyses were presented, associated with ensuring the safety of nuclear power stations:
emergency control systems, electric power supplies, emergency cooling, etc. In many countries, mathe-
matical methods of reliability analysis of nuclear power stations are being developed and numerical pro-
grams for computers are being worked out. At present, there is still no unified and verified procedure
for calculating the reliability of nuclear power stations. Because of the absence of authentic statistical
data in relation to nuclear power station plant, when analyzing reliability it is recommended that statis-
tical data be used for the corresponding plant in conventional power stations. In the planning of nuclear
power stations not only qualitative but also quantitative analysis of all the systems and units of a nuclear
power station is necessary, from the point of view of operating reliability. Such analysis permits the
best alternatives for a scheme to be chosen and the critical components to be determined, whose replace-
ment leads to a significant increase of the reliability index of the nuclear power station as a whole. Thus,
the economic characteristics of a station can be improved considerably with the minimum of costs.
Statistical data were presented in 10 papers on the operation of plant and systems of nuclear power
stations, the use of computers was discussed for the assembly, storage, and use of data concerning plant
operation. It can be seen that in a number of countries, great attention is beingpaid to the collection of
statistical data about the operation of nuclear power stations. In the USA, since the second quarter of
1974, reports are being issued quarterly with the data from 30 nuclear installations in the USA. Since
1970, in the IAEA, annual reports have been issued about the experience in operating nuclear power stations
in the member countries of the IAEA.
In the IAEA report presented at the symposium, an analysis was given of the operation of 107 nuclear
power stations in 15 countries. It showed that in 1973 the average load factor of a nuclear power station
amounted to 62.1% and the operating factor at power was 72.9%. If the KKN* reactor is excluded, which
was shut down in 1975 for economic reasons, the experimental power stations with a capacity of less than
100 MW(e) and also nuclear power stations which started up only in 1973, then the load factor of the re-
maining 74 reactors is 64.7% and the operating factor at power is 75.6%. It is noted that these figures are
still far from the design load factors of 75-8C16. Comparison of nuclear power stations with conventional
power stations shows that the characteristics of the operating reliability of large-scale thermal power
stations, with a capacity in excess of 600 lVfW(e), are one order or slightly better than the characteristics
of nuclear power stations of the same capacity.
Problems of monitoring and servicing of systems and components of nuclear power stations during
operation were discussed; first and foremost were methods of nondestructive monitoring of the metal of
reactor hulls, operating under very high stress conditions. Work in this direction is starting to develop.
Pressurized Boiling Channel Reactor.
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 232-233, September, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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There have been some successes in France and the Federal German Republic in the construction of equip-
ment for metal monitoring, based on the application of ultrasonics and acoustics. At the present time,
defects with dimensions of one to two mm in steel sheets with a thickness of up to 350 mm can be deter-
mined. As regards the systematic monitoring of reactor hulls during operation, preparation for this
work is now going ahead. Partial checking of the condition of a reactor hull has been carried out once
in the Federal German Republic. An old defect of the hull was detected by means of ultrasonics which, as
was shown, had not changed.
In the papers and discussions, the necessity was mentioned for increasing the sensitivity of moni-
toring equipment capable of operating at a high temperature and in intense radiation. Problems of optimiz-
ation of technical servicing of systems and plants of nuclear power stations during operation were considered.
Thus, it was noted that due to improvement of technical servicing of systems in the Hanford reactor, the
readiness factor of the nuclear power station was increased significantly.
During discussions for ensuring the quality, reliability of operation and efficiency of nuclear power
stations, the necessity for processing the complex system of requirements for nuclear power station proj-
ects was emphasized. It was found that the operating reliability of nuclear power stations depends on
both the assurance of safety requirements and on a sufficiently high readiness factor of the nuclear power
station. Economic optimization of nuclear power stations, from the point of view of safety and readiness
factor, is essential. The readiness factor of nuclear power stations should be 75-86. In 1974, in the
USA, it amounted to 68-7370 on nuclear power stations in operation.
Because of the initial mass construction of nuclear power stations and the bringing in to the work of
a large number of organizations and people, the decisive factor is the operating reliability of the nuclear
power station. A broad training for builders, designers, and operating personnel of the nuclear power
station is necessary in methods of calculating the reliability of plant and the optimization of technical
servicing.
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EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LASER
PLASMA FUSION
V. M. Korzhavin
The conference, held in Poland, ran from May 19 to May 23, 1975. It was organized by the Polish
Academy of Sciences with the participation of some 100 scientists from eight nations. The largest delega-
tions were from Poland, the USSR, the United States, France, and the Federal Republic of Germany. A
total of 45 reports were read. Abstracts of the reports were printed in advance and distributed at regis-
tration. The conference proceedings will not be published. Arrangements were made for the participants
to visit the Institute of Nuclear Research at Swierk and the Institute of Plasma Physics and Laser Micro-
fusion at Warsaw and become acquainted with their work on quantum electronics, plasma physics, and con-
trolled thermonuclear fusion.
A broad group of problems was considered: parameters and design principles of high-power laser
systems for controlled thermonuclear fusion, the results of experimental and theoretical research on the
interaction of powerful laser radiation with various targets, laser plasma diagnostics, and hybrid systems.
J. F. Holtzrichter (Livermore, USA) discussed the analysis of the properties of large neodymium
glass laser systems. The main problem in raising the beam energy is the nonlinear interaction of laser
light with the medium traversed by the beam, which results in wavefront distortion and impairment of
focusing. In particular, when a certain threshold (-200 TW) is exceeded, the focal spot multiplies in diam-
eter during a pulse (100 psec) or splits into several spots. The current Janus experiment (neodymium
glass, 0.4 TW) at the Livermore Laboratory may serve as a standard component for the construction of
laser systems of up to 20 TW. New materials based on BaF and phosphate glasses having a low nonlinear
constant are being investigated at the same time. I. C. Guyot (Laboratories de Marcoussis, France) dealt
with similar question; he investigated nonlinear properties of rod and disc specimens of neodymium glass.
At energy flux densities above 0.5 J/cm2 and 100 psec pulse length self-focusing of the radiation set in and
the specimens broke down in both parallel and divergent beams.
The program of laser-system design for controlled fusion at Los Alamos (USA) was presented by
R. I. Morse. Neodymium and gas lasers (CO2, HF) are receiving equal attention. The Laboratory now
has in operation a 500 J, 300 psec neodymium laser, a 1500 J, 1 nsec CO2 laser, and a 2500 J, 35 nsec
HF laser. It is expected that within the next two years 104 J, 1 nsec CO2 and HF lasers will be built.
Problems in the development of high-power iodine lasers and approaches to their solution were dis-
cussed by K. Witte (Garching, Federal Republic of Germany). An iodine laser using a mixture of C3F7I
and Ar has been built with flash-lamp pumping at energies of several hundred Joules and 1 msec pulse
length.
Of special interest are experiments on the compression of spherical targets by high-power laser
radiation, carried out at the Livermore and Los Alamos Laboratories and by KMS Fusion (USA). The tar-
gets were glass spheres 40-10012 in diameter with 1 ? wall thickness, filled by a D ?T mixture at a pres-
sure of 10-100 atm. The energy and pulse duration were 20-100 J and 0.1-0.3. J. F. Holtzrichter
(Livermore) and D. V. Giovannelli (Los Alamos) reported on the results of such experiments. Targets of
the "sphere-on-disc" type were investigated with illumination from one side (neutron yield 104) and "sphere-
in-disc" targets were studied under illumination from two sides (neutron yield 106). It was also mentioned
that with special targets a neutron yield of 107 per shot had been recorded.
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 233-234, September, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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The KMS Fusion company (P. Hammerling) is continuing the compression experiments first reported
to the Fifth International Conference on Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion (Tokyo, 1974). Beam parameters
and focusing conditions are being improved, and the dependence of neutron yield on target dimensions is
being studied.
Yu. Merkul'ev (Lebedev Institute) reported on the technology of making, selecting, and monitoring
spherical pellets of polystyrene and glass.
A large group of reports dealt with experiments on the interaction of high-power laser radiation with
plasma from various targets. The results are often contradictory owing to difference in experimental
design, laser-system characteristics, and the dynamics of the dispersing plasma. Particular attention
was given to the way in which the coefficients of reflection and absorption depend on the intensity of the in-
cident radiation. In their reports, R. Sigel (Garching, Federal Republic of Germany), E. B. Goldman
(Rochester), and M. Dekruaze (Centre d'etudes de Limeil, France) concluded that the absorption of inci-
dent energy is classical in character. The reflection coefficient was 60-906 in these studies. Anomalous
absorption was detected and investigated in experiments reported by D. V. Giovanelli (Los Alamos, USA),
A. S. Shikanov (Lebedev Institute, USSR), V. V. Aleksandrov (Atomic Energy Institute, USSR), P. E.
Dyer (University of Hull, UK), and E. Fabre (France). At fairly high incident-radiation power densities
the reflection coefficient drops to 3-5%. These results are accounted for by the development of decay in-
stabilities.
There were many detailed studies of x-ray and ion spectra, the intensity and polarization of harmon-
ics of the fundamental, and other parameters. Numerical modeling of interaction processes for laser
radiation and matter was considered from the viewpoint of the controlled-fusion problem. Hybrid systems
using lasers were discussed. Thus, the Institute of Plasma Physics and Laser Microfusion (Poland) has
carried out an experiment on heating of a dense plasma focus (capacitor-bank energy of 150 kJ) by radiation
from a CO2 laser (200 J, 30 nsec). Total neutron yield was found to increase by two or three times [from
10" to (2-3) ? 10113 neutrons per discharge]. Work is also being carried out on compression of specimens by
an explosive detonation wave (50-60-fold compression) followed by heating with laser radiation (200 J).
The possibility of generating ultra strong magnetic fields (-1 MG) using explosive generators and confining
a laser plasma by such fields is being studied. The Lebedev Institute is now preparing an experiment in-
volving the use of a neodymium laser (2 ? 103 J) to heat a dense plasma ?focus.
The conference represents a step along the path toward realization of controlled thermonuclear fusion.
The next conference will be held in Paris during November of 1976.
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EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RADIOCHEMISTRY'
V. V. Gromov
The Conference took place onApril 28 to May 3, 1975 in Mariansk Lazne (Czechoslovakia). Its principal
organizers were the C zechoslovakian Chemical Society, the Commission on Atomic Energy, and the Tech-
nical Prague University (Faculty of Nuclear Chemistry). One hundred and seventy four delegates from 16
countries attended. About 100 papers were presented, of which 21 papers were by Soviet scientists.
The subjects of the conference were extremely varied. This was reflected in the number and desig-
nations of the sections: ion exchange; radioactive indicators; stable isotopes and isotopic exchange; cataly-
sis and diffusion; applications of radiochemistry and labelled compounds.
I. Zvara (Joint Institute of Nuclear Research, Dubna) explained the principles of application of ther-
mochromatography for studying the super-heavy e:ements and cited the example of the estimation of the
heat of sublimation of element 105. D. Moltsan reproted on the work being carried out in the Federal
German Republic on the synthesis of the super-heavy elements in the region of predicted stability (Z?2.110).
Certain technical problems were considered, which originate during the construction of a thermonu-
clear reactor and which can be resolved by radiochemical methods. S. Queim spoke about the investiga-
tions being undertaken in the Federal German Republic associated with the construction of a thermonuclear
reactor. Various types of "neutronic" nuclear reactions are being studied and it was here that the reac-
tions (n, H3) and (n, He3) were first investigated. A great deal of attention was paid to the formation of
tritium by the irradiation of lithium by neutrons, which occurs in a thermonuclear breeder reactor.
The possibilities of using radiochemical methods for studying the kinetics of exchange reactions in
complexes were demonstrated in the paper by H. Elias (Federal German Republic). The author has inves-
tigated the exchange of copper isotopes in chelates (about 100 compounds) and he determined the dependence
of the rate of exchange on the structure of the ligands.
In the field of ion exchange, together with the usual work on the determination of the equilibrium coef-
ficients of distribution, in a number of reports the results were given of investigations of the kinetic
special features of sorption in the presence of complex-forming ligands (R. Dibozinskii, Poland; V. Koprda,
Czechoslovakia) by the example of the separation of lanthanum and praesodymium.
The papers of the Czech scientists (S. Konechnyi and B. Tsaletka) merit attention on the synthesis
by the method of the sol-gel process of a number of inorganic sorbents, possessing an increased mechani-
cal stability and having the form of small spheres of finite size. For example, by treating a gel of titanium
hydroxide with iron hexaferrocyanate, a cation-exchange granulated sorbent was formed with a capacity of
?2.5 mg ? equ/g and with a ratio of titanium to Fe(CN)6 from 0.15 to 0.71. This sorbent was used for the
recovery of cesium from one-molar solutions of nitric and hydrochloric acid.
Several reports were devoted to the study of the state of various elements present in aqueous solu-
tions in microconcentrations. The main attention here was paid to an investigation of the processes of
equilibrium distribution of radioactive isotopes between different physicochemical forms of the correspon-
ding stable elements (Ba, Fe, Se, Zn, Mn, Cr, Be, Ni, Co, etc.) in distilled, river, and also sea water
(P. Benes, Czechoslovakia). For the rapid unification of states of a radioactive indicator and a defined element
found in sea water, it is proposed to use the bioassimilation process of radionuclides of plankton organisms
(multiple repetition of the adoption ? development cycle). After 10-15 days this permitted the achieve-
ment of identicity of forms of radioactive and stable nuclides (V. V. Gromov).
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 39, No. 3. pp. 234-235, September, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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The formation of mononuclear and polynuclear forms (mainly products of hydrolysis) of such ele-
ments as Pu(IV), U(IV), U(VI), Peal), Cr(HI), yam, and Eu(III) was discussed comprehensively, and
also the conditions of formation of colloids of these elements in the range of microconcentrations. It was
shown that at concentrations of less than 10-7, true colloids of the elements studied may or may not be
formed, because of adsorption of ion monomer and polymer forms on extraneous colloid contaminants,
always present in the solutions (Yu. P. Davydov, USSR, F. Ishikawa, Japan).
The papers on the study of the forms of the volatile compounds of radioisotopes during chlorination
or fluorination by different agents of uranium irradiated with neutrons attracted great attention (P. Hoff-
mann and I. Rudolph, Federal German Republic). The authors used high-temperature gas chromatography.
The oxyhalides of Mo, Ru, Ta, I, Zr, and Nb were studied and the thermodynamic constants characteriz-
ing the compounds studied were calculated.
Some reports were devoted to the structure and physicochemical properties of deuterated compounds,
the use of hydrogen and deuterium, and also certain aspects of the technique of investigating the isotopic
exchange of hydrogen. For example, when investigating the isotopic exchange of hydrogen in the gas and
liquid phases by the methods of kinetic infrared spectroscopy a time resolution of -1 msec was achieved
successfully, which exceeds the minimum recording times of isotopic exchange processes, using the con-
ventional methods, by an order of two to three (S. F. Burenko, USSR). The use of 2$94T1was considered
for investigating exchange reactions of Tl[) and Tl(HI)compounds. The mechanism of this exchange is
suggested and theoretically substantiated through the formation of intermediate Tl(LI) (R. Dodson, USA;
I. Staryi, (Czechoslovakia).
In the field of extraction, special attention was paid to the determination of the composition of the
extracted compounds and to the quantitative description of the extraction equilibria. The papers by I.
Staryi et al. (Czechoslovakia) are interesting from this point of view; the formation is shown of complexes with
mixed anions during the extraction of the halides of As(III) and Sb(Ill) in systems with diethyldithiocarbomi-
nates.
In the joint paper by P. Muller (DDR) and A. I. Khorkin (USSR), systems are considered with mono-
carbonic acids, for which the formation of polynuclear complexes in the organic phase is characteristic.
The effect of the nature of diluents is analyzed in detail by the example of the extraction of mercury from
chlorine solutions, and a method of describing extraction systems with stepwise complex-formation in the
aqueous phase is given (E. Hochfeld, Sweden).
Investigations of the extraction processes for the analytical determination of traces of metals are
interesting. The feasibilities of using kinetic factors in the substoichiometric determination of traces of
the rare-earth elements were discussed, including the different ion forms of these metals in aqueous solu-
tions.
The main part of the papers on radiation chemistry was presented by the Soviet scientists. Thus,
E. I. Saunin (USSR), in a paper on the study of the mechanism of radioluminescence of Mn+2 in radioac-
tive Ca?04, showed experimentallythat ion-radicals of SO4- and SO, formed by autoradiolysis of Cat04,
participate in luminescence processes. L. I. Barsova gave an account of the principles of the radiation
method of analysis of oxygen-containing anion impurities in difficultly-soluble salts.
The extraprogram report of V. M. Byakov (USSR), "Investigation of the Mechanism of Radiation
?Chemical Reactions Using the Positron Method," created great interest. Evidence was presented of the
participation of a "dry" electron in chemical reactions in aqueous and alcohol media. In the reports of
I. Kro (Poland), data were given on a study of the post-radiation destruction of electrons in polar systems,
due to tunnel reactions of dry electrons with acceptors.
In a paper of practical importance related with diffusion (M. Neuman, DDR), the permeability of
polymer materials (various foils, films, rubber, etc.)were studied in relation to radioactive isotopes
(1251, 35s, 32p, 137cs, 141ce- ,
and 89Sr). The diffusion coefficients of these isotopes were determined.
Problems of radiation heterogeneous catalysis also were represented. Thus, G. N. Pirogova (USSR)
discussed the results of the use of technetium as a catalyst in dehydrogenation reactions of alcohols and
hydrocarbons. The high activity and selectivity of technetium catalysts allow their use for the produc-
tion of aldehydes and ketones.
The paper by A. F. Kuzina (USSR), on the electrochemical reduction of Tc(VII) and the production
of different articles of metallic technetium and the properties of its compounds created great interest.
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The paper by Ch. Neskovtck (France), on the use of radioactive isotopes for studying the sorption capability
of nickel ferrocyanide and the development of a procedure for separating certain pairs of elements on this
sorbent, should be mentioned.
A number of reports referred to the development of procedures for the radiometric monitoring of the
sorption of high-polar, low-volatile compounds in a chromatographic column during their separation (fatty
acids, formic and acetic acids, etc.).
Some papers were devoted to the investigation of biological systems. Glycine, labelled with 14C , and
various oligopeptides were used for studying the mechanism of their interaction with nucleonic acids (K.
Shtamyok, Federal German Republic).
The excellent organization, the creative environment of the conference, the supporting and useful
discussions all contributed to the mutual enrichment of the participants with scientific ideas.
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FIRST ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON "'PULSATION APPARATUS
IN THE POPULAR ECONOMY OF THE USSR"
E. I. Zakharov
The Conference took place on May 26-30, 1975, in the "Atomic Energy" pavilion of the All-Union
Center for the Popular Economy, having been organized on the initiative of the State Commission of Inor-
ganic Fuel and the State Commission for the use of Atomic Energy of the USSR. Taking part in the work
of the Conference were more than 260 specialists from the various Ministries as well as representatives
of 150 scientific-research, engineering design, and industrial undertakings. Some 59 contributions relat-
ing to developments in pulsation apparatus and to the results of introducing the latter were received and
discussed. The novelty and the promising nature of pulsation apparatus for a number of chemicotechnolog-
ical processes were emphasized, as well as its considerable advantages over many types of existing ap-
paratus, especially in processes associated with the use of toxic and corrosive media, and in setting up
continuously-acting, high-efficiency installations. The leading role of the All-Union Scientific-Research
Institute of Inorganic Materials in initiating the organization of research and creating the basic designs of
pulsation systems was fully acknowledged.
The contributions may be divided into three groups: theoretical investigations into the influence of
reciprocating vibrations (pulsations) in intensifying many technological processes (mass transfer, drying,
evaporation, etc.), together with the calculation, simulation, and optimization of pulsation devices and
systems (14 papers); the results of experimental and experimental-industrial tests on pulsation equip-
ment in various chemicotechnological processes ? extraction, sorption, lixiviation, synthesis, neutraliza-
tion, gas purification, etc. (35 papers); experience in the industrial use of pulsation equipment in the un-
dertakings of various Ministries (10 papers).
Among the papers of the first group, special attention should be paid to the work of the Institute of
Inorganic Materials in studying the structure of flows in large-scale pulsation apparatus (diameter 1.5-3.4
m) of the column variety, and also to work carried out by the same Institute, together with the Bryansk
Technological Institute, on the use of methods of classical hydrodynamics in studying the structure of
flows and energy optimization, and also on the matching of pulsation systems. These investigations are
of great practical value in laying the foundations for the calculation and simulation of pulsating equipment.
The large number of problems discussed in the second group of papers requires careful analysis
and systematization; however, it may immediately be said that pulsations intensify many technological
processes (they increaseproductivity, reduce the bulk of the equipment, and so on). Thus, according to
the Institute of Inorganic Materials' data and the results of a number of other Institutes, pulsation equip-
ment should greatly aid the development of continuous processes in the synthesis and polymerization of
various materials (to replace existing periodic processes), and this should yield a significant economic
effect.
Undertakings concerned with nonferrous metallurgy have found that pulsati-ng sorption columns and
apparatus used for washing, neutralization, and other operations have atwo- or three-times greater ef-
ficiency than existing constructions, and greatly 'reduce both the load and the consumption of reagents.
Some interesting communications were presented by representatives of the Chirchik Branch of the State
Institute of the Nitrogen Industry, the Pyshminsk Copper-Electrolytic Combine, and others, on the use
of pulsation equipment involving the participation of the gas phase in deposition and dissolution processes;
this modification may reduce the volume of equipment required by a factor of five to ten times. Also
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 39, No. 3, p. 236, September, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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deserving of attention are' certain papers describing processes involved in the separation and washing of
solid phases, the processing of metal powders, and the use of pulsations for intensifying heat transfer,
drying, and crystallization.
Experience in the industrial use of extractors (mixer-settlers and columns), sorption columns, and
large-scale reactors involved in mixing processes (maximum reactor volume 20 m3) and lixiviation was
described, as well as experience gained in the use of pulsating filter-coagulators and other equipment
(All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Inorganic Materials and others).
In practically all undertakings the possibility of reliably simulating industrial equipment in labora-
tory models has been fully established, together with the considerable economic advantage (10-50 thousand
rubles for each item of equipment introduced) gained by the industrial use of such apparatus. According
to the Institute of Inorganic Materials, the economic effect is at present 4.5 rubles for each ruble spent in
research. In the tenth five-year plan the expected economic effect from the introduction of pulsation ap-
paratus, by virtue of the present intentions of the Ministries of the Chemical Industry and Nonferrous
Metallurgy alone, amounts to some 16 million rubles.
The Conference also made certain serious comments. Thus, the absence of specialized design or-
ganizations for the manufacturers of routine apparatus was noted; so was the necessity of standardizing
existing industrial equipment, establishing a common coordinated working plan, and so forth.
Summaries of the papers have already been published [see Collection of Summarized Contributions
to the First All-Union Conference on Pulsation Apparatus in the Popular Economy [in Russian], Moscow
(1975)].
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EXHIBITIONS
THE SPECIALIZED EXHIBITION "INTERATOMINSTRUMENT"
K. A. Nekrasov
For the first time in the USSR a specialized exhibition will be opened of the International Economic
Group on Nuclear Instrument Design, "Interatominstrument," which will be taking place within the frame-
work of the international exhibition "Physics-75" from November 25 to December 3, 1975 in Moscow.
The main importance of the exhibition is to demonstrate the increasing potential of the economic
member organizations of Interatominstrument (IAI) in the development of nuclear instrument design.
The exhibition should show the integration in the field of nuclear techniques within the framework of Inter-
atominstrument, the assortment of manufactured articles provided by the members of the Group; the pos-
sibilities of the widespread use of efficient nuclear methods and instruments in science, industry, and medi-
cine.
A seminar will take place during the exhibition, at which Soviet specialists will be able to familiarize
themselves in more detail with the results of the application of instruments and equipment in industry,
science, and medicine and also with the programmed activity of the Member-organization of Interatominstru-
ment which, as is well ?known, are a Society with limited responsibility "Elektroimpeks" (Sofia), the
Amalgamated economic agency "Yadernaya Tekhnika" (Pleven), the combine "Gamma" (Budapest), EMG
? electronic measuring instruments factory (Budapest), Hungarian external trade agency for instrument
design products "Metrimpeks" (Budapest), Trade Agency for instruments and organization techniques
"Migert" (Budapest), Finance and Economics Office RFT Mosselektronik "Otto Shen" (Dresden), Agency
for external trade"ElektrotekhnikEksport ?Import" (German Democratic Republic), Agency for external
and internal trade "Izokommerts" (German Democratic Republic), amalgamated factories for nuclear in-
strument design "Polon" (Warsaw), Agency for external trade "Metroneks" (Warsaw), All-Union group
"Izotop" (Moscow), All-Union export ?import group "Tekhsnabeksport" (Moscow), Agency for electronics
and low-precision techniques "Tesla" (Prague) and External trade group "Kovo" (Prague).
The group "Interatominstrument" undertakes scientific research, experimental, planning-design,
and production work, organizes scientific ?technical production and commercial cooperation between
economic organizations of the member countries of IAI, and also assists trade expansion with other coun-
tries. The activity of the group extends to manufactured products of nuclear instrument design and radia-
tion-shielding techniques, equipment and apparatus with isotope radiation sources for irradiation and
radioscopy, special devices and plant for nuclear technology and isotope sources.
It can be seen from the exhibition data that, as a result of the activities of IAI, production specializ-
ation of a considerable part of the products has been prepared, work has been carried out on the coordina-
tion of scientific ?technical researches in the field of semiconductor detectors, certain types of nuclear
? medical instruments, instruments for monitoring contamination of the surrounding medium, etc. Co-
ordination in the field of external trade enabled the rate of increase of commodity turnaround between mem-
ber organizations of IAI to be doubled, and in 1980 it should lead to an increase again by a factor of two,
of the volumes of mutual deliveries. There exists technical servicing of nuclear equipment by the forma-
tion of servicing subsidiaries of IAI in Bulgaria, German Democratic Republic, and Poland. Work is cur-
rently under way on the formation of a servicing branch in the USSR. Information on the products of nu-
clear techniques is being extended by holding combined exhibitions and seminars, and by the publication
of an information bulletin, "Novosti IAI."
The arrangement of the exhibits at the exhibition provides for seven sections: the first section is
ionizing radiation detectors; dosimeters; radiometers, nuclear radiation spectrometers and nuclear-phys-
ical instruments for reactors; second section ? nuclear-physical equipment; third section ? radioisotope
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 39, No. 3. p. 237, September, 1975.
b1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y.10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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instruments; fourth sectiOn ? nuclear instruments for medicine; fifth section ? furniture for working with
radioactive substances; sixth section ? gamma-defectoscopy equipment; isotopic gamma facilities; a
facility for the nuclear-physical analysis of a substance; radioisotope sources for electric power; seventh
section ? isotope nuclear radiation sources.
"Metroneks, " "Kovo, " "Mosselektronik, " "Elektroimpeks, " "Metrimpeks, " "Izokommerts, " "Gamma , "
and V/OIzotop participated in the provision of these manufactured products.
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BOOK REVIEWS
V. V. Bugrovskii, V. P. Zhukov,
S. S. Preobrazhenskii, et al.
DYNAMICS AND CONTROL WITH A NUCLEAR ROCKET ENGINE*
Reviewed by V. M. Mikhailov
The book being reviewed is the first monograph on the dynamics and methods of control with nuclear
rocket engines which for the last 20 years have attracted great attention everywhere from specialists in
space technology. In the book by R. Bassard and R. Delaware (1967) "Nuclear Engines for Aircraft and
Rockets," problems of dynamics and control were almost not considered.
In this monograph, the most promising types of nuclear rocket engines are considered. In the first
chapter, a detailed classification is given of schemes for these engines and illustrations are provided. In
chapters 2 and 4, problems of the mathematical description and development of control systems are studied
in detail for an engine with a solid fissile substance. Problems of the mathematical description of non-
steady-state processes are considered in quite some detail in the fifth chapter, for nuclear rocket en-
gines with a gaseous fissile substance. The authors, from the basic mechanisms of neutron physics, heat
transfer, gas- and magnetohydrodynamics, pass on to numerical relations which serve as the basis for
studying the dynamics of nuclear rocket engines by means of computers, and for analytical investigations.
In order to solve the problems arising from the mathematical description (basis of a simplified descrip-
tion, development of previously unknown mechanisms), unique methods of investigation have been developed.
A description of the dynamic properties of such important components of a nuclear rocket engine as
the fuel element ? coolant, fuel element ? reactor moderator systems and other heat exchange equipment
is given, and which takes account of the one-dimensional distributivity of the parameters. The expressions
obtained by an analytical method for the transfer functions of these systems are illustrated by specific
numerical calculations of the frequency characteristics. They are compared with the results of a zero-
dimensional description (in lumped parameters) of these same systems. The comparison shows the ad-
missibility in the majority of cases of substitution of the distributed description by the zero-dimensional
description (at least, for sufficiently smooth effects).
Investigation of the dynamics of branched hydraulic schemes for rocket engines is fraught with great
difficulties. Therefore; there is interest in the appearance of characteristic special features of these cir-
cuits and the development of methods based on this for their investigation, which are associated with les-
ser difficulties.
Two methods for investigating complex gas circuits are given in the book. The first method is ex-
tremely effective and reduces considerably the difficulties of the investigation and gives a total solution
to the problem of describing quasi-steady-state processes in one class of complex gas circuits, with
critical efflux at the outlet. The second method has a greater generality, and its application consists in
that, in consequence of modification of the equations and the use of a contoured mathematical description
of the circuits, the difficulties of its mathematical description and of the investigation are successfully
simplified.
Useful results are given in the section on the mathematical description of neutron kinetics for the
reactor and the circulating fuel. Based on the studies of a dynamic model of these processes andthe effec-
tiveness of various perturbations, a working dynamic model is obtained for this reactor.
*B. N. Petrov (editor), Atomizdat, Moscow (1974).
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 237-238, September, 1975.
?1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission of the publisher. A copy of this article is available from the publisher for $15.00.
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Problems of the assignment of boundary conditions and the numerical calculation for certain mag-
netohydrodynamic flow schemes are interesting.
In order to justify the simplification of the mathematical description of gas flow dynamics- associ-
ated with nonaccounting for sonic oscillations, a study of the asymptotic properties of gas flow at low Mach
numbers is carried out in the appendices. The investigation shows that convergence of flow reactions by
external effects (when the Mach number tends to zero) occurs only for quite smooth effects. Therefore,
when estimating the errors introduced by the nonaccounting of sonic oscillations, the nature of the exter-
nal effects on the system being studied must be taken into account.
Chapter 4 is devoted to problems of dynamics and control with nuclear rocket engines. Methods are
described in it for analyzing the dynamic properties of nuclear rocket engines as a whole, under nominal
and launch conditions, and also certain possible formulations and solutions of problems of control system
synthesis under these conditions. These investigations utilize the present-day achievements of control
theory and may be applied not only to nuclear rocket engines, but also to a wider class of vehicles.
In this same chapter, modifications are given for determining Lyapunov stability as applicable to
systems with distributed parameters and a procedure for synthesizing a linear control system, possessing
specified reactions to external effects. For a chosen set of control organs, measured coordinates of the
vehicle and external effects, the necessary and sufficient condition is given for solvability of the synthesis,
and a general form is derived for the control equations giving the solution of the problem of synthesis.
The problem of providing the specified static relations for a closed system is considered separately, where
the necessary quantity of integrated units in the controller is determined.
For control of nuclear rocket engines in the launch cycle, the formulation and solution of the prob-
lem of calculating the optimum control is derived, taking account of uncontrolled perturbations. This is
new optimization formulation and it is particularly timely for reactor control, because small deviations
of the law of control may cause a sharp breakdown of the constraints on the operating cycle of the reactor.
However, the application of the theoretical data of Chapter 4 to the problem of control of nuclear roc-
ket engines has not been sufficiently completely presented in the book.
On the whole, the book reviewed is undoubtedly useful for quite a wide circle of specialists in dynam-
ics and the control of nuclear power-generating plants, and also specialists in neighboring fields of tech-
nology. The book has been issued with a small circulation and has gone out of print rapidly. It will be ad-
vantageous, therefore, to republish it, taking account of the remarks mentioned above.
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breaking the /language barrie
WITH COVER TO COVER ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF SOVIET JOURNALS
The Soviet Journal of
Bioorganic Chemistry
Bioorganicheskaye Khimiya
y
? /Editor: Yu. A. Ovchinnikov
Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow
-Devoted to all aspects of this rapidlyAeveloping science,
this important new journal includes articles on the isola-
tion and purification of naturally-occurr)ng, biologically-
active compounds; the establishment of their structure;
? the 'mechanisms of bioorganic reactions; methods of
,synthesis and biosynthesis; and the determination of the
relation between structure and biological function.
Volume 1, 1975 (12 issues) $225.00
The Soviet Journal of
Coordination' Chemistry
? Koordinatsionnaya Khimiya
Editor: Yu. A. Ovchinnikov
Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow
The synthesis, structure and properties Of new coordi-
nation compounds; reactions, involving intraspheral sub-
stitution, and transformation of ligands, homogeneous
catalysis; complexes with polyfunctional and macro-
molecular ligands; complexing in solutions; and the ki-
netics and mechanisms of reactions involving the partici-
pation of coordination compounds are among the topics,
this monthly examines.
Volume 1, 1975 (12 issues) $235.00
The Soviet Journal of Glass
Physics and Chemistry
Fizika i Khimiya Stekla
Editor: M. M. Shurts
Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Leningrad
This new'bimonthly publication presents in-depth articles
on the most important trends in glass technology. Both
theoretical and applied research are reported.
Soviet Microelectronics
Mikroilektronika
Editor: A. V. Rzhanov
Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow
Offering invaluable reports on the latest advances in
fundamental problems of microelectronics, this new bi-
monthly covers ? theory' and design of integrated cir-
cuits ? new production and testing methods for micro-
electronic devices ? new terminology ? new principles of
component and functional integration.
Volume 4, 1975 (6 issues) $135.00
Lithuanian
Mathematical Journal
L ietuvos-Marematikos Rinkinys
Editor: P.)', ( -, ; '. , (:) . -',.?, , ( 5 .)-- L . ;. r'? ._,.
4- , _ 1 ,- - -
? ' '''!!''. Acta EntoMolOgica Sinica - ,-,./.:: ,,A,\''. '. _ '$P5 /.
. / _, -?,, - ,, ' - ? --..,..\? ' , r : ._;..,
Acta"aenetica'Sinici'-,. ' ' ---=? - /- ?v---- , ? 2; , ' '$65 -; ? ,
i / ? r ,-'. ' ',.,' - .,