THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF ATOMIC ENERGY VOL. 9 NO. 1

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• Publication Date: July 1, 1961
• Content Type: REPORT

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Volume 9, No. ^ j.
July, 1961
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN
CONSULTANTS BUREAU.
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the latss ?viet techniques!
CONTEMPORARY EQUIPMENT
for WORK with ,
RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
ing and manipulative devices are described as well as illus-
trated in detail. It is an excellent guide for all scientists
and technologists concerned with radioactive isotopes.
nological procedures, used" in the production of isotopes and-
the preparation of labelled compounds from them. The shield-
A, comprehensive review of the. Soviet methods and "tech-
Some technical, and :technological aspects of the production
of isotopes and labeled compounds in the USSR.
INTRODUCTION
Development of -remote handling methods in the radiochem-
ical laboratories of the Academy of Sciences, USSR.
Shielding and manipulative devices for work with radio-
active isotopes.
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I. Development of Shielding Techniques in
'Radiopreparative Operations
CHAPTER II. Mechanical Holding Devices'
CHAPTER III. Remote Pneumatic Manipulators
CHAPTER IV. Liquid Dispensers
CHAPTER V. Radiocher-nical Hydromanipulators
CHAPTER VI. Radiopreparative Pneumatic Hydromanip-
ulators
CHAPTER VII. Toothed Mechanisms for Manipulative De-
vices
CHAPTER VIII: Non-Destructive Methods of Ampule In-
CONCLUSION
spection
CHAPTER IX.' Some Decontamination Methods
durable paper covers 67 pages illus.. $13.00
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
227 W. 17th ST., NEW YORK 1, N. Y.
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I f
EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal'
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENEIWY
A translation of ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated July, 1960)
Vol. 9, No. 7
,CONTENTS
July, 1961
. RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
On the Stability Theory of Homogeneous Boiling Nuclear Reactors.
B. V. Ershler, B. Z. Torlin, and L. Ya. Suvorov ............... 499 5
Investigation of Start-Up Conditions in Atomic Power Stations with a Graphite=
Uranium Reactor with Superheated Steam. V. V. D o l g o v, V. Y a. K o z l o v, ~,.
L. A. Kochetkov, 0. A. Sudnitsyn, and G. N. Ushakov . . . . . . . . . .. 505 10
0.04-4.0 Mev Neutron Fission Cross Section of Pu240. V. G. N e s t e r o v
and G. N. Smirenkin ..... .... . ... .......................... 511 16
The Use of the Isotopic Composition of Lead for Prospecting Uranium Ores.
D. Ya. Surazhskii and A. I. Tugarinov ....................... 516 21
Internal Friction in Uranium. A. I. Dashkovskii, A. I. Evstyukhin,
E. M. Savitskii and D. M. Skorov ........................... 522 27
The Phase Diagram for the System Zirconium -Beryllium. V. S . E m e 1' y a n o v,
Yu. G. Godin, A. I. Evstyukhin, and A. A. Rusakov ............ 528 33
Ratio Between the Radiation Dose and the Absorbed Dose. Yu. V. S i v i n t s e v ......... 534 39
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
On the He7 Isotope. V. V. B a I a s h o v ................................... 544 48
The Thermal Electron Conversion of Thermal Energy Into Electrical Energy
Using Thorium Carbide. N. D. Morgulis and Yu. P. Korchevoi .... . . . . 546 49
The Effect of Internal Heat Sources on Convective Heat Exchange. E. A . S i d o r o v ...... 549 51
An Intimate Intergrowth of Uraninite and a Zirconium Mineral. V. I. Z h u k o v a ....... 551 52
A Study of the Systems BeO-Sm20s and BeO-Gd2Os. S. G. T resvyatskii,
V. I. Kushakovskii, and V. S. Belevantsev .................... 554 54
Systematic Measurements of Radioactive Fallout in the Year Following
the Cessation of Nuclear Tests. V. S a n t h o 1 z e r ........................ 556 56
Quantitative Determination of the Content of Lead and Bismuth Radioisotopes
in Air in Underground Excavations. V. I. B a r a n o v and L. V.
Gorbushina ....
........................................ 558 56
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Summary of the International Conference at Monaco on Processing and Disposal
of Radioactive Wastes. V. Spitsyn and B. Kolychev .................. 560 58
"The Atoms for Peace" Pavilion at the USSR Industrial Exhibit in Iraq.
A. M. Panchenko and G. V. Fedorov ....................... 568 63
The Danish DR-3 Heavy Water Reactor .... .... .. ......................... 569 65
Annual subscription $ 75.00 ? 1961 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
Single issue 20.00 Note: The sale of photostatic copies of any portion of this copyright translation is expressly
Single article 12.50 prohibited by the copyright owners.
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CONTENTS (continued)
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
[A Reactor with Steam Superheat ... ...................................... 66]
[OMRE Operating Experience .......................................... 67]
Beryllium Production in the Capitalist Countries. A. L a n i n and G. A r e f' e v ........ 571 70
Conference on the Theory of Dispersion Relatifns. V. B I r y u k o v .................. 572 71
[Brief Communications ...... 72]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature ................... ............................. 574 74
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all material that appears in Atomnaya Energiya. Those items that originated
in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets. Whenever possible,
the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given.
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B. V. Ershier, B. Z. Torlin, and L. Ya. Suvorov
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 5-9, July, 1960
Original article submitted July 24, 1959
This article presents the derivation of the kinetic equations for homogeneous boiling reactors where the charac-
teristics of the water moderator volume boiling are taken into account. The parameters characterizing the reac-
tor operating conditions are indicated, the pulse regimes arising in the case of stability disturbance are described,
and the effect of some factors on stability are considered.
Fluctuations in the volume of the vapor contained in the water moderator of a homogeneous boiling reactor
affect its reactivity to a great extent, which can lead to unstable conditions. Therefore, it would be of interest
to obtain a serniquantitative or at least qualitative determination of the influence of different factors on the re-
actor operating stability. For this purpose, we shall consider the simplified stability theory for such reactors.
Under the conditions in question, the basic vapor mass is generated inside the liquid volume and not near
the walls. The lack of a complete theory of volume boiling makes it difficult to find the reactor kinetics equa-
tions. The following factors can be used for the first approximation.
A characteristic of volume boiling is the difficult formation of vapor embryos. For instance, in our ex-
periments, not less than several hours are required for the formation of a vapor bubble in 10 ml of water or solu-
tion in .overheating by 10-20?C, and even the fission of uranium nuclei in the liquid volume does not appreciably
accelerate this process. Neither is it influenced by the presence of uranium oxide powder in the water. Similar
observations were made in [1]. On the other hand, by supplying heat with sufficient intensity to the volume, a
relatively stable volume boiling can be secured even for an excess temperature of only several degrees. It follows
from these two facts that stable volume boiling is not necessarily connected with the often-described [2 and 3]
fluctuation mechanism of vapor embryo generation, for which large overheating values are required. In the ab-
sence of a fluctuation mechanism, the generation of new bubbles can occur due to the breaking-up of large
bubbles by the liquid vortex flow. In contrast to the fluctuation mechanism, the hydrodynamic boiling mechan-
ism does not presume large overheating values. We shall adduce certain data illustrating these assumptions.
Water or a salt solution which are free from vapor bubbles and centers necessary for their formation may
sometimes not boil even in heating to 200?C under atmospheric pressure. These observations, described by many
authors [4] as early as the past century, were considerably expanded in connection with work in designing homo-
geneous boiling reactors [1 and 5]. They indicate that a stable "embryonic" volume boiling mechanism, i.e.,
the generation of bubbles in the water volume, is not possible. However, if heat is continuously1) and intensively
introduced into the water volume by electrolysis while taking great care to prevent electrolytical gas bubbles from
passing into the water, the liquid cannot be overheated by 10 to 15?C without visible boiling. These experiments
will be described in more detail below. They indicate that the hydrodynamic boiling mechanism is applicable
in this case.
For deriving the reactor kinetics equations for such a boiling mechanism, we shall denote the vapor volume,
weight, and density in the moderator by Vv, Mv, and yv; by V 1. M1, and y 1, we shall denote the same quantities
for the liquid; we shall also denote the liquid height in the reactor in the absence of boiling by H1, and S will
denote the cross section of the reactor, which consists of a vertical cylinder. Moreover, we shalt introduce the
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notation (P = Vv and U = VV - (V ?)0, The index 0 in all cases indicates that the values of the corresponding
Vv + V (Vv)o
quantities pertain to the reactor steady-state conditions. It is considered that the value of Ml + My is constant*
or, in other words, that, Ml is constant, since Ml DO. MV
The temperature, the neutron flux, and the distribution of vapor bubbles in the reactor are assumed to be
sufficiently uniform; they are replaced by certain average values which are considered as constant throughout
the entire volume. Some calculations pertaining to the statics of boiling homogeneous reactors, which were
performed by taking into account the nonuniform bubble distribution throughout the core volume, indicate that
such approximations are permissible.
We shall represent the water overheating temperature At as the sum of two components:
At =Atl +At2.
Here, At, represents the water overheating with respect to the vapor in the bubbles, and zt2 is the overheating of
the vapor in bubbles with respect to the vapor which is above the liquid mirror in the reactor. The water tem-
perature is t = to +At, where to is the steady-state temperature of saturated vapor above the liquid mirror in the
reactor.
Under the assumption of a hydrodynamic boiling mechanism, the following inequality holds for the radii
of all bubbles:
20
r>> P,
where P is the'saturated vapor pressure, and 0 is the surface tension.
The rate of heat supply to the evaporating water bubble is
w = k41rr2At,, (1)
where k is a function of r and of the hydrodynamic conditions for boiling water.'" Since, under. the assumption
of a hydrodynamic boiling mechanism, there should be no large bubbles because of their fragmentation nor very
small bubbles because of the absence of embryos, we can assume that r is almost constant. Then, the heat
used up per second for vapor generation will be
V
_ 4 . W.
W1 r3 w,
Wl= k VvAti fiVvAti**s (2)
r/3
Hence, noting that the reactor heat output Q is expended only on two processes, the increase in the overheating
temperature At and the generation of vapor W1,we obtain an equation which provides the relationship between
the thermal neutron flux N, the overheating, and Vv:
Q= f2N =CAt+ fiVVAtl. (3)
Here f2 is the proportionality factor, and C is the total heat capacity of the vapor and water in the core. It is
obvious that f2 = E05N5, where E is the energy released during one U235 fission event, as is the U235 thermal
neutron fission cross section, and N5 is the number of U235 nuclei in the core.
'1t is assumed that after the vapor leaves the liquid, its condensation and return to the core occur instantly.
"k is the thermal conductivity coefficient of the thin cooled water layer around the bubble per 1 cm2 of the
bubble surface. In stationary water, k depends only on r [5 and 6]. With an increase in the vortex motion in-
tensity, the layer thickness decreases and It increases.
"' It is obvious from the above-mentioned that the value of the fi constant. depends on water flow conditions;
this will be considered in more detail below.
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Time t, sec
Fluctuations of relative power level values p, overheating values
At, and t2, and the relative vapor volume if in the water under
typical pulse conditions in a boiling homogeneous reactor.
The vapor volume W2, generated per 1 m2 of the water mirror, i.e., the vapor volume per second passing
through ,1 m2 of the surface of the liquid saturated with bubbles, is equal to a[(p/(1-cp)],where a is a constant.
Since V/(1-(p)= Vv/Vi the discharge of vapor from the entire moderator surface is
as
W3 = yvW2S = Yv Vl Vv = f 3Vv.
(Yv)oaS
It is obvious that fs MZ/( YZ )o * Hence, we obtain the equation taking into account the vapor weight variation
in the vapor-water mixture:
My = 1 f1VvAt1 - f 3Vv,
where M = Vvyv, and l is the evaporation heat. If we do not neglect the changes in yv caused by small tem-
perature fluctuations, the following can be substituted in Eq. (4):
ayv
Mv = Vv y v + Vv _T-n' t2.
In order to take into account the inertia of the moderator mass, we shall note that, if the mirror of the.
water-vapor mixture that boils according to the hydrodynamic mechanism is at rest, the vapor pressure Pv inside
the bubbles is practically equal to the pressure P above the liquid,* * and, consequently,
AP=Pv-P=O.
For the vertical motion of the mirror with acceleration z, which takes place due to the increase in Vv, the pres-
sure head OP required for this motion is given by
*The a constant entering the expression for f3 depends on temperature; it is given in [7]. The small fluctuations
of yv and yl in reactor operation can be neglected, and f 3 can be considered as a constant.
* *In considering the growth of an individual immobile bubble, the radius of which became much larger than
the critical radius value, i.e., r a~ 20/p, we can neglect the inertia forces.[5 and 6] as well as surface tension.
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1yr- .. 1/z M1
AP=T X= S x,
where M' is the effective moving mass.
Since x = (Vv)0 Vv and, besides, for small At2 values, we have DP = at Ott, we obtain the following from
S
Q S2aP]at ) Vv = f4]~v =Ate,
where f 4 is a constant, and the value of 8 P/a t is found from tables. Equation (6) takes into account the over-
heating At2, which is necessary for overcoming the inertia of the moderator mass.
The equations for the time dependences of the neutron flux and the concentration of delayed neutron
sources for small reactivities Ak are of the following form
Ak- Ni (7)
T N+ 7, %iCi,
where Ci, X., and 6 i are the density of sources in the i-th group of delayed neutrons in the reactor, their decay
constant, and the yield per single U235 fission event, respectively; T is the effective lifetime of a thermal neu-
tron. In boiling homogeneous reactors, T=T~,=o(1-(p)-1(1-(pv). If, for a constant fuel mass, the density of
the medium in the reactor does not vary within a very wide range, it can be shown that, in the age approximation,
the reactor reactivity is
Ak = - Kgov (1-{-1/2 (Pov),
while
K_Z( 2.4 2 .t+ L2
Keff ) C 1 + a2L2 ) ,
where Keff is the reactor effective radius, r is the age of thermal neutrons, L is their diffusion length, and a2
is the geometric parameter of the cylindrical reactor [8].
Equations (3), (4), (6), and (7) describe the reactor behavior in time. For an analysis of these equations,
it is convenient to substitute the dimensionless variables v, p = N/No, and t = At/oto (where Oto is the steady-
state value of the water overheating) for Vv, N. and At. In calculating the constants fl, f2, f3, and f4, it was
assumed that S = 2 m2 and M 1= 2000 kg. The method for calculating these constants is clear from the corres-
ponding equations.
A consideration of these constants indicates the following.
The f2, f3, and f4 constants are well defined by the water moderator temperature and the reactor di-
mensions. Actually, the values of o5, a, y 1, yv, and a P/8 t, with respect to which the constants are calculated
by means of the corresponding equations, are functions of temperature only and they are found from the well-
known tables and paper [7]. The other quantities necessary for calculating these constants, namely, S, M1 and
N5 are determined by the reactor dimensions and charge.
The value of M' is of the order of the water mass in the reactor, while it is obvious that M' S and y -- 8 are accompanied by a reduction in the internal friction and 8 - y and S a by an in-
crease in the internal friction. Each polymorphous modification of uranium in the temperature ranges for its
existence has its own value of internal friction.
The measurements were made by recording the damping of free torsional vibrations of the specimen on a
relaxation type apparatus. The specimens were uranium wires of 99.91o purity, diameter 0.98 mm, and length
320 mm. The measurements were made at frequencies of about 2 vibrations per second in a vacuum of about
5. 10-5 mm Hg. The rates of heating and cooling were varied from 5 to 0.5 deg/min. The accuracy in measur-
ing the temperature was f 1.5?C. The shear modulus was determined at the same time as the internal friction.
It is well known that there are three polymorphous modifications of uranium: a uranium (with a rhombic
lattice), S uranium (with a tetragonal lattice).and y uranium (with a volume-centered cubic lattice). The tem-
perature of the a - 8 transition is 662?C, and the 8 -+ y transition 769?C [1].
Figure 1 shows the change in the internal friction of a uranium from room temperature to 630?C. Cold
drawn specimens having sharply defined texture of deformation were annealed at various temperatures. Curve 1
shows the behavior of specimens annealed for 30 min at 630?C. These specimens have a readily reproducible
picture for the relationship between internal friction and temperature, except.for the section from room tempera-
ture to 200-250?C, where the internal friction depends to a large extent on the conditions under which the speci-
men is cooled after annealing. Thus, on some specimens peaks were observed at a temperature of 100?C, reaching
a value of 0.1 (curve 5, Fig. 1); however, their height depended to a large extent on the conditions of cooling.
In some cases much lower peaks were formed in the temperature range 180-200?C. It was noted that
these low temperature peaks of internal friction were detected in cases where very small stresses were induced
during cooling after annealing. We did not make a detailed study of the factors affecting the appearance and
size of the peaks; it is possible that they are the same as those which cause a considerable increase in the tensile
strength with simultaneous drop in the yield point in this temperature range [2].
The change in internal friction in uranium from room temperature to 350?C occurs almost linearly, and
the same is observed for the shear modulus. Above 350?C the internal friction rapidly increases and the shear
modulus falls rapidly; in both cases, the change is no longer linear. For most pure metals [3] at the recrystalliza-
tion temperatures there is a inflection on the. internal friction curve, in the case of uranium at 450-500?C.
There was no noticeable change in the value of internal friction and the shear modulus dt!ing repeated
heating to 630?C and cooling to room temperature (5 cycles). The effect mentioned in [4-6] of the cyclic heat
treatment of uranium in the a region was not observed under these conditions. The reason for this was the low
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0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature, ?C
Fig. 1. The temperature dependence of
internal friction (bottom) and shear modu-
lus (top) of a uranium (the shear modulus
is given in the form of the ratio to its
value at a temperature of 20?C): 1) after
annealing at 630?C for 30 min; 2) the
same, during cooling; 3) after annealing
in the S region at 720?C for 30 min;
4) after annealing in the y region at
960?C for 30 min; 5) after annealing
in the y region and cooling in the
stressed state.
V
~5
3
f.2\
1
1
2
78
12
200 300 400 508 600 700 800
Temperature, ?C
Fig. 2.- Temperature dependence of internal fric-
tion (bottom) and shear modulus (top) of uranium
(up to 850?C): 1) heating curve; 2). cooling curve.
rate of heating and especially cooling obtaining In these
experiments since the effect of cyclic heat treatment in-
creases considerably with increase in the rate of cooling
[4, 5].. It is also possible that the number of cycles was in-
sufficient. In all cases, the cooling curve passed somewhat
below the heating curve in the region of high temperatures
(curve 2, Fig. 1).
Annealing in the S region (at 720?C for 30 min) leads to a considerable reduction in the internal friction
in a uranium (curve 3, Fig. 1) and to the disappearance of the inflection on the curve in the temperature range
450-500?C. The linearity of the change in internal friction and shear modulus is then maintained to 400?C. The
modulus for the linear part passes lower,and after 450?C,higher,than for specimens annealed in the a region.
Since the inflection on the curve of internal friction of pure metals in the region of recrystallization temperatures
is usually connected with relaxation of stresses at the grain boundaries, it can be assumed that the disappearance
of this inflection for'uranium is due to reduction in the mobility of the grain boundaries due to annealing in the
S region.
The viscous behavior of the grain boundaries in a uranium also explains the sharp change in the shear
modulus in relation to the temperature. It has been found theoretically [7] that the maximum for shear relaxa-
tion is determined by the expression
1 - c" - 1 ? (7+`'h)
(J? ;_i(6 - - - 4t)
where Gp is the shear modulus of a polycrystalline specimen for the case where the relaxation of shear stress
along the grain boundaries has.taken place completely; GH is the shear modulus in the absence of slip at the grain
boundaries; p is the Poisson ratio.
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At low temperatures the shear modulus of uranium changes linearly (curve 1, Fig. 1); it can then be
assumed that there is no relaxation at the boundaries. The curve 1 extended by a dotted line can therefore be
considered as relating to the .nonrelaxing modulus. Then, for any temperature the ratio of the relaxing modulus
Gp to the nonrelaxing modulus GH will be equal to the ratio of the squares of the corresponding frequencies of
vibrations:
Gn fn
c;, - (
From Fig. 1 (curve 1, shows G/G20 after annealing in the a region) It can be established that relaxation
along the grain boundaries becomes equal to a certain constant value on approaching the temperature of 630?C.
Assuming that relaxation takes place completely at the boundaries, on the basis of equality (2) we determine the
value Gp/GH = 0.56. This means that part of the complete shear stress which can relax along the grain boun-
daries is equal to 1-0.56 = 0.44.
Taking the Poisson ratio for uranium (according to [8]) equal to 0.23, from equation (1) we find the theore-
tical value G /GH = 0.535. Therefore, the agreement of the experimental value Gp/GH = 0.56 with the theore-
tical (0.535) derived from the concept of viscous behavior of the grain boundaries is perfectly satisfactory.
Annealing in the 8 region leads not only to an increase in viscosity of the boundaries but also to a change
in the slope of the nonrelaxed section of the shear modulus curve (curve 3, Fig. 1). It is well known that annealing
in the a region does not completely remove the grain texture which exists after plastic deformation [9], and the.
temperature dependence of the shear modulus is linked with the presence of a. preferred orientation. Annealing
in the 8 region,. accompanied by phase recrystallization, destroys the deformation texture,and the temperature
relationship of the shear modulus in this case-corresponds to a polycrystal with disordered orientation of the grains.
The experimental value of relaxation at the grain boundaries after annealing in the 8 regions, determined
for G/G20 from curve 3 of Fig. 1, is 0.29 instead of 0.44, i.e., is considerably reduced, which supports the hypo-
thesis of change in mobility of the grain boundaries due to annealing in the 8 region.
Specimens annealed in the y region at 960?C for 30 min had a much lower level of internal friction in the
a region (curve 4, Fig. 1). The value of the internal friction and the shear modulus up to 450?C remains almost
the same as after annealing in the 6 region, but above 450?C the internal friction has a much lower level than
after S annealing, and the shear modulus also relaxes to a much smaller extent.
Change in the crystalline structure during polymorphous transformation is accompanied by a sharp change
in the physical and mechanical properties of a material [10]. The internal friction, as a structural sensitive
characteristic, should also undergo considerable changes.
Change in the internal friction during polymorphous transformations in pure metals has only been studied
for cobalt [11, 12].
Figure 2 shows curves for internal friction and shear modulus of uranium in relation to the temperature
(up to 850?C) for specimens annealed at 960?C. The internal friction increases, reaching a maximum value at a
temperature of 670?C; during isothermal soaking at this temperature it is reduced to a certain stable value. With
further heating to 768?C, the internal friction again gradually increases. At this temperature there is an isother-
mal increase in the internal friction to very large values (of the order of 0.131; with further increase in tempera-
ture it rapidly increases. The shear modulus at 670?C increases somewhat and at 768?C it drops sharply. The
change in internal friction with time during isothermal soaking at 670 and 768?C occurs due to polymorphous
transformations in uranium.
During cooling the transformations are accompanied by a reverse change in the internal friction and
shear modulus, but occur at lower temperatures: 755 and 645?C. With change in the internal friction hysteresis
is therefore. observed which depends to a considerable extent on the rate of cooling (in the case of measurements
without isothermal soaking).
Isothermal soaking at a temperature somewhat lower than the a - 6 transformation temperature gives a
certain reduction in the internal friction; however, with further heating to 670?C the internal friction again sharply
increases. Only at this temperature, due to isothermal soaking does the internal friction reach a minimum value,
corresponding to the level of the S region. Similar behavior is also observed with increase in internal friction
.during the 8 y transformation.
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time of soaking, min
Fig. 3. Change in the internal friction in
uranium in dependence on the time during
isothermal soaking: 1) a -> 8 transition,
670?C; 2) 8 -> (x transition, 645?C; 3)
8 - y transition, 768?C, 4) y 8 tran-
sition, 755?C.
550 500 650 700
Temperature, ?C
Figure 3 shows the change in internal friction in
uranium during isothermal soaking at the temperatures
of polymorphous transformations. In all cases after a
Fig. 4. The effect of rates of heating
and cooling on the internal friction of
uranium: 1) rate of heating 5 deg/min;
2) rate of heating 0.5 deg/min; 3) rate
of cooling 0.5 deg/min; 4) rate of
cooling 5 deg/min.
certain time of soaking a certain stable value of internal friction is reached. Change in the internal friction in
time during heating and cooling, respectively for each transformation, has a completely reversible character.
The law for the change is such that after a rapid increase (or decrease) in the internal friction during the first
minutes in soaking there is a certain reduction (or increase) and a further smooth attainment of the stable value.
The temperatures at which transformations take place during continuous heating or cooling depend on the
rate of change in temperature. Figure 4 shows curves for the change in internal friction in the region or trans-
formations for two rates of heating: 5 and 0.5 deg/min. Increasing the rate of heating does not lead to much
increase in the transformation temperatures, since even on overheating by 5?C above the transformation tempera-
ture, the internal friction during this heating reaches the same value as after isothermal soaking. at the transfor-
mation. temperature. In other words, with increase in the degree of overheating the rate of transformation increases
so strongly that it is impossible, by increasing the rate of heating (from 0.5 to 5 deg/min), to displace the trans-
formation towards higher temperatures. However, increasing the rate of cooling considerably displaces the trans-
formations to lower temperatures. Similar behavior is also observed when studying transformations of uranium by
other methods [13].
Change in the internal friction in uranium during polymorphous transformations therefore differs considerably
from such changes during relaxation processes. Change in the internal friction during polymorphous transformation
occurs in time at a constant temperature, which is independent of the frequency of vibrations and is determined
by the transformation itself. A definite level of internal friction, is achieved by soaking, corresponding to the new
phase state, i.e., to the new type of crystalline lattice.
Of special importance is the fact that internal friction decreases in the process of isothermal soaking during
the a - 8 transformation, and during the 8 - y transformation it increases. This indicates that the value of the
internal friction of various polymorphous modifications of uranium is different for the given temperature.
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1 2 3 4 5 0
Number of cycles
Fig. 5. Change in the internal fric-
tion during the a -> p transition in
dependence on the number of sub-
sequent transitions through the
a S transformation: 1) internal
friction in a uranium; 2) internal
friction in 13 uranium.
Depending on the type of crystalline lattice forming or disap-
pearing during the polymorphous transition, there is a corresponding
decrease or increase in the internal friction.
For repeated transitions through the a T 8 transformation the
value of the internal friction in the a region decreases from. cycle to
cycle during the first few cycles; after about ten cycles the internal
friction reaches a fixed and almost constant level both in the a and in
the 8 region. Figure 5 shows the reduction in maximum value of
internal friction near the transformation temperature in dependence of
the number of a r 8 transitions.
The value of the observed effects does not depend to any great
extent on the range of temperature change and remains approximately
the same for the ranges 600-700 and 20-700?C. The minimum value
reached by the internal friction in the 8 region after transformation
is also somewhat reduced during the first cycles, but in a less abrupt
form (curve 2, Fig. 5). These effects are presumably connected with
the above phenomena: the removal of preferred orientation and re-
duction in the mobility of the grain boundaries due to the a 8
transition.
The fact that after several cycles the value of the internal friction
becomes constant and does not change during continuation of the cyclic
heat treatment indicates that the known effect of cyclic heat treat-
ment [4, 13] during the a--- 8 transitions, accompanied by a change
in the dimensions of the specimen, does not affect the value of internal
friction under the given conditions (rate of change in temperature is
5 deg/min for about five to six cycles).
The curves shown in Figs. 2-4 were obtained for specimens which had first been subjected to five to six
cycles of a 8 transformations.
The following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The inflection on the curve of internal friction in the temperature range 450-500?C is due to the viscous
behavior of the grain boundaries and disappears after annealing in the 6 and y regions, which is due to reduction
in the mobility of the boundaries due to phase recrystallization.
2. Polymorphous transformations in uranium are accompanied by isothermal change in the value of internal
friction at a transformation temperature which has a reversible character during heating and cooling.
3. The plastic y region of uranium, having a volume- centered cubic lattice is characterized by the maxi-
mum value of internal friction. The tetragonal 13 modification, which tends to be brittle, has a minimum value
of internal friction (at the tmeperature of the a -> 8 transition the internal friction in 8 uranium is lower than in
a uranium). The internal friction is therefore directly connected not only with the type of crystalline lattice
but also with the capacity of a given modification for plastic deformation.
1. A. A. Bochvar, et al., Atomnaya Energ. 5, 1. 5 (1958).*
2. G. Ya. Sergeev, et al., Atomnaya Energ. 5, 6, 618 (1958).
3. V. S. Postnikov, Uspekhi Fiz. Nauk 66, 1, 43 (1958).
4. A. A. Bochvar and G. P. Tomson, Atomnaya Energ. 4, 6, 520 (1957).
5. Chiswich and Kellman, Material of the InternationalConference on the Peaceful Use of Atomic Energy
(Geneva, 1955) [in Russian] (Leningrad, Goskhimizdat, 1958) Vol. 9, p. 184.
6. S. Pugh, J. Inst. Metals 86, 12, 497 (1958).
7. C. Zener, Phys. Rev. 61, 906 (1941).
*Original Russian pagination. See C. B. translation.
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B. R. Seller, "Nuclear reactors," Materials for Nuclear Reactors [Russian translation] (IL, Moscow, 1956)
Vol. 3, p. 285.
9. Fort, Materials of the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1955)
[in Russian] (Goskhimizdat, Leningrad, 1958) Vol. 9, p. 51.
10. E. M. Savitskii, The Effect of Temperature on the Mechanical Properties of Metals and Alloys (in Russian)
(Izd. AN SSSR, Moscow, 1957).
11. V. S. Postnikov, Tr. Kemerovskogo Pedinstituta 1, 191 (1956).
12. V. S. Postnikov, Fiz. Metalov. i Metalloved. 4, 344 (1957).
13. P. Lehr and J. Langeron, Rev. Metallurgie 55, 9, 829 (1958).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060001-7
V. S. Emel'yanov, Yu. G. Godin, A. I. Evstyukhin,
and A. A. Rusakov
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 33-38, July, 1960
Original article submitted February 3, 1960
Using the methods of metallographic, thermal, and x-ray qualitative phase analyses and by measuring the hard-
ness, studies have been made of the system zirconium-beryllium,and its phase diagram has been plotted. The
presence of four intermediate phases has been shown in the system: ZrBes, Zr$e6, ZrBe9, and ZrBels. The first
three compounds formed by peritectic reactions at temperatures of 1235, 1475, and 1555?C, respectively; the last
compound melts with an open maximum at 1645?C. At 965?C and 5 weight To beryllium a eutectoid forms be-
tween the ZrBe2 and the zirconium. Additions of beryllium to the zirconium lead to a reduction in temperature
of the a-8 transformation and to the formation of a eutectoid at 800?C. The solubility of beryllium in.a-zir-
conium is less than 0.1 weight% and in 8 -zirconium - less than 0.3 weight To. The solubility of zirconium in
beryllium does not exceed 0.3 weight To.
The phase diagram of the system zirconium- beryllium has been insufficiently studied. According to a
study carried out on specimens of alloys prepared by the powder metallurgy method [1], in the system zircon-
ium-beryllium, it is possible to have a eutectoid in the region which is rich in zirconium and at least four
intermediate phases. One has the composition ZrBe2 and the-other is close to 27 weight To beryllium; the remain-
ing phases have an uncertain composition. The introduction of beryllium into the zirconium increases the tem-
perature of the a-8 transformation.
A later paper [2] confirmed the presence of the compound ZrBe2 and a eutectoid at a temperature of 980?C
and 5 weight 16 of beryllium. Apart from the compound ZrBe2 the most probable is the existence of the inter-
metalloids ZrBe6, ZrBe9, and ZrBe16. There is also the possible existence of a region of solid solutions of ZrBe2
and ZrBe9. Additions of beryllium to the zirconium lead to a reduction in the temperature of its a-8 transfor-
mation and to the formation of a eutectoid. The existence in the zirconium-beryllium system of the compounds
ZrBe2 and ZrBe13 is mentioned in [3]. The presence is also assumed of the intermediate phases ZrBe4 and ZrBe1 ,
the latter possibly having a region of homogeneity.
A study of the structure of the compound ZrBe2 [4] showed that it has a hexagonal lattice with parameters
a = 3.82 A, c = 3.24 A, and c/a = 0.848. The compound ZrBe19 has [5] a face-centered cubic lattice with
parameter a = 10.047 A.
Because of the contradictory data on the system zirconium-beryllium a systematic study was undertaken
using the methods of microscopic investigation, thermal, and x-ray phase analyses and also by determining
the hardness and,microhardness.
The starting materials for the preparation of the alloys were bars of zirconium iodide of purity 99.7 weight%
and distilled beryllium in the form of druses of purity 99.4 weight To.
The alloys were smelted in an arc furnace on a copper-floor cooled with water and in an atmosphere of
purified argon. The alloyed specimens were subjected to repeated resmelting and were prepared in the form of
bars weighing 20-40 g. The preparation of the alloys was complicated due to evaporation of the beryllium during
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smelting, which changed the composition of the alloys and hindered observation of the melting and also cracking
and splitting of the ingots during cooling or heating in the arc furnace as a result of high thermal stresses. This
latter led to considerable losses in the.weight of the ignots,reaching 10-20?Ta of the weight of the charge in a
number of cases.
Chemical analysis of the specimens showed a certain reduction in the content of beryllium in the alloys
compared with the charge composition; in a number of cases this reduction was 1-21o.
A metallographic investigation was carried out on the cast alloys which had been quench-hardened after
prolonged annealing. The heat treatment systems used on the alloys are given in the table.
Systems of Heat Treatment Used on Alloys
Annealing
Duration of
Annealing
Duration of
temp., ?C
annealing, hr
temp., ?C
annealing, hr
750
250
870
150
730
220
935
110
810
188
1000
70
830
170
1200
35
Note. At temperatures of 1000 and 1200?C annealing was carried
out on alloys containing more than 17 weight lo beryllium.
The alloys were annealed in quartz ampoules filled with argon in order to prevent evaporation of beryllium
during the annealing. The alloys were quench-hardened by rapidly taking the ampoules from the furnace and
plunging them into water.
The sections for the metallographic studies were prepared in the usual way. To prevent the brittle alloys
from chipping during grinding the fine grain emery paper was rubbed with wax. The structure of the alloys was
revealed by etching them in an aqueous solution of hydrofluoric and nitric acids.
The thermal analysis of the alloys was carried out in a vacuum with rates of cooling and heating of 5-7 deg/min.
The critical points were determined for alloys containing 2.9, 5.04, and 8.9 weight la beryllium. The introduction
of beryllium into the zirconium reduced the temperature of the a-S transformation. Eutectoid decomposition
in the system zirconium-beryllium occurred at a temperature of about 800?C, and the melting point of the eutec-
tic was 965?C.
The temperatures of the start of melting of the alloys were determined by the movement-of a hollow in the
center of the specimen (the method of Pirani and Altertum). The method used to heat the alloys in order to
determine the temperatures of the start of fusion was to pass a current through the specimen compressed between
electrodes in a vacuum. In extremely hard specimens which could not be machined in the usual way, the hollows
were made by ultrasonic machining. The pyrometer was graduated from the melting points of pure metals: zir-
conium, iron, and nickel.,
The x-ray investigation of the alloys was carried out by the photographic and ionization methods in
Ka-radiation. In the first case, the x-ray photographs were taken with the RKU-86 camera with an asymmetric
charge on the film, in the second case the URS-50I apparatus was used. The diffractograms of the investigated
alloys obtained on the URS-50I apparatus were used to check the data of the photographic method. The powders
of alloys rich in zirconium or beryllium were obtained by filing the alloys. The other alloys were crushed in a
press and then the small pieces were ground in an agate mortar. To remove the internal stresses the powders were
annealed for 2-3 hr in a high vacuum at a temperature of about 700?C.
The microhardness of the alloys was measured by a diamond cone on a Rockwell instrument with a 15 kg
load. Attempts to measure the hardness with the usual load were unsuccessful due to the particles of the alloys
shearing at the measurement points.
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From the data of the investigation a phase diagram was plotted for the system zirconium-beryllium
(Fig. 1).
16
4?
Z+ZrBef3
Z+ZrBe9
Z
B
Z
r
-
ef3
+
Z ZrBe
s
9275?
1235?
Z+
ZrBe
+
+
ZrBe
s
f3
Z
*ZrBe2
+ZrBe9
i-ZrBeg
Zr+
9 5?
?-'
000000 00
000 0 c
o (
0800 0 0
B
Z
Z
00 0
B
0 0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
Z
B
8
0 0
0
0 000 0 00
+ZrBe
0000
0000
r
e2+
r
0000 0 0
e6
00 0
0 0 0 C
0
0 0
0 0
ef3+
r
0 0 0
ess
0 0
0
0 000 0 00
0
000 0
0
0
0
o 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0
0 000 0 00
o
00
0 0 0
? o
00 0
0
C
000000000 0 0
too
0000 0 0
00 0 0
0 0
0
0 -0
0 0
0 0 0
0 e
0
0 000 0 00
a+ZrBe2
o,
CX)
X
Q
.
LL
N
L
N
L
N
N
50 50
Be, wt. To
Fig. 1. Phase diagram for the system zirconium-beryllium: 0 - two phase alloys; 0 - temperature of the
start of fusion of the alloys; 4 - temperature of the start of fusion of alloys from the data of thermal
analysis.
A microscopic investigation of cast specimens and also specimens used to determine the start of fusion
and thermal analysis indicated that the eutectic point in the system zirconium- beryllium lies at a temperature
of 965?C and corresponds to an alloy with N 5 weight 01o of beryllium.
A study of the structure of isothermally annealed alloys showed that the solubility of beryllium in 8 zir-
conium near the eutectic temperature is less than 0.3 weight%. Alloying zirconium with beryllium does. not
lead to stabilization of the 8 phase; due to quench-hardening the latter is transformed to the a' phase, which is
a supersaturated solid solution of beryllium in a zirconium.
In the solid state the 8 phase decomposes at 800?C. The eutectic decomposition of 8 a + ZrBe2 was
determined from the data of thermal analysis and by studying the isothermally annealed alloys. The decompo-
sition is characterized by structures shown in Fig. 2. The structure shown in Fig. 2a consists of a mixture of a
and 8 phases obtained in the alloy with a 0.18 weight lo of beryllium after annealing at 810?C; Fig. 2b shows
the structure of the same alloy after annealing at 790?C. In this specimen, the 8 phase decomposed to the
a phase and ZrBe2, which coagulated during annealing. The eutectoid point of the system determined from the
data of microscopic investigation corresponds to an alloy containing - 0.23 weight To of beryllium.
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Fig 2. Alloy with 0.18 weight lo beryllium (X 340): a) quench-hardened from 810?C;
b) quench-hardened from 790?C.
Fig. 3. Cast alloy with 5.87 weight lo beryl-
lium (X 500).
Fig. 4. Cast alloy with 17.65 weight % beryl-
lium (x 340).
The value of the maximum solubility of beryllium in a zirconium can be judged from the structure of the
alloy with 0.1 weight o beryllium. This alloy, cooled rapidly after annealing at 810?C, consisted of grains of the
a phase at the base of which there was a small amount of isothermally formed grains of the 6 phase.
A study of the microstructure of successive series of cast and annealed alloys showed the presence of four
intermediate phases in the system. The, eutectic with 5 weight % beryllium consists of a mixture of the (i phase
and the intermediate phase ZrBe2 (16.5 weight lo beryllium). In the cast alloys with > 5 weight o beryllium the
primary crystals of this phase are observed at the background of the eutectic mixture (3 + ZrBe2, as can be seen
from Fig. 3, which shows the microstructure of an alloy with 5.87 weight o beryllium. The alloy with 16.3
weight %beryllium consists almost completely of ZrBe2 grains.
In Fig. 4, representing the microstructure of cast alloy with 17.65 weight % of beryllium, there can be seen
primary crystals of the following intermediate phase at the base of the peritectically formed phase ZrBe2. The
structure of the alloy with. 36.7 weight Yo beryllium consists of some grains of the second intermediate phase, due
to which it was determined as ZrBes. Consequently, ZrBe2 is formed at 1235?C due to the peritectic reaction
ZrBe6 + l -ZrBe2. In the structure of the cast alloy with 30.4 weight % beryllium there are primary crystals of
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the third intermediate phase, surrounded by the peritectic ZrBes and lying in the mother liquor of ZrBe2. The
amount of beryllium in the latter phase is 47.1 weight 010, due to which it was ascribed the formula ZrBe9. The
phase ZrBe6 is formed due to the peritectic transformation ZrBe9 + l ZrBes, occurring at a temperature of
1475?C.
Figure 5 shows the microstructure of a cast alloy with 42.7 weight lo beryllium, consisting of the primary
grains of the intermediate phase ZrBe13 (56.3 weight % beryllium) and peritectic formations of ZrBe9, forming
at 1555?C according to the reaction ZrBe13 + 1. ZrBe9.
Fig. 5. Cast alloy with 42.7 weight %
beryllium (X 340).
Fig. 6. Cast alloy with 77.9 weight.%
beryllium (X 200).
The compound ZrBe13 melts with an open maximum at 1645?C. Alloys containing more than 56.3 weight
beryllium consist of a .mixture of the phase ZrBe13 and a solid solution rich in beryllium. This very wide two-
phase region on Fig. 6 indicates the structure of an alloy with 77.9 weight lo beryllium, consisting of primary
crystals of ZrBe13 in the matrix of a solid solution of zirconium in beryllium.
The character of the reaction between ZrBe13 and beryllium (eutectic or peritectic) could not be established.
The eutectic or peritectic points should lie in the concentration range 99.5-100 weight lo of beryllium at 1275?C.
We did not determine the solubility of zirconium in beryllium; however, it did not exceed 0.3 weight 16.
To confirm the data of the metallographic investigation, x-ray photographs and diffraction diagrams were
obtained for a number of alloys lying in various phase regions, and phase analysis was carried out on them.
Figure 7 shows the x-ray photographs. The diffraction diagrams made it possible also to plot the extrapolation
graphs to determine the concentrations corresponding to single-phase alloys. To plot them, measurements were
made of the relative intensities of several pairs of diffraction maximums for alloys of varying compositions, in
each pair strong maximums being taken, relating to various alloys.
In accordance with the results of the microscopic investigation, the obtained data showed the presence of
four intermediate compounds in the system, corresponding to the compositions 16.5, 37, 47.1, and 56.3 weight %
of beryllium. The lattice parameters of the intermetallides ZrBe2, ZrBe6, ZrBe9, and ZrBe13, as shown by preci-
sion measurements, did not change noticeably on departure from the stoichiometric compositions (the accuracy
in determining the interplane distances at 0 c 85? was equal to ? 0.00004 A). The interplane distances,
calculated from the strong lines for ZrBe6 and ZrBe9 had the same values; however, the intensities of the diffraction
lines differed noticeably. This fact indicates the similarity of the structures of both intermetallides.
The indication of the ZrBe13 x-ray photograph confirmed the data on the presence of a face-centered
cubic lattice in this compound. Its parameter is a = 10.009 A.
The curve for the dependence of the hardness of cast alloys on their composition, shown in Fig. 8, has
three maximums at compositions of 16.5, 37, and 47 weight % beryllium, which correspond to the positions of
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the compounds ZrBe2, ZrBe6, and ZrBe9. In an alloy containing 56.3 weight% beryllium and corresponding to
the intermetallide ZrBe13, there is no maximum on the hardness curve. This is apparently due to the presence of,
a large number of pores and microcracks in alloys containing about 56.3 weight 16 beryllium. The introduction of
beryllium into zirconium considerably increases its hardness; a similar action, although to a lesser degree, is shown
by the addition of zirconium to beryllium.
16.3
L I - 0'
0 10 20 30 40
Fig. 7. X-ray photographs of zirconium- beryllium
alloy powders.
Zr . 10 20. 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Be, wt. %
Fig. 8. Relationship between the hardness of
cast zirconium-beryllium alloys and. their com-
position.
The data for the measurement of microhardness
confirmed the presence of four intermediate phases in
the system. A very high microhardness (1580 kg/mm2)
is shown by the compound ZrBels and the lowest micro-
hardness (840 kg/mm2) by the compound ZrBe2. The
microhardness of the phases ZrBe6 and ZrBe9 is equal to
- 1145 and 1230 kg/mm2, respectively. The micro-
hardness of the eutectic is 244 kg/mm2.
The phase diagram (see Fig. 1) is similar in
general features to the approximate diagram given in
[3]. In contrast to the previously' published data, it was
found that in the zirconium-beryllium system there
are four intermediate phases of the daltonide type. In
the region rich in beryllium there is an intermetallide
ZrBe13, melting with an open maximum and very diffi-
cult to fuse; the remaining compounds melt with a closed maximum. There are no solid solutions based on
intermetallides in the system. It was also shown unambiguously that the introduction of beryllium to zirconium
reduces the temperature of the a- B transformation of the latter.
LITERATURE CITED
1. H. Hausner and H. Kalish, J. Metals 188, 1, 59 (1950).
2. J. McGurty, et al., Report TID-5061 (April, 1951).
3. M. Hansen and K. Anderko, Constitution of Binary Alloys (New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1958).
4. Acta Cryst. 7, 132 (1954).
5. Acta Cryst. 2, 258 (1949).
Be, wt. 10
91.1. I I1 . I
73.3
1
_l
~_
-
61.7
59.
6
55.2 _LJ_.L
I~I~I_~L(1 ; 1 I __
48.4
,jl ~ III I
1 11 ,. II, .1 11
.4 7.3 J. 1 11 a II
1 ~II , ,~ 1W~1L
45.5._~Il, I -? -
42.7
41.2
l~y~L 1 ,1 . I I I
38.0 Ilu, 1 ,
_
I1 I 1 I, 111? 1..
U 11
35.25
ni III. , ,
33.15
30.4
26.56
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060001-7
RATIO BETWEEN THE RADIATION DOSE AND THE ABSORBED DOSE
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 39-47, July, 1960
Original article submitted February 8, 1960
The article indicates the difference between the concepts "radiation dose" and "absorbed 'dose"; specific formulas
are given for calculating an absorbed dose from the results of absolute measurements of a radiation dose, and the
conditions of electron equilibrium during dosimetric measurements of x-rays and y-radiations of various energies
within the 200 kev - 32 Mev range are stated.
Until recently,, the opinion was predominant in radiobiology that the biologically significant part of the
energy transmitted to living matter is only that part of the energy expended by the penetrating radiations on the
ionization of the cell molecules. Consequently, the main emphasis in dosimetry was placed on measurement of
the absolute value of the ionization of the medium irradiated, and the assessment of the energy transmitted to the
matter was only an outcome of this. However, many radiobiological hypotheses which have been considered al-
most axiomatic have recently been modified. These changes were advanced, in particular, by one of the most
important discoveries in this field, namely that of the process of migration of the excitation energy within the
cell, leading to a considerable disintegrating effect on the protein molecules, which intensifies the ionization
effect of the cells [1]. As a result, a reassessment was made of certain hypotheses of contemporary dosimetry,
the principal problem of which was finally recognized. after years of dispute, to be the measurement of the energy
transmitted to a gram of matter exposed to ionizing radiations. This solution found its repercussion in the recom-
mendations of the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU), published in 1957
[2].
We will first deal with the necessity for a clear-cut distinction between the concepts "absorbed dose" and
"radiation dose". As already mentioned, the main problem of dosimetry is the determination of the absorbed
dose D, i.e., the energy DE transmitted to a unit mass of matter Am exposed to ionizing radiation. The value of
the absorbed dose is the only strictly physical value determined in dosimetry proper. By definition . .
D dm- p dv '
where Am = pOu. The dimension of the.absorbed dose is
w?sec
kg kg
The rad, numerically equal to
10-2 w. sec/kg = 102 erg/g
is a special unit of the absorbed dose.
The term "absorbed dose" cannot be considered a fortunate choice, because any dose is the result of ab-
sorption of irradiation (no dose can be transmitted to a vacuum). Taking account of this, the Radiation Protection
Commission of the Federal German Republic proposed the term "energy dose" for the absorbed dose, and "ionic
dose" for the radiation dose [3]. But in the interest of preserving the unity of scientific terminology, in this
communication we will adhere to the recent recommendations of ICRU.
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In spite of the fact that the absorbed dose is physically strictly specific for any form of ionizing radiation
and any medium, its measurement is extremely difficult and is only possible on the basis of the calorimetric
method, which is only employed in certain cases of exceptionally high values of the effect measured and is, in
principle, inapplicable to biological objects. However, this problem can often be solved by measuring the radia-
tion dose, expressed in roentgens. This value, which characterizes only the radiation field and is independent of
the composition of the object irradiated, can be found on the basis of the widely employed ionization measure-
ment methods. For x-rays and y-radiations the measurements are carried out in a standard medium, air, the
basic advantage of which is that the relation between the linear absorption coefficient of the radiation and its
energy is practically identical with the tissues of the living organisms. It is known that as a result of this fact,
ionization chambers can be constructed, free from so-called hardness behavior in a wide energy range. The
true sum of the measurement of a radiation dose by the ionometric method can be represented by the very simple
relationship
m - 12a dv
where Q is the amount of electricity, and p a is the density of air.
The dimension of the radiation dose is
k
[I] = =amp ? sec
kg kg (5)
The special unit of measurement of a radiation dose is the roentgen, numerically equal to
2.58. 10-4 amp ? sec/ kg
=
1 electrostatic unit of electricity (6)
0.001293 g
The absorbed dose, the value of which is determined both by the irradiation field and the composition of the
object irradiated, can be found (in addition to the above-mentioned calorimetric method) on the basis of the
determination of the radiation dose, other ionization measurements, luminescence or chemical effects of radia-
tion. Since the biological action of ionizing radiations is due primarily to the energy transmitted to the substance,
the biological effect must obviously be more closely correlated with the absorbed dose than with the radiation
dose. The necessity for a clear distinction between the radiation dose and the absorbed dose is indicated, for
example, by the fact that for the. same radiation dose (expressed in roentgens) the absorbed dose (expressed in
rads) in bone tissue may be more than three times greater than the absorbed dose in the adjacent soft tissue [4].
In many cases, the absorbed dose can be easily calculated on the basis of measurements of the radiation
dose, as a result of which the roentgen as a practical unit of the radiation dose by x-rays or y-rays remains the
principal value of present-day practical dosimetry.
According to definition, the ionization of air, caused by high-energy electrons formed by a beam of photons
in 1 cm3 of dry air under normal conditions and expressed in electrostatic units of electricity, is equal to the num-
ber of roentgens. In actual fact, the electrons formed in a given volume of air lose part of their energy outside
the limits of the given volume. On the other hand, certain electrons which penetrate outside the volume in ques-
tion cause additional ionization in the given volume, as a result of which the ionization loss may be partially or
completely compensated. It is known that measurement in roentgens requires complete compensation, which
may be achieved in practice, provided that the electron equilibrium present at any point of medium irradiated
is maintained, if. 1) the intensity and the energy spectrum of the x-rays or y-rays are unchanged in all directions
of the region from the point in question, at least up to the maximum path of the electrons formed by the radia-
tion measured, and 2) the mass absorption coefficient of the energy and the stopping power of the medium are
constant throughout the whole extent of this region.
If these conditions are satisfied, for each electron leaving an infinitely small volume around the point in
question there is another electron of almost the same energy, which enters this volume from outside sources.
Thus, in this case, the energy transferred within the limits of the medium to an element of volume.Lv by all the
secondary electrons intersecting the volume is equal to the energy which the secondary electrons formed by the
radiation within the limits of tv transfer to the medium .along the whole of its path. From this it follows that
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electron equilibrium occurs both in a normal ionization chamber, the measuring volume of which is surrounded
by a fairly large amount of air, and in an air-equivalent ionization chamber, if the thickness of its walls is not
less than the maximum path of the secondary electron in the material of.which the wall is made and is sufficiently
small for the absorption of primary radiation within it to be neglected.
The following are typical examples of the absence of electron equilibrium:
1) a radiation field in the immediate vicinity of its source where the intensity changes rapidly;
2) boundary regions between materials with different atomic compositions of the medium (but not of the
density [5]), such as soft tissues and bone tissue;
3) high-energy (in practice more than 3 Mev) x-rays or y-rays, which undergo a considerable attenuation
in the medium at a distance equal to the mean path length of the secondary electrons.
As far back as 1936, Gray [6] established that the absorbed dose can be assessed by means of the ratio
between the ionization formed in the cavity filled with gas and located at the point in question of the material
irradiated, and the energy transferred to a unit mass of the substance irradiated. At fairly small dimensions of
the cavity the gas A which fills it, is subjected to the same current of ionizing particles as the substance B in
question, exposed to radiation. Hence
DB = SBA DA (7)
where SBA is the ratio of the mass stopping powers of the medium irradiated and the gas filling the cavity, for
secondary electrons.
When a standard medium - air - is used, for a fairly small volume of the medium the relationship
Da = UtI, (8)
applies, where Ui is a coefficient associated with the mean amount of energy Wi, expended on the formation
of one pair of ions in air, by the relationship
Wi
Ui= e
where e is the electronic charge.
According to recent investigations, the value of Wi for x-rays and y-rays in air is in all probability between
33 and 35 ev. At present, for calculations (for x-rays and )-rays with a photon energy of more than 20 kev) the
use of the value W. = 34 ev (5.44. 10-11 erg) is recommended. Hence, with measurement of the value of the
absorbed dose Da in w ? sec/kg, and the radiation dose I in amp ?sec/ kg, Ui is 34v. With a radiation dose I of 1 r
of x-radiation or y-radiation the absorbed dose Da at a specific point of the air (under normal conditions) or the
air-equivalent substance (provided that electron equilibrium exists) is
1 electrostatic unit of electricity electrons X
( 0.001293 g of air X (2.082'. 109 x 1 electrostatic unit of electricity
X (34 ev 1.602. 1012 e- X ( 1 tad '\ = 0.877 rad- 0.88 rad.
electron ( ev ) `100 erg/g
Thus, with measurement of the radiation dose I in roentgens and the absorbed dose in air Da in rads the
coefficient
Ui W 0.88 rad/r. (10)
From the above it follows than when an ionization chamber or some other measuring instrument, calibrated
in roentgens by means of a standard chamber or another method records (under the conditions of electronic equili-
brium within the walls of the chamber) a radiation dose I roentgens, then at the same measuring point in air,
other conditions being equal, the absorbed dose is
Da c 0.88 I rad (11)
From this relationship it is evident that the roentgen, being the unit of the radiation dose, does not express the
absorbed dose in air.
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110 _ To illustrate the hypothesis formulated,
-J~ Figs. 1-3 give the values of the absorbed doses and
100 radiation doses at different depths of a water phantom
90 1 - - for x-radiation with an energy of 200 kev and brems-
80 - D ----- -- strahlung with an energy of 2 and 31 Mev [7]. The
radiation dose was calculated theoretically by means
70 of the formulas given,* and the absorbed dose was
60 -- ---~-=- measured by thimble chambers and in the frontal
layers of the phantom by an extrapolation chamber
in which the thickness of its upper electrode varied.
40 The chambers were made of a mixture of bakelite and
30 -- -- graphite; to improve the conductivity of the electrodes,
20 their surface was coated with a fine layer of metal
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 (vanadium or copper oxide) by spraying. From an
Depth of water phantom, cm
examination of the diagrams, it is evident that for
Fig. 1. Radiation dose I and absorbed dose D at differ- 200 kev .radiation the absorbed dose can be found
ent depths of a water phantom for 200 kev x-radiation from the results of measurements of the radiation dose
(depth of establishment of equilibrium 0.3 mm). after the establishment of electron equilibrium, at-
tained in the case of this radiation at a depth of 0.3
mm. For 2 Mev bremsstrahlung, electron equilibrium
is attained at depth of 5-6 mm, but in this case only an approximate (within the limits of several percent) rela-
tion. is retained between the radiation dose and the absorbed dose. For 31 Mev bremsstrahlung, the radiation dose
expressed in energy units (the roentgen unit is inapplicable to these energies, equal to 93 erg/g) is plotted arbitrar-
ily to illustrate the absence of its conformity to the absorbed dose. This is due to the fact that when electron
equilibrium- established in the given case at depths of more than 60 mm-.is reached the absorption of the
primary radiation is already a substantial factor.
0.1 1.0
Depth of water phantom, cm
Fig. 2. Radiation dose I and absorbed dose D at different depths
of a water phantom for 2 Mev bremsstrahlung (depth of establish-
ment of equilibrium 5 mm).
Taking into account the above-given general equation (7), we may examine two practically important
particular cases of electron equilibrium in air-equivalent walls of an ionization chamber. The first of these is
associated with the use of an ionization chamber calibrated in roentgens by means of x-rays or y-rays of the
spectral composition which occurs at the point of interest to us of the medium irradiated. This case is most fre-
*The radiation dose curves indicate an attenuation of the primary radiation (in equivalent thicknesses of air, ex-
pressed in g/cm2), on the assumption of absence of the phantom.
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110
01
0.1 1 in
Depth of water phantom, cm
Fig. 3. Radiation dose I and absorbed dose D at different depths
of a water phantom for 31 Mev bremsstrahlung (depth of es
tablishment of equilibrium 60 mm).
quently found in radiobiological experiments where the radiation is still generally acute and is produced by
means of special-x-rays or y_apparatuses, the radiation spectrum of which is well known and can be reproduced
by calibration of the dosimeters. The only limitation (apart from the above mentioned electron equilibrium)
imposed on the measuring apparatus is the necessity for fairly small dimensions of the ionization chamber in
order that its introduction into the radiation field does not 'change the latter appreciably. Here the material of
the wall may be selected arbitrarily because although it influences the ionization in the chamber, this effect is
taken into account in practice when the dosimeter is calibrated by means of the standard chamber.
2 3
Half-thickness, mm Cu
f of bone
Fig. 4. Values of the coefficient f as a function of the half-thickness.
If these requirements are satisfied the absorption dose in medium B can be found from the results of
measurement of the radiation dose in air by means of the following equations:
(r?en)B
Da (m?en)a
(mi'en)B
DB = 0.881 = /Irad,
61-te it) a\
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where rr~~-~~wen MT + moa + MK is the mass absorption coefficient of energy by the medium (or by air), expressed
in cm2/g and calculated for the whole spectrum of the x-radiation or ),,-radiation, penetrating the medium at the
point in question; mT, moa, mK are the mass absorption coefficients for the photoeffect, the Compton effect and
the process of vapor formation, respectively, and f is a coefficient numerically equal to the ratio of the value of
the absorbed dose expressed in rads and the radiation dose expressed in roentgens.
Table 1 gives the values of the mass absorption coefficients of energy for water, soft tissue, and bone tissue
in the case of monoenergetic photons, taken from the recent recommendations of the international Commission
on Radiological Units and Measurements.
Values of the Mass Absorption Coefficients of Energy and the Coefficient f
Energy of the
Mass absorption coefficient of energy
(mw en), cm2 / g,
0.88 (m. Eien) medium B
(m ?'en) air
photons, Mev
Bone
Soft
water
bone soft
Water
I
Air
I
tissue
tissue
r
tissue tissue
ai
air air
0.010
4.80
4.66
19.0
4.96
0.920
3.58
0.933
0.015
1.32
1.29
5.80
1.36
0.89,
4.00
0925
0.020
0.523
0.516
2.51
0.544
0.88,
4.27
0:925
0.030
0.147
0.147
0.743
0.154
0.87,
4.43
0.910
0.040
0.0047
0.0640
0.305
0.0677
0.88,
4.18
0.928
0.050
0.0394
0.0384
0.158
0.0409
0.908
3.61
0.934
0,060
0.0304
0.0292
0.0979
0.0312
0.913.
2.94
0.93,
0.080
0.0253
0.0236
0.0520
0.0255
0.94,,.
1.93
0.948
0.10
0.0252
0.0231
0.0386
0.0252
0.95,
1.47
0.95,
0.15
0.0278
0.0251.
0.0304
0.0276
0.971
1.06
0.964.
0.20
0.0300
0.0268
0.0302
0.0297
0.982
0.988
0.972
0.30
0.0320
0.0288
0.0311
0.0317
0.97,
0.947
0.965
0.40
0.0329
0.0296
0.0316
. 0.0325
0.97;
0.938
0.963
0.50
0.0330
0.0297
0.0316
0.0327
0.974
0.933
0.968
0.60
0.0329
0.0296
0.0315
0.0326
0.97;,
0.933
.0.968
0.80
0.0321
0.0289
0.0306
0.0318
0.974
0.92?
0.965
1.0
0.0311
0.0280
0.0297
0.0308
0.974
0.927
0.965
1.5
0.0283
0.0255
0.0270
0.0281
0.973
0.928
0.968
2.0
0.0200
{).0234
0.0248
0.0257
0.974
0.92,
0.963
3.0
0.0227
0.0205
0.021.9
? 0.0225
0.971
0.93,
0.963
4.0
0.0205
0.0186
0.0199
0.0203
5.0
0.0190
0.0173
0.0186
0.0188
6.0
0.0180
0.0163
0.0178
0.0178
8.0
0.0165
0.0150
0.0165
0.0163
10.0
0.0155
0.0144
0.01.59
0.0154
Here, the chemical composition of air, soft tissue and bone tissue was taken in accordance with international
recommendations [2].
Table 2 and Fig. 4 give practically important values of the coefficient f, these-being the average values of
a number of x-ray spectra (both measured experimentally and calculated by means of Kramers' formula [8]).
The method of measuring the radiation dose can also be successfully employed for determining the activity
of y rays of known nature. Thus, for example, at the Second -International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of
Atomic Energy, a group of British scientists reported [9] that the activity of cobalt sources is easily determined
with an accuracy of f 5% by this method. This must be considered perfectly satisfactory for the majority of purposes.
.The second practically important case of absolute measurements of the absorbed dose of x-rays or y-rays
under the conditions of electron equilibrium is associated with the use of a chamber, the walls of which are made
of air-equivalent material. The requirements of the preservation of electron equilibrium lead to the imposition
of two limitations on the design of the chamber: on the one hand, its walls must be sufficiently thick to exclude
any secondary electrons from the external medium surrounding the ionization chamber, and on the other hand,
the dimensions of the cavity must be small compared with the paths of the main mass of secondary electrons
ionizing the gas of the cavity. The latter condition is difficult to satisfy during measurements of soft x-rays; in
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Mean Absorption Dose-per 1 r of Radiation Dose in Water, Soft Tissue, and Bone Tissue with Various X-Ray
Spectra
Voltage
Pan
f = P
applied
Filter thickness,
Half-thickness,
Spectrum
I
Soft I Bone
to the
mm
mm
Water
tissue tissue
tube, kv
100
0.18 Cu
0,25 Cu
Measured
0.91
0.94
3.10
or 5.5 Al
100
0.18 Cu
0.25 Cu
Calculated
0.91
0.94
3.13
or 5.5 Al
150
0.075 Cu
0.2 Cu
0.92
0.94
2.69
200
0.20 Cu
0.5 Cu
0.94
0.95
2.05
250
0.17 Cu+3.0 A l
1.0 Cu
0.95
0.95
1.76
250
0.9 Cu-F3.0 Al
2.0 . Cu
0.96
0.96
1.42
280
-
1.7 Cu
Measured
0.96
0.96
1.44
280
-
2.5 Cu
0.97
0.90
1.22.
280
3.1 Cu
0.97
0.965
1.13
400
4.16 Cu
0.97
9.7
1.11
this case, preference must, therefore, be given to the method employing chambers calibrated in roentgens by
means of a standard chamber. When an air-equivalent chamber is used, the calculation of the absorbed dose is
based on the use of the relation of the theory of the ionization of a cavity, taking into account the relative
stopping power Sw, a of the material of the wall and air
Dc = 0.88 QSw, arad, (14)
where Q is the charge (in electrostatic units of electricity) which is transferred by the ions of any sign, generated
by the radiation investigated, in 1 cros of air under normal conditions. It follows, therefore, that the absorbed
dose in medium B can be found by means of the formula
DB = 0.88QSw, a (m?n)a rad.
(15)
Table 3 gives the values of the mean relative stopping power of carbon, water and muscle tissue in com-
parison with air, obtained by integration of the energy of the electrons between the limits of zero and the initial
(monochromatic) energy of the electrons.
Table 4 gives the results of important practical calculations of the mean stopping power for carbon, water
and tissue in comparison with air for the spectrum of Compton electrons formed by Co60 and Csis7 y-radiation
(including the correction for the density effect [10]).
The importance of using so-called air-equivalent materials as the material for the walls of ionization
chambers is evident from the above. Until recently, graphite was considered to be a fairly satisfactory material
in this respect; but the increasing accuracy required for.radiobiological experiments has recently made it neces-
sary to exclude even the small error associated with the use of graphite. This problem was solved in 1958 by a
group of American dosimeter physicists under the leadership of Failla, who employed the method of selecting the
composition of an "ideal" wall of conducting plastic, and obtained results, given in detail at the Second Inter-
national Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy [11]. The composition of the materials, obtained by
these investigators, was found analytically on the basis of the solution of a system of equations derived by com-
paring the ionization characteristics of these substances against air. Polyethylene (CH2). nylon (C6H11NO),
soot (C), silica (SiO2), and calcium fluoride (CaF2) were selected as the components of complex conducting
plastics.
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Data of the recommendations, of the International Commission on Radiobiological Units and Measure-
ments [2] were taken as the reference figures for the chemical composition of human muscle and bone tissue.
TABLE 3 To determine the numerical values of the per-
Values of the Mean Mass Stopping Powers of Certain
Substances in Comparison with Air 5 (Taking into
Account the Density Effect)
Initial kinetic
Values of stopping powers
energy of electrons,
Mev
Carbon
0.01
1.050
1..''02
1.182
0.02
1.044.
1,1'.11
1 ,17'2
0,03
1.0111 .
1.185
1 .106
0.04
1,039
1.131
1.163
0.054
1 .0;18
1.179
1 . 160
0.0(1
1.037
1.177
1159
0.07
1 .03(4
1,175
1.1`'47
0.08
1 .035
1.174
.1 156
1).0(1
1.03/1
1.173
1.155
0..1
1 .034
1.172
1,15/1,
0.2
I .0:1(1
1.166
1
0.3
1.027
1.16%9
1.145
(1.4
9,021
I ..1 61
1.141
0.ii
1.022
1.159
9.141
0. (i
J.020
9.158
1.140
0.7
1.017
1.156
1.138
0.8
1.01(4
1.154
1.136
0.0
1.014
1,152
1.934
1.0
1.012
1.150
1..132
1..001
1.139
1.121
0.985
1.121
1.103
4
0.976
1.110
I .0113
(1.968
1.108
1.. 084
R
0.901.
1.093
9.07(;
8
0.95(1
1.((80
1.063
10
0.910
1.069
1.052
centage composition of the mixture of substances
(C)a (CH2)6 (C6IIr1NO)d (Si02)e (Cal' 0)9
the following principles were employed for deriving
the equations: a) the values of the nitrogen, hydrogen,
and carbon contents were suitably adjusted (in this
connection, account was taken of the experimentally
found fact that optimum conductivity occurs at a 13.5%
free carbon content); b) the amounts of ionic vapor
formed by Compton and photoeffects (the latter was
standardized for 30 kev) were alsosuitably adjusted.
As a result of the calculations and a subsequent
experimental check, conducting plastics (including
tissue-equivalent plastics) were made by this method;
making it possible to carry out direct measurements of
the absorbed dose in rads, not only for photons in muscle
and bone tissue but also for mixed currents of photons
and neutrons; the latter is of particular importance in
practical dosimetry in nuclear reactors and accelerators
of elementary particles. The degree of discrepancy of
measurement results obtained by means of these mater-
ials from the theoretical values for true tissues is very
small, and even in the hitherto most complex region of
low energies it is 3-5% (for example, a fiber-equivalent
mixture of plastics - a muscle analog - irradiated with
y-rays or neutrons in the energy range of 20-50 kev gives
a discrepancy of - 3.7 to +6.0%, and a similar bone-
tissue analog gives a discrepancy of - 1.1 to +2.1%, etc.).
Ionizing chambers with metal walls may, as formerly,
be used for relative measurements by determining the correction factors by means of thimble chambers. The re-
port presented to the Second International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy by the Czech
physicist Clumpar [12] may serve as an example of such work. But, the field of application of such transducers
is severely limited by. the possibility of using them only in radiation fields of known spectral composition.
Values of the Mean Mass Stopping Powers of Certain
Substances in Comparison with Air, Integrated Over
the Initial Spectrum of Compton Electrons Formed
by Co or CS137 y-Radiation
opping powers of
y-Ray ;
- -... -
source
graphite water tissue
60
Co
1.01.6 1.155 1.137
Cs137
1.026 1.162 1.145
Together with the previously indicated advantages
of absolute measurements, thimble chambers have cer-
tain essentially irremovable limitations which restrict
the region of application and the universality of this
method. For this reason, research is being conducted
in a number of laboratories to find a method which can
eliminate the basic limitations of the Bragg-Gray prin-
ciple (small dimensions of the cavity, the negligibly
small absorption of the radiation measured in the walls,
the complete absorption of external secondary electrons
in the walls), while retaining its advantages. A real
success was obtained in this field by the Italian physicist
Lonati [13], who developed a fluorescent plastic material
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distributed in an irradiated phantom. The subsequent measurement of the total accumulated light, directly
associated with the amount of energy absorbed by 1 g of substance, its carried out by means of a chamber to which
the plastic detector is transferred. It is interesting to note that Lonati made effective use of two principles de-
veloped previously by I. B. Keirim-Markus and V. V. Antonov-Romanovskii and their co-workers in the
Soviet Union. We are referring to the ILK method [14], in which the phenomenon of luminescence is employed
for measuring the integral radiation dose and. the original method, proposed in 1958, for measuring depth doses of
thermal neutrons by the secondary y- radiation of NaM [15]. Lonati abandoned the use of a photoemulsion, which
has a nonuniform sensitivity of 8 particles of different energies, and developed a new plastic material consisting
of styrene (97.46 wt. %), terphenyl (2.5 wt. %) and terphenyl butadiene (0.03 wt. %).
Having a density of 1.1 g/cm3 and a mean effective atomic number almost coinciding with the mean
effective atomic number of human tissues, this material makes it possible to measure reliably depth(doses of hard
x-rays and y-rays, because its sensitivity to 6-particles is constant within a wide energy range.
In practice, it is very often necessary to carry out dosimetric, measurements in the absence of electron
equilibrium (for example, under conditions of transient effects at the boundaries of tissue-air or bone-tissue
regions). In such cases, the present-day recommendation is to use an air ionization chamber with walls thick
in comparison with the path of secondary electrons at the point in question of the medium irradiated. If the walls
are so thin that they form a negligibly small part of the total ionization of the air cavity, the composition of the
wall may be arbitrary. But, in practice, this requirement is difficult to satisfy and the walls of the chambers may
therefore be made of a substance whose composition is closest to the composition of the medium directly surround-
ing the measuring apparatus. In such cases, the depth of the ionization chamber in the direction of the gradient
of the absorbed dose must obviously be small. If, under, these conditions, ions of any sign,formed by the radiation
investigated in 1 cm3 of air,transfer under normal conditions a charge of Q electrostatic units of electricity, the
general relation of the theory of ionization of a cavity
(16)
DB = 0.88SBaQ rad.
is applicable.
The above-mentioned materials indicate that in the majority of possible radiobiological and physical ex-
periments for investigating the effect of nuclear radiations on a substance, the absorbed dose of x-rays and y-rays
can be found from the results of absolute measurements of the radiation dose. Since the concept of the roentgen
is applicable to energies of radiations reaching 3 Mev, this method is. employed in the most widely distributed
energy range ofx-rays and y-rays.
LITERATURE CITED
1. A. M. Kuzin, Proceedings of the All-Union Conference on the Use of Isotopes and Nuclear Radiations.
Radiobiology [in Russian] (Izd. AN SSSR, Moscow, 1958) pp. 3-13.
2. Report of the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU). National Bureau
of Standards Handbook 62(1957).
3. H. Franz and W. Hubner, Report No. 971, presented by Federal German Republic Delegation to the Second
International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1958).
4. H. Woodard and F. Spiers, Brit. J. Radiol. 26, 301, 38 (1953).
5. U. Fano, Rad. Res. 1, 3, 237 (1954).
6. L. Gray, Proc. Roy. Soc. A156, 578 (1936).
7. W. Oosterkamp, Appl. Sci. Res. 3, 2, 100 (1953).
8. H. Kramers, Philos. Mag. 46, 836 (1923).
9. W. Eastwood, R. West, and E. Wiblin, Report No. 288, presented by the British Delegation to the Second
International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1958).
10. R. Sternheimer, Phys. Rev. 103, 3, 511 (1956).
11. F. Shonko, J. Rose, and G. Failla, Report No. 753, presented by the U.S. Delegation to the Second Inter-
national Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1958).
12. 1. Klumpar, Report No. 2108, presented by the Czechoslovak Delegation to the Second International
Conference on the Peaceful Uses of,Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1958).
13. R. Lonati, Report No. 1393, presented by the Italian Delegation to the Second International Conference on
the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1958).
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14. V. V. Antonov-Romanovskii, et al., Session of the Academy of Sciences, USSR, on the Peaceful Uses of
Atomic Energy (Meeting of the Fiz-Math. Sci. Section) [in Russian] (lzd. AN SSSR, Moscow, 1955) p. 342.
15. A. G. Istomina and I. B. Keirim-Markus, Physics and Thermotechnics of Reactors. Supplement No. 1 to
the Journal Atomnaya Energiya [in Russian] (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1958) p. 136.
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Letters To The Editor
ON THE He7 ISOTOPE
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 7,
pp. 48-49, July, 1960
Original article submitted May 9, 1959
In [1, 2] on the basis of a calculation of nuclear levels of Liz, the author decided that a radiation stable
nucleon of the He7 isotope might exist. According to calculations, the first three states of the Li7 nucleus with an
isotopic spin T = 3/2 lie at energies of 10.1 Mev (J = 3/2), 12.4 Mev (J = 1/2), and 13.2 Mev (J = 5/2). In accor-
dance with the rules of selection with regard to isotopic spin these states can appear in the reaction Li7(y, n)Li6"
and are forbidden in the reaction Li7(y, Hs) H4. In actual fact, experimental studies of the reaction (y, n) indi-
cate the existence in this region of energies of free levels at 10.8, 12.4, and 14.0 Mev, which are not observed in
the reaction (y. H3), whereas the neighboring states at 9.3 and 17.5 Mev, having T = 1/2, are observed in both
reactions [3].
A nucleus with T = 3/2 form an isotopic quartet; the basic state of the He7 nucleus (and also B7) corres-
ponds to the lowest excited state of Liz with T = 3/2. It therefore follows that the energy of the He7 bond with
respect to decomposition ito He6 and a neutron is very small: it is several tens of kiloelectron volts (for the
existence of the nucleus stable He7 isotope, the first level of the Liz nucleus with T = 3/2 should lie not higher
than 10.81 Mev). Since the accuracy of the experiments on which the identification of the Li7 levels is based is
low, the "safety factor" when determining the energy of the He7 bond is very small. Strictly speaking, it should
be assumed that the energy of the He7 bond (within the limits of experimental errors)-is equal to zero and there-
fore the problem of the existence of the He7 isotope is open.
Some experiments are described below dealing with this problem.
Experiments on the preparation and direct detection of the He7 isotope. The He7 nucleus should be S active.
During 6 decay there should be transitions to the basic and firstexcited (0.477 Mev) states of Li7. The upper
boundary of the Q spectrum is equal to - 10 Mev. The value of log f T, calculated from the model of shells in
the approximation of the i-i bond, is equal to 3.26 and increases on deviation from the i-i bond arrangement.
The life of the He7 isotope should therefore be - 30-100 msec. Decay can be observed both directly and from
the radiation transition between the first excited and basic states of Li7.
The He7 isotope can be obtained in the following reactions:
Liz (n, p) He7 Liz + Tr_ -He 7
Beg (y, 2p) He7 10 Mev
Be9(n, He3) He7 Q c -
Li7(d, 2p) He7 Q c - 29 Mev
C12+it --'He 7+a+p Q C - 21 Mev
B11+Tr -->He7+a Q"'-12Mev
In the case where the state corresponding to He7 lies in the region of positive energy, it should appear in
all the given reactions from the characteristic correlation of He6 and a neutron.
It is stated in [4] that during the absorption of negative Tr -mesons in carbon, together with 8 activity caused
by decay of B12 (7 = 20 msec), activity was detected with T = 80 msec. Its nature is not clear to the authors. Al-
though the life of the unknown nucleus agrees extremely well with the calculated life of the He7 isotope, one. ex-
periment is not sufficient confirmation of the fact that the He7 isotope exists.
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Indirect experiments. Experiments in which levels of Liz with T = 3/2 are detected are very inaccurate:
the energies of the levels are determined from the output curve. Experiments can be carried out which are im-
mediately directed to the study of Li 7 and Bel levels with T = 3/2. As well as the mentioned reactions (y, n)
and.(y, Hs) which should have been studied more accurately, we observed the reactions Lis(p,p)Lis and He4(Hes,
He3) He4.
Due to the disturbance in the purity of the states with regard to isotopic spin, connected with Coulomb
reaction,the given width of the first level of Be 7 with T = 3/2 with respect to the canals Li 6 + p and He4 + He3
is 11o of the Wigner limit. The canal corresponding to the. formation of Lis in the excited phase with T = 1
(J = 0; E = 3.57 Mev), is forbidden for s-protons, and for p-protons it is very weak, since the energy removed
by the proton is equal to 0.5 Mev. Therefore, the cross-sections of the indicated reactions should reveal sharp
resonance peaks at energies corresponding to the first level of Be 7 with T = 3/2.
The author would like to thank Yu. M. Shirokov for his interest in the work.
1. V. V. Balashov, Report to the Ninth Annual Conference on Nuclear Spectroscopy [in Russian] (Kharkov, 1959).
2. V. V. Balashov, Dissertation [in Russian] (Izd. MGU, 1958).
3. F. Ajzenberg and T. Lauritzen, Rev. Mod. Phys. 27, 77 (1955).
4. J. Burgman, and I. Fiselur, Phys. Rev. Letter 1, 469 (1958).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060001-7
THE THERMAL ELECTRON CONVERSION OF THERMAL ENERGY
INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY USING THORIUM CARBIDE
N. D. Morgulis and Yu. P. Korchevoi
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 49-51,
July, 1960
Original article submitted February 6, 1960
The problem of the direct conversion of nuclear (thermal) energy to electrical energy using thermal.
electron emission has recently attracted a considerable amount of interest. The first work in this field was pre-
sented in a review [1] where we considered the following cases:
1. The use of pure difficult-to-fuse metals as the cathode - tungsten in cesium vapors. With a cathode
temperature T = 2500?K,in 1949, energy conversion efficiencies n - 110 were obtained and useful power w - 1
w/cm2, specific with respect to the cathode. The principle of operation of similar converters with a cesium filler
was given further development in other papers [1].
2. The use as a cathode of a two-component low temperature (Ba-W) metal film 1 -cathode in cesium
vapors. In a similar way we obtained for T = 1300?C, n c 516 and w c 0.6 w/cm2.
In the present work, we sought a cathode material of the single component type, which could give notice-
able emission in the middle range of temperatures T c 2000?K and which would not have a particularly small
work of removal of the electron Vc. The latter was necessary in order to provide: 1) a uniform and noticeable
thermal ionization of cesium vapors over the whole surface of the cathode, neutralizing the electron space dis-
charge, and 2) a high value of the emf d r (Vc + VO) a Vc, and values w and n of a similar converter; here,
Vc = (Vc-cPa) is the contact difference in potentials between the cathode and the anode, which have a work of
removal 'c and va, Vo =(2e/c) Tc -Ta. From this point of view, from the existing very sparse data [2] thorium
bicarbide (ThC2) seemed to combine the above properties, for which reason it was chosen for the investigation.
In [3] mention is also made of thorium carbide for the thermal electron conversion of energy, the valuesobtained
being n > 151o and w > 15 w/cm2.
In the first stage of the experiments, diodes in cesium vapors were used. The cathode was a narrow tung-
sten ribbon having a fine layer of ThC2 on the middle section; the anode was made of tantalum and had protec-
tive rings on the ends; the distance between the electrodes was about 1.5 mm. The cathode temperature was
determined by an optical micropyrometer on the assumption that ThC2 radiates as a black body [2]. A drop of
metallic cesium was introduced into the lamp; its vapor pressure p was determined by the temperature t of the
lamp bulb, placed in a thermostat with controllable temperature. To prevent the distorting effect of the magnetic
field of the filament current and the longitudinal drop in potential, the cathode' was fed with alternating current
with a rectifier in the filament circuit, using the known arrailgementfor determining'the cathode parameter
with an oscillograph in the half period blocking the filament current.
The electron parameters of ThC2 were determined in parallel by the methods of electron and ionic emission.
In the first case, the temperature dependence was determined for the electron emission le with a cold lamp bulb,
i.e., with a very low vapor pressure p. A plot was made of the Richardson relationship 1g(Ie /T2)=f (1/T) (Fig. 1).
From the angular factor of the obtained straight line it was found that fc = 3.2 ev and the constant A = 200 amp/
/cm2?deg2.Inthesecond case,the temperature dependence was determined for the ionic emission Ip, i.e., the
current of cesium ions obtained on the cathode by the thermal ionization of the atoms of its vapors; the lamp
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bulb was heated to t - 95?C where p c 4. 10-4 mm Hg. A plot was made of the relationship Ig Ip
which, according to theory, was represented by the straight line 2 of fig. 1. From its angular factor it was found
that f c = 3.4 ev. The value (x, the probability of ionization of a cesium atom on the ThC2 surface.(for example,
at 1900?K),was equal to' 7%, whereas theoretically (not distinguishing ThC2 from the metal) a = 1/2 exp
[-e/kTx (Vi-(P)] - 2.4%. Both these methods therefore give a value of (Pc which is practically the same and
close to that of [2], i.e., there is a noticeable and useful contact difference (as regards.sign) in potentials Vc c
1.6 - 1.8 v relative to the anode covered with a film of cesium.
5040
T ?K
Fig. 1. The relationship between the electron
(curve 1) and ionic (curve 2) emissions and the
temperature.
0.3
8
D A
a---
b.~d
1112
0.5
200 240 280 t, 'C
!000 1200 1400 1610 1800 2000 2200 7, ?K dotted line
Fig. 2. The dependence of the short circuited current Io and
the emf of conversion of 6 on the vapor pressure of cesium
(expressed by t-the bulb temperature) at T = 2000?K (con-
tinuous curves) and the emf 6 on the cathode temperature
T fort equal to 20 and 250?C (dotted curves 1 and 2, re-
spectively).
We will consider the operation of lamps
in a system of energy conversion. We will
first determine the short circuited current to
and the emf of conversion 6 depending on the
values of P or t for a fixed value of T. For
T = 2000?K these relationships are given by
the continuous curves of Fig. 2; we see here
that the emf has an actually constant value
6 = 1.7 v which is close to Vc; the value of
to at t > 100-120?C begins to increase rapidly,
indicating the large store of emission at the
cathode. The dotted curves of Fig. 2 show the
relationship between the emf 6 and the tem-
perature of the. cathode T for the cases t = 20?C
(curve 1) and t = 250?C (curve 2).
Now selecting t = 250?C (p c 0.5 mm)
and T.= 2100?K, we plot the basic load charac-
teristics of the conversion, i.e., the depen-
dence of the current IR, the drop in potential
VR = IRR and the useful power WR = I RR, ob-
tained on connecting an external resistance R
into the circuit; these characteristics are rep-
resented in Fig. 3. As would be expected [1],
for a value of R equal to the internal resistance
Ri, the value WR = wSc passes through a maxi-
mum, where we obtain to c 16 w/cm2, VR
1.1 v, Ric 0.1 ohm/cm2; furthermore, in this
system 6 = 1.7 v and Io c 19 amp/cm2. The
determination of the conversion efficiency
presents considerable difficulties. In the pres-
ent method of operation the cathode tempera-
ture was established pyrometrically with the
circuit switched off, and the obtained filament
power WH was kept constant. However, during
operation of the lamp the energy balance of
the cathode is considerably disturbed. Since
the cathode temperature cannot be determined
pyrometrically during operation owing to the
luminescence of the cesium vapors, we will
only indicate the limits within which the value
of 71 should lie; these are:
IV,t-{-I1t(Pc ? I1O i'V11
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04 1? For the more complete characteristics of a similar
conversion we give a table for the various systems of T
p, f.2 and t. They indicate that at T = 2000-2100?K and t =
= 250?C there are stable values of 6 = 1.7 v, w > 10 w/cm2
0. 0.8 and t) - 10% All these values of w and it are very satis-
2
WR
RI
YR,v In this way for the data of Fig. 3 we obtain a value
2.0 n 10-15%, which together with w c 16 w/cm2 is very
favorable.
factory, Judging from the data published in [1], in. parti-
cular the data for the average T c 2000?K.
0.4
8 10 R,ohm
Fig. 3. The load characteristics of the con-
version for t = 250?C and T = 2100?K.
Figure 4 shows the two volt-ampere curves obtained
on the basis of the data in Fig. 3: of the external circuit,
i.e., the electron current IR in relation to the potential
VR (the dynamic characteristics are given here, i.e., a
straight line corresponding to the condition tg9 = R), and
the internal circuit of the converter, i.e., of the same
current IR in dependence on the potential VP = (6-VR),
falling on its internal section. Curve 1 - essentially a
1R,amp delay curve - characterizes the useful function of the
0.5 converter, i.e., the values IR, VR, and WR; the saturation
region for small values of VR is expressed very unclearly
0.4 for reasons which are not yet known. Curve 2 has the
X0.3 ,? interesting feature that it has no sections where the con-
dition dV/dI s 0, holds, characterizing the usual arc dis-
charge. It can therefore be assumed that in this case,
the space between the electrodes of the converter is
mainly filled with a thermal ionization plasma, i.e.,
a medium where the electrons and the ions (having the
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 Vp, v same concentration) are obtained independent of one
Fig. 4. Volt-ampere curves: 1) external circuit; another (thermally) on the cathode surface. In this case
2) internal circuit (T 2100?K; t = 250?C). the medium acts to some extent as an internal resistance
[1].
Our preliminary results. therefore confirm. the possibility of obtaining appreciable values of w and ii in the
middle temperature region - 2000?K also.
Data on the Various Systems of T and t During Operation of the Lamp in the Energy
Conversion System
T, ?K I i. ?c I d. v I Io,amp/cm2 I ro. w/cm2
1900 200 1.7
1900 250 1.7
2000 250 1.7
2100 250 1.7
5
2
2
12
8
8-10
15
11
8-12
19
16
10-15
The authors are deeply grateful to Professor G. V. Samsonov (Institute of Carbides and Special Alloys of
the Academy of Sciences of the UkrSSR) for kindly preparing the thorium carbide.
1.
N. D. Morgulis, Uspekhi Fiz. Nauk 70, 679 (1960).
2.
D. Goldwater and R. Haddad, J. Appl. Phys. 22, 70 (1951); D. Wright, Proc. Instn. Electr. Engrs., III, No. 100,
125 (1953).
3.
R. Fox and W. Gust, Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc. 4, 322
(1959).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060001-7
THE EFFECT OF INTERNAL HEAT SOURCES
ON CONVECTIVE HEAT EXCHANGE
E. A. Sidorov
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 7,
pp. 51-52,. July, 1960
Original article submitted December 28, 1959
It is a well-known fact that in some cases the movement of liquids and gases is accompanied by physical
and chemical processes involving the evolution or absorption of thermal energy. In [1, 2] a study, was made of
the internal thermal evolution during the movement of liquids in a stabilized section of tubes with a constant
value of the density of the incoming (or outgoing) thermal stream.
We will consider the effect of internal heat sources on the intensity of convective heat exchange for the
general case of flow round curved surfaces for any character of change in density of the ?thermal stream and any
law for change in temperature of the surface round which the flow takes place.
We will write the initial equation for energy in the integral form:
dx (Ut0 c) = ec (4 +W8).
This equation holds both for laminar and turbulent flow. The following symbols are used: x - the coordinate
axis coinciding with the direction of movement of the liquid or gas; U - the speed of the medium beyond the
limits of the boundary layer; to = To-T1, where To = const - the temperature of the medium beyond the limits
of the boundary layer, Tt = Tj(x) - the temperature of the surface round which the flow takes place; (P - the.
extent of the enthalpy loss; p and c - the density and specific heat of the medium, respectively; g - the density
of the thermal stream at the boundary of the medium and the surface of the body; W - the volumetric power of
the internal sources of heat evolution; S - the thickness of the temperature boundary layer.
As shown by the analysis of [3], the form of the functional dependence q = q(q') is very little affected
by the presence of a pressure gradient and the nonisothermal nature of the surface around which flow takes
place. It can therefore be assumed that there is an invariant character in the form of the functional dependence
q = q((P) in the presence of other factors also, especially internal sources of heat. Substituting the relationships
in [4] for the gradient-less flow
4=AQcUtoPr2ls (s-1) ( UP) s
V
. in equation (1) and solving it with respect to 9 for the boundary condition V (O) = 0, we obtain
1 a
= Uo [A(1-s)]'_" Pr-Z/sv s-1 exp neUt
x r
Utaexp L
0
m (1-s) Wx~
pcUto
1
1-s
? (4)
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Here v is the kinematic viscosity of the medium; Pr is the Prandtl number; A, m, s, are dimensionless constants
characterizing the flow (for a liminar system A = 0.222, m = 7.55, s 1, for a turbulent system A = 0.00658,
m = 10.3, s = - 1/6).
Substituting now the solution of (4), taking into account the effect of internal heat sources in the invariant
relationship (3), we find the following expression for the intensity of heat exchange in the presence of internal
sources (in a dimensionless form):
Nu=(1-s) A -S Re -$ Prl/sexp QC U O J X Uxti_s S Utp-sexp m(QCUt jdx } 1_S, (5)
0 0
where Nu = qx/ato is the Nusselt number.; Re = Ux/U is the Reynolds' number. It follows from expression (5) that
in the "pure form" the effect of the influence of internal heat sources can only be described analytically for
the case of flow.round plane isothermal surfaces (U = const; to = const). In this case from formula (5) we have
Nu=Nu, C Z (expZ-1)1 =s
where Z = m(1- s)Wx/p cUto is a dimensionless parameter, characterizing the presence of internal heat sources;
Nuo is the value of the Nusselt number in the absence of sources. Analyzing expression (6) it can readily be
seen that the evolution of heat (W > 0) by sources leads to a reduction of the coefficient of heat transfer a =
= q/to, and the absorption of heat (W > 0) increases a. It also follows from expression (6) that with laminar flow
this influence appears to a greater degree than with turbulent flow. Both these conclusions agree with the results
(1, 2]
LITERATURE CITED
1. G. Muller, Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., Paper No. 58-HT-17, 1 (1958).
2. S. S. Kutateladze, N. I. Ivashchenko, and T. V. Zablotskaya, Atomnaya 1!nergiya, 7, 3, 253 (1959).
3. G. S. Ambrok, Zhur. Tekhn. Fiz. 27, 9, 2134 (1957).
4. L. G.Loitsyanskii, The Mechanics of Gases and Liquids [in Russian] (Moscow, Physics and Mathematics
Press, 1958).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060001-7
AN INTIMATE INTERGROWTH OF URANINITE AND A ZIRCONIUM MINERAL
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 52-54, July, 1960
Original article submitted November 27, 1959
During a study of complex cobalt-nickel sulfide and uranium ores, localized in dolomites and quartz-albite-
chlorite schists, it was discovered that the uraninite in these ores contains a considerable quantity of zirconium
and rare earths (especially yttrium and elements of this group).
In the dolomites the uraninite forms thin (fractions of a centimeter) veinlets and nests of colloform material.
Minerals associated with the uraninite are chalcopyrite, millerite, polydymite, bravoite, chlorite, talc, and cal-
cite. In the quartz-albite-chlorite schists, uraninite metasomatically replaces rock-forming minerals, fills inter-
stices, and forms small veinlets and lenses. The uraninite is associated with pyrite, chalcopyrite, marcasite, hema-
tite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, cobaltite, gersdorfite, chlorite, tourmaline, quartz, and calcite.
The physical properties of the uraninite containing zirconium are no different from the properties of or-
dinary uraninite. In particular, the microhardness ranges from 580 to 1070 kg/mm2.
The chemical composition of the uraninite is shown in Table 1. Because of the difficulty of separating pure
uraninite, especially from the schists, somewhat impure samples were analyzed.
Chemical Composition of Uraninite (in percent)
Uraninite from
Uraninite from quartz-al-
Oxides
dolomites (analyzed
bite-chlorite schists
by Z. I. Donskikh)
(analyzed by L. V.Snegireva)
MgO
0.42
3.32
CaO
0.65
1.10
Pbo
0.87
0.56
TR203
1.85
1.30
Fe203
0.07
0.64
U02
46.14
41.12
UO3
42.55
31.47
SiO2
1.52
4.40
CuO
-
0.37
ZrO2
5.10
2.13
T iO2
-
0.14
H2O
0.40
0.7
Loss on heating
,
(300?C)
Not determined
0.2
Totals 99.57 99.60 `
`Including 8.40% carbon dioxide gas, 0.15% sulfur, and 3.601o other elements
(antimony, tungsten, potassium, and others).
551
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Determinations of Zirconium and Rare Earths in Uraninite by X-Ray Spectral Means(in percent)
Sample
number
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
1
2.3
3.0
4.0
1.5
9.5
5
10
2.2
2.5
3.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
1.5
1.5
0.9
1.0
1.0
10
0.7
1.0
0.65
0.70
1.2
0.9
0.3
4,5
2.0
2.5
1.4
1.2
1.5
0.05
0.05
0.07
Not Found
? ?
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.1
0.05
0.05
Uraninite
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.7
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.3
from
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.1
0.07
0.1
0.07
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
Not Found 0.05
? ? 0.1
>> ? 0.2
0.3
? Not Found
? ? 0.15
0.3
0.3
0.1
? ? 0.05
? ? 0.05
0.05
0.1
0.3
0.3
Not Found
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.05
quartz-albite-chlorite schists
Not Found Not Found 0.15-trace
0.05 ? ? 0.15
0.05 0.05 0.1
0.05 0.1 0.1.
0.07 0.1 0.1
0.1 0.3 0.3
0.05 0.15 0.15
Not Found 0.15 0.15
,> Not Found 0.15
0.2 0.1.5 0.15
Not Found 0.1 0.1
Note: Admixtures of thorium were detected in none of the samples.
Not Found
0.1
0.3
0.3
Not Found
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.05
0.05
0.05
Not Found
0.05
0.05
0.15
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.1
0.15
0.07
0.05
0.1
0.3
0.3
Not Found
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.05
Not Found
0.05
0.15
0.1
0.1
0.1
Not Found
0.1
0.1
Line Intensities and Interplanar Distances of Zircon (Standard) and of the Insoluble Residue Before Heating
Zircon (standard)
Insoluble residue
Line
I
d/n
I
Line
I
I
din
Line
I
d/n
Line
I
d/n
No.
No.
No.
No.
1
2
5.20
11
8
2.06
21
2
1.288
1
Weak, broad
3-31
2
4
4.44
12
3
1.900
22
2
1.256
2
Weak
2.71
3
3
3.65
13
3
1.881
23
1
1.248
3
Medium,
2.51
broad
4
10
3.30
14
2
1.819
24
7
1.187
.4
The same
1.913
5
1
3.17
15
4
1.750
25
2
1.164
5
Strong
1.682
6
1
2.76
16
10
1.706
26
8
1.107
6
Weak, broad
1.635
7
1
2.70
17
8
1.641
27
8
1.099
7
Very weak
1.563
8
1
2.56
18
7
1.476
28
8
1.057
8
Medium
1.536
9
8
2.50
19
8
1.380
29
8
1.050
9
Weak
1.448
10
2
2.32
20
2
1.360
30
8
1.035
10
Weak, very
1.353
broad
Table 2 supplies data of x-ray spectral analyses, which show that the zirconium content in the uraninite
ranges from hundredths of a percent to 10%, and the total content of rare earths from 0.5 to 6% In this regard,
the uraninite from the dolomites contains much more zirconium and rare earths than the uraninite from the schists.
Microscope studies, including high-magnification opaque investigation, revealed no rare-earth or zirconium
minerals in ore samples. Zirconium and rare earths are absent from all ore and vein minerals that accompany
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the uraninite; neither do they occur in the dolomitic host rocks. In the quartz-albite-chlorite schists and in
individual rock-forming minerals in the schists, zirconium has been detected in amounts of hundredths of a
percent.
X-ray studies of carefully sorted uraninite have shown no supplementary lines pointing to the presence of
foreign mineral impurities. The lattice constant is 5.44-5.45 A. The effect of admixtures of zirconium on the
lattice parameter was not established. X-ray photographs of the products of roasting (up to 1000?C) zirconium-
bearing uraninite and zirconium-free uraninite are completely identical. Heating up to 500?C produces a de-
crease in the parameter of the cubic lattice, down to 5.39 A, after which the hexagonal phase of U308 appears.
In this process, no supplementary lines belonging to products of zirconium have been detected on the photographs.
When the uraninite is dissolved in 5%P-HNO3 during heating, yttrium (and other rare earths) pass completely
into solution along with the uranium, and zirconium is partly dissolved. Most of the zirconium is concentrated
in the insoluble residue. The quantity of highly mobile zirconium, determined by dissolving uraninite in con-
centrated HNO3, constitutes about 401o of the total zirconium. The color of the insoluble residue is white. Under
the microscope (in immersion oils); this residue forms an isotopic mass (with a refractive index no greater than
1.57) in which small highly birefringent crystals may be observed. These crystals suggest zircon in form, but are
distinguished by a lower index of refraction (1.60). After roasting the powder at 1100?C, the index of refraction
is 1.57-1.60. The differential thermal curve shows a single endothermic effect at 100?C.
X-ray powder photographs of the insoluble residue show weak diffuse lines corresponding to the lines of
zircon (Table 3); these become more distinct after heating at 900?C.
Thus, the investigations made on these ores lead us to believe that the ores contain a rare example of in-
timate intergrowth of uraninite and a zirconium mineral, in all probability zircon. A recalculation. of the neces-
sary quantity of SiO2 to form zircon shows that in the uraninite from the dolomites (considering the undissolved
part of zirconium to be 60% of the total zirconium in the :uraninite) almost all the silica (1.46% out of 1.52%)
may be bound up in the zircon, but in the uraninite from the schists, there is an excess of silica. This latter
relationship is explained by the presence of foreign mineral impurities.
The mineral form of the rare earths and of the highly mobile zirconium has not been determined. From
the fact that they pass easily into solution during the decomposition of the uraninite, it may be supposed that the
rare earths are present in isomorphous admixtures.
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A STUDY OF THE SYSTEMS BeO-Sm203 and BeO-Gd2O3
S. G. Tresvyatskii, V. I. Kushakovskii, and V. S. Belevantsev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 54-55, July, 1960
Original article submitted January 7, 1960
To study the systems BeO-Sm203 and BeO-Gd2O3 oxides were taken containing more than 99.5-99.91o of
the basic component. The main impurities in the oxides of samarium and gadolinium were other rare earths and
in the oxides of beryllium they were calcium, aluminum, magnesium, and certain other elements in quantities
from 0.001 to 0.1%.
The temperatures of the liquidus and solidus in the studied systems were measured by high temperature
thermal analysis in molybdenum crucibles in an atmosphere of argon using tungsten-molybdenum thermocouples
[1]. Figure 1 shows the calibration curve for these thermocouples. The temperatures of the solidus for some
mixtures of the system BeO- Sm203 were also determined by thermal analysis with a platinum-platinorhodium
thermocouple.
The composition of the eutectic was determined by chemical analysis of the slowly crystallized alloys, the
structure of which corresponded to that of the pure eutectic. Chemical analysis was also carried out on hypoeu-
tectic and hypereutectic alloys containing 2-3 mole 11o of excess component in comparison with the eutectic
composition, the presence of which was determined microscopically in reflected light.
4.0
0
U
0
0
E 3.
/
i
CaO-Th02
Eutectic
'
Ca
E
B
S
utectic
eO-ThO2
i0
A
le
2
03
1
Ig
2 SiA4
J
'Ca/fl204
C
CaSiO~
a F2
4
1
1100
J__J
1420510
4-
H?H?ffi?
1000 ' ' ' ' '
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Be0 mole % Sm203
1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2100 t, ?C Fig. 2. Phase diagram for the system
Fig. 1. Calibration curve for tungsten-molyb- BeO-Sm203 in a temperature range
denum thermocouples. 1300-2500?C. Temperatures deter-
mined by thermal analysis using ther-
mocouples: ?- tungsten-molybdenum;
0- platinum-platinorhodium.
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The chemical analysis of the above and certain other alloys showed that their compositions hardly differ
from the charge composition; this meant that the phase diagrams could be plotted from the charge compositions.
According to the microstructures of fused specimens in the hypoeutectic alloys initially there is crystalliza-
tion of beryllium oxide and in the hypereutectic alloys there is the crystallization of samarium oxide or gadolin-
ium oxide. The lattice parameters of beryllium oxide (a = 2.698 kX; c = 4.372 kX, c/a = 1.623) in mixtures with
rare earth oxides after various heat treatments hardly differed from the tabular values (a = 2.693 kX; c = 4.37 kX;
c/a = 1.625) [2], which indicates the absence of solid solutions in the beryllium oxide.
The eutectics in the system contain 35 mole lo of samarium oxide or gadolinium oxide and 65 mole %of
beryllium oxide.
It was not possible to make x-ray determinations of the phase composition of the specimens rich in the
rare earth oxide, due to the lack of clarity in the x-ray photographs and the complexity of the crystalline lattice
of the samarium and gadolinium oxides. Studies in reflected light showed that in specimens containing 0.5 mole 16
and more of beryllium oxide and quench-hardened from temperatures of 1300-1500?C there are two phases. This
indicates that in the systems BeO-Sm203 and BeO-Gd2O3 there, is no wide range of solid solutions in the rare
earth oxides within the temperature range 1300-1500?C. X-ray methods did not reveal the formation of new
chemical compounds in the systems under the described conditions.
On the basis of these investigations phase diagrams were plotted for the systems BeO-Sm203 and BeO-Gd203
in the temperature range 1300-2500?C (Figs. 2, 3). The melting points of the eutectics in these systems are as
low as in the system BeO- La203.
r,?C
2500
2400
1500
1400
0 10 20 30 40 50 50 70 80 90100
6e0 Mole, % Gd203
Fig. 3. Phase diagram for the system
BeO-Gd2O3 in the temperature range
1300-2500?C..
P. P. Budnikov and S. G. Tresvyatskii, Ogneupory, 4, 167 (1955).
B. F. Ormont, The Structures of Inorganic Materials [in Russian] (Gostekhizdat, 1950).
H. von Wartenberg, H. Reusch,and E. Saran, Z. anorgan. and allgem. Chem. 230, 3, 257 (1937).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060001-7
SYSTEMATIC MEASUREMENTS OF RADIOACTIVE FALLOUT
IN THE YEAR FOLLOWING THE CESSATION OF NUCLEAR TESTS
V. Santholzer*
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 9, No. 7, p, 56, July, 1960
Original article submitted November 23, 1959
In a previous communication* ? it was shown that in the half year following the cessation of nuclear tests
the amount of radioactive fallout had hardly decreased at all. The average amount of daily fallout was 1.8 giG/km2.
The drop in activity with time is expressed by the formula A = at-n, where a is a constant. The time t should be
taken from the date of the appropriate nuclear test. Since more than a year has passed since the cessation of the
tests, the inaccuracies in determining the dates of the tests are not very important in cases of the approximate
determination of the numerical value of the power n. The last specimens of June, 1959 show that the extreme
limits for n are 1.4 and 1.8, if the date of the tests is taken as any day of summer or fall, 1958.
The established average value of n, equal to 1.64, remains good at the present time. Approximately the
same value n is obtained in the random collection of radioactive deposits for the range of 4-36 months. The oldest
of our specimens collected after the cessation of nuclear tests were obtained 17 months ago. The method of
collection was described in a previous communication (see footnote* *).
In recent months, the radioactive deposits have been collected not only for one to three days but at the same
time (in small vessels of about 0.06 m2 area) for the whole month.
For some months after the cessation of tests the following average amounts were obtained for radioactive
deposits per day (in pC /km2):
November ....... 0.3
December ....... 3.4
January ......... 2.0
February ........ 2.7
March.......... 1.0
April........... 1.5
May............ 1.3
June............ 1.4
July... ....... 0.6
August .......... 0.2
September ........ 0.05
October.......... 0.07
The maximum activity of the deposits was observed for only two to four months after the cessation of tests.
In October, 1959 even atmospheric deposits did not give high activity, as was the case in spring, 1959. The
maximum activity in rain collected on April 6, 1959 was 10.1.10-9 C/liter. In deposits at the end of Octo-
ber, 1959, after a two month period of drought, contrary to expectations, the activity was only 0.03-0.40. 10-9
C/ liter.
? Department of Physics of the Medical Faculty of Charles University, Hradec Kralove, Czechoslovakia.
? * V. Santholzer, Atomnaya Energ. 7, 5, 480 (1959).
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A considerable reduction in activity of deposits is also shown by the value of the total activity towards the
end of some half years: by April 30, 1959, it was 121 pC/km2 and towards October 31, 1959 it was only 54
pC/km2. The total activity for the whole year after the cessation of nuclear tests was 104 pC/km2.
Systematic measurements of radioactive deposits in the year after the cessation of nuclear tests showed
that recently the amount of deposits has been sharply reduced and has settled at values of about 1 pC per month.
In the first months after the cessation of nuclear tests the values were about twice as high.
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QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF THE CONTENT OF LEAD AND BISMUTH
RADIOISOTOPES IN AIR IN UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS
V. I. Baranov and L. V. Gorbushina
Translated from Atomnaya nergiya, Vol. 9, No. 7, pp. 56-57, July, 1960
Original article submitted November 16, 1959
In mining, the greatest radiation hazard consists of the presence in air of radon and its short-lived decay
products: RaA(Po 18), RaB(Pb214), RaC(Bi214) + RaC'(Po214) (its short-lived product). As a rule, the concentration
of radon'decay products is below the equilibrium concentration level, and, therefore, special measurements are
necessary for a dosimetric determination of their content.
While radon can be simply and very accurately determined by means of the classical emanation method,
the methods for the separate determination of short-lived radon decay products which are used in practice [1 and
2] are still not sufficiently reliable.
The radiometric method for determining short-lived emanation decay products was proposed in [3-4] and
developed for atmospheric air in 1925 in [5] as well as in [2, 6]. This is an essentially indirect method, and it
still cannot be considered as positively proved at the present time. Therefore, we suggest that the method of the
radiochemical separate determination of lead isotopes (RaB and RaD) and bismuth isotopes (RaC and RaE), which
are collected by means of a BF filter, be used as a control method.
The collection of aerosols with RaA, RaB, and RaC is performed by the usual method [1, 7] at a volumetric
rate securing a sufficiently complete deposition of aerosols. After the air is sucked through the filter, the latter
is subjected to chemical treatment with the aim of separating the lead and bismuth isotopes deposited on it. For
a short period of air filtering, the amount of long-lived decay products (RaE and RaD) can be neglected.
After a sufficient amount of air is filtered, the filter is burned. The sample is subsequently chemically treated
according to the method described in [8], where lead and bismuth are separated by adding isotope carriers by means
of dithizon. Dithizon' with bismuth isotopes and the residual solution with lead isotopes are gradually drained
into cups and then evaporated. The complete processing of the filter until a target with bismuth is obtained takes
40 min, and the time required for obtaining a target with lead isotopes is approximately equal to 1 hr.
The targets were measured by means of a B-type device with an end-type S counter. For quantitative
calculations, the device was calibrated by means of an RaD-RaE equilibrium standard, which was deposited on a
target similar to that used for the samples.
In measurements, due to the short half-life of short-lived radon decay products (TRaB = 26.8 min and TRaC
= 19.7 min), the end portion of the decay curve for these elements is obtained, which is used for calculating the
number of RaB and RaC atoms that were deposited on the. filter toward the end of air filtering. Experiments in
separating such small quantities of lead and bismuth isotopes in an RaD equilibrium solution (RaD in equilibrium
with RaE and polonium) were performed first.
The curves representing the variation of the 3 activity of targets with RaD and RaE in time are shown in
Fig. 1. Since the energy of RaD 8 particles is small (E = 0.0167 Mev), RaD is determined with respect to the rise
in RaE 13 activity in time (curves 1', 2', 3', and 4'). The half-life of the radioisotopes, calculated with respect to the
curves 1-4, is close to five days and pertains to RaE.
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. 0 5 10 15 T, days
Fig. 1. Variation of the 8 activity of targets
with RaD and RaE in time.
Fig. 2. Variation of the activity of targets
with RaB and RaC in time.
Figure 2 shows the time dependence curves of the
activities of two targets (with RaB and RaC),.which were
obtained after processing a filter through which approxi-
mately 400 liters of air was filtered. Judging according
to the half-life values, the separation of RaB and RaC is
satifactory, and, consequently, the number of RaB and RaC atoms which have settled on the filter. from air can be
calculated with respect to the'obtained curves.
1. E. Tsivoglou, H. Ayer, and D. Holaday, Nucleonics 11, 9, 40 (1953).
2. 'E. S. Shche'pot'eva, Tr. Radievogo Instituta 3, 64 (1937).
3. W. Swann, Terr. Magna 20, 13 (1915).
4. S. Kinoshita, S. Nishikawa, and S. Ono, Philos. Mag. 22, 821 (1911).
5. V. I. Baranov, Tr. Instituta Fiz. i Krist. 4, 3 (1925).
6. E. G. Gracheva, Tr. Radievogo Instituta 4, 206, 219 (1938).
7. I. I. Gusarov and V. K. Lyapidevskii, Gigiena i Sanitariya, 10, 10 (1958).
8. A. I. Gusev, Bismuth Analytical Chemistry [in Russian] (Izd. AN SSSR, Moscow, 1953) p. 133.
3
-2
2
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News of Science and Technology
SUMMARY OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE AT MONACO
ON PROCESSING AND DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES
V. Spitsyn and B. Kolychey
The use of atomic energy has brought with it the formation of radioactive wastes, the number of which will
reach several billion curies annually in the immediate. future, solely on account of nuclear power development.
If no measures are taken to assure decontamination and reliable, safe disposal of the wastes, a grave danger will
ensue. Absence of the necessary agreement, and even of the necessary responsibility in some cases, has had the
result that some governments have been disposing of their radioactive wastes without pretreatment and cleanup.
This results in completely justified public alarm, and points to the need for an exchange of experience and
know-how in this field of activity.
The International Conference on radioactive waste disposal, organized by the international Atomic Energy
Agency and UNESCO, convened on November 16-21, 1959 at the oceanography Institute of Monaco. The de-
liberations of the conference were participated in by over 300 scientists representing 32 nations and several inter-
national bodies, and included representatives of the Soviet Union, whose delegation was led by Academician
V. I. Spitsyn. Eighty papers and communications were delivered, of which 70 were heard at the 12 plenary sessions.
The problems discussed at the conference included nature, processing, and shipment of radioactive wastes,
modern techniques of waste disposal, and administrative and judicial questions associated with radioactive waste
disposal, biological, physical, and chemical aspects of sea disposal of wastes, problems encountered in burial
of,radioactive wastes at land sites and deep-lying geological formations.
At the inaugurationof the conference, Cole, the general director of the IAEA, and Veronese, general
director of UNESCO, posed the problem of the need to formulate norms governing waste disposal. and the
organization of some international controls over seas and oceans for that .purpose, while holding the view that
dumping of radioactive wastes in sea and ocean waters was admissible.
Nature of Radioactive Wastes
At the session devoted to this particular question, a report on the topic "The origin and nature of radio-
active wastes" was presented by Bruce. The paper gave its attention to the large volume of medium-level and
low-level wastes. For instance, during the period 1944-1948, 135 billion liters of discard solutions with activity
ranging from 10 4 to 10-8 C/liter were disposed of at Hanford alone. By 1970, the waste volume is expected to
reach 3 billion curies, contained in 27 million liters of solution; and by the year 2000, 60 billion curies contained
in 1.1 billion liters of solution is the anticipated figure.
Given the existing techniques in the USA for nuclear fuel processing, the volume of liquid process wastes
following evaporation treatment amounts to 1-5 m3 per ton of irradiated uranium, with over 8016 of the volume
of wastes being in the form of solutions originating in the dissolution of the fuel-element cladding. In this sense,
the mechanical techniques for stripping the fuel elements, since they greatly reduce the volume of wastes at-
tributable to fuel elements, show great promise, although they are not being used currently in the USA.
From the report by Bruce and from other communications, we learn that extraction techniques are being
constantly improved upon in the USA, the main line of approach being to seek out new extractants and new
ways for engineering the processes. However, no basic change results in the nature of the wastes per se.
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Another fact deserving of attention is that new methods of chemical reprocessing of fuel elements are
under intensive study in the USA, e.g., chlorination and hydrochlorination at 600?C, fluorination, etc., which
may have the effect of greatly reducing waste volumes.
Rodgers (USA) pointed out the possibility of disposing of low-concentration wastes in rivers, in the sewer-
age system, and in the ground, and of sea disposal of solid wastes in leaktight concrete casks. Kenney (UK) is of
the opinion that incineration with ejection of the vented gases to the atmosphere, without any special cleanup
treatment, may be recommended for organic and biological wastes (carcasses of animals, rubbish waste, etc.).
The USSR delegation pointed out the need to develop methods for decontaminating such off-gases, to avert
pollution of the atmosphere.
Dixon (UK), dealing with the problem of radioactive wastes disposal in the context of the British program
for nuclear power development, voiced his opinion on the inevitability of getting rid of various forms of wastes
at sea, and of discharging low-level wastes into nearby rivers.
From the reports read in this division, the impression is that liquid radioactive wastes are divided into three
categories, in both the USA and Britain, viz.: 1) high-level wastes, with concentrations of the order of tens
of curies per liter and higher (these solutions are buried in special storage tanks); 2) medium-level wastes, with
concentrations of the order of millicuries or fractions of a curie. per liter; these wastes are usually subjected to
chemical processing, and concentrates of high activity are routed to burial sites, in some cases (notably in the
case of Britain) being dumped at sea; 3) low-level wastes, in which the content of radioactive isotopes exceeds
the accepted level for drinking water by several orders of magnitude; these wastes are diluted with water down
to levels set by medical stipulations, and are then transferred to open reservoirs.
Processing and Shipping of Radioactive Wastes
In a report by Schulte (USA), the point is made that new reactor designs may lead to discarding the bulk
of the activity into the atmosphere. Approaching the over-all problem in this light, the reporter reached the
conclusion that discharge of wastes to the atmosphere must be properly organized. Small and Storebe (Norway)
arrived at the same conclusion. They indicated that the air in the stratosphere varies over a period equal to
roughly two years. Release of radioactive wastes at a great height, as has been proposed on occasion, would be
ineffective therefore from the standpoint of safety in waste disposal. The reporters described the building of
automatic stations for monitoring atmosphere activity in the neighborhood of atomic power installations.
Silverman (USA) discussed the economic aspects of decontamination of air and gases vented as by-products
in nuclear processes. Several methods for decontaminating gaseous wastes, including an aerosol approach, have
been compared at Harvard University. Fiberglass, which was melted down after use, was the filter material used.
Kr85 decontamination took place by adsorption on charcoal at a low temperature, or on aliphatic acids. The cost
of the gas decontamination differed only slightly from the cost of dilution by air through construction of high
stacks.
In the discussion, the British representative stated that all atomic installations in Britain are equipped with
filtering devices for gases.
In the section on processing of liquid wastes, a paper was read by Vetsley (Belgium) telling of the use of
lignite (brown coal) as ion exchange material to hold back radioactive cations. Studies have been conducted on
a laboratory scale. Measurements of the equilibrium constants for systems containing Sr90 and Cs137 as micro-
components, and calcium, sodium, and hydrogen ions as macrocomponents, have been made. The problem of
the mechanism effective in sorption has not yet been studied; it remains obscure which of the components of
lignite is the sorbent.
In answer to the query why synthetic ion exchange resins were not being employed, since they give a
degree of purification two to three orders of magnitude higher, the reporter laid stress on the importance of the
economic factor.
A report by Genguli (India) was addressed to the problem of temperature distribution in waste solids. Ac-
cording to calculations, the maximum temperature at a specific activity of 1 C/g of Sr90, in the center of a
sphere of radius 20 cm or cylinder 36 cm in diameter, is 250?C, and 175?C at the surface; at a Sr90 concentration
of 5 C/g, the corresponding values are 1200?C and 800?C, i.e., 400. 103 C of SOO are permissible in 80 kg of
material. The author suggests making the same calculations for a mixture of fission products, in the future.
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The problem of the processing of waste solids was taken up in a paper presented by Serret (Saclay, France).
To achieve more compact disposal, a method of preliminary pulverization and compaction of the wastes prior
to burial was employed. Pulverization of the products is followed by placing them in a concrete cask, a cylin-
drical barrel 1.3 m in diameter and of the same height, with a wall thickness of - 16 cm, after which the pro-
ducts are encased in concrete. The concrete mix used (HTS cement 50 kg, sand 76 kg, oxido cement 25 kg,
aluminum powder 0.005 kg, water 30 liters) ensures reliable hold-down of the fragments, preventing them from
being washed away. The cement block was immersed in water for a year, with no noticeable increase in the
activity of the water.
Two papers delivered by Pomarolle (Saclay) discussed various cases of land-burial of wastes, and possible
solutions in case shipping of the wastes is required through the home country or a neighbor.
The reporter announced that, besides storage in special buried tanks, burial of low-level wastes by stacking
them in trenches with subsequent backfill of the earth is adequately reliable. Cement pipes were built to house
casks of high-level wastes below ground.
At the sessions devoted to reprocessing and improved methods of waste disposal, 11 papers were presented.
It was announced in a paper by Beauvoir and Candillion (France) that contamination of the surrounding
terrain by radioactive isotopes at the nuclear installations in Saclay, Grenoble, Marcoule, and other localities
has reached significant dimensions. In some spots (e.g., at Chinon), soil radioactivity rose to 4. 10-5 C/m3 in
1958, while contamination by Sr90 + Y90 amounted to - 4. 10-7 C/m3.
A paper by Wormser (France) described a small installation. used for decontamination of low-level wastes
.at Saclay. The activity is concentrated in the precipitates of phosphates, hydroxides, and carbonates, which are
then buried in containers and trenches or pits.
A variety of burial techniques resorted to for active wastes were described in reports by Mowson and Russell
(Canada). One of the techniques deserving particular mention consists of cementing medium-level wastes in steel
casks and then dumping them down deep pits. Despite the fact that wastes containing thousands of curies were
buried in those structures, only traces of activity were detected in the surrounding medium.
Burial of various forms of wastes in pits, into which liquid wastes had been placed in polythene containers,
and solids were placed unconfined but separated by alternating layers of salt and asphalt, have been tried out.
In the case of asphalt, cracks and fissures were discovered in pits where high-level wastes had been buried, which
constrains us to approach this burial technique with caution.
Larsen (Denmark) noted that weakly radioactive solutions could not be dumped without pretreatment to
keep the activity from exceeding preset levels (activity not to exceed 1/10 of the critically allowable level at
a distance of 10.m from the dump point) into the waters of the Rise fjord, despite the unusually slow exchange
of the waters.
At Harwell, according to a report by Burns, all of the wastes, even of the low-level variety, are subjected
to complex processing. Prior to discard, they are carefully checked, in view of the fact that the Thames, into
which they are dumped, is the principal source of drinking water for London.
To handle wastes with a low activity level, caustic soda is added to pH = 9.5, with simultaneous introduction
of sodium phosphate. The precipitate of calcium phosphate which forms (on account of the calcium present in
large amounts in the original solution) is placed in leakproof cistern tanks, which are then dumped out at sea,
while the supernatant liquor is poured off after a careful check.
In processing wastes of medium activity, recourse is had to a facility of 4 m3/hr capacity, where the Ca-Fe-
phosphate precipitate is decontaminated at pH = 11.5. This makes it possible to get rid of 991o of the alpha emit-
ters and 89% of the beta emitters. To remove ruthenium, the solution is acidified to pH = 3 with precipitation
of ferric sulfate, making it possible to carry the decontamination on to elimination of 99.8% of the alpha emitters
and 91% of the beta emitters. The residue contains-0.3-0.5%of the original 5 activity. Ultimate decontamina-
tion is by ion exchange. Studies are also underway at Harwell to reduce the volume of solid waste through baling
and melting.
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In the USA, work on decontamination of radioactive wastes proceeds in pretty much the same directions
as in Britain and France. Low-level wastes are discharged into rivers, dumped at sea, or buried inland, and prob-
lems arising in reprocessing of such. wastes were not discussed in the American papers.
An interesting report by Stevens (USA) was devoted to reprocessing of high-level wastes.. The inconvenience
encountered in methods currently used for burial of liquid high-level wastes in cans was emphasized, since the
temperature could not be successfully held below 65? C during the first year, despite the excellent functioning
cooling system. It was noted that corrosion proceeds at 0.002-0.005 mm/year.
Studies carried out demonstrated the advantage of burying wastes in solid form, since they take up much
less space in that case and the fragments are much more efficiently immobilized, leading in turn to savings and
simplification in the storage media, the upshot being that the costs of waste reprocessing are compensated.
Evaporation and calcining of the oxides forming in a fluidized bed at 350-550?C is the method recommended
for converting solutions containing aluminum nitrate to solid form. The report describes an existing pilot plant
with a throughput of up to 200 ml/min, and another facility being built in Idaho, with a throughput of 5 m3 per
day.
In addition, problems concerning burial of highly active solids have been worked out in detailed fashion.
No significant losses of radioisotopes were observed up to 1000?C, but about 100% of the Cs137 was removed at
1200?C. The authors came to the view that additional treatment of the calcined materials, with vitrification in
particular, will be required for more reliable disposal (to obviate the need for costly cooling systems in. the
storage dumps).
Reprocessing of wastes was discussed in reports by other scientists, e.g., by Wilson (Australia), Yamamoto
(Japan), Rodger (USA), but no new problems were clarified.
The report by Zimakov (USSR) dealing with a study of the composition and behavior of vitrification products
of radioactive wastes stimulated a good deal of interest.
Problems involving elimination of radioactive wastes by ground burial and deep-lying geological forma-
tions took up two entire sessions.
Considerable interest was evoked by a report of Pierce, Linderot, et al., (USA) on inland burial of liquid
radioactive wastes at the Hanford plant. By mid-1959, 139 billion liters of low-level wastes (water, coolant
equipment, nontechnological wastes, etc.) with a total activity of 2500 C had been disposed of in natural low-
lands ("marshes"); 106 million liters of radioactive wastes, heavily salted down after undergoing various methods
of reprocessing and showing a total activity of 647,000 curies, were poured down in special trenches. Finally,
14.9 billion liters of waste containing 1.9 million curies of fission products were pumped into caverns dug out
below ground, from which they were expected to gradually seep into the surrounding soil. Test boreholes.were drilled
down to monitor the progress of the radioactive isotopes in the earth. Considerable migration of the activity has
been recorded to date. Despite the low ground water table prevailing in the area (150-200 m), fission-fragment
elements have reached it and are being entrained in the water movement. For example, the area of contamination
beneath one of the caverns was 370 m2 at first, and has by now spread out to 7,400 m2. Ground water samples
have shown that contamination has extended to 5 km from the site where the wastes were dumped. The content of
S emitters i the water ranges from 1.5. 10-7 to 1. 10-`1 pC per liter, sometimes even higher. The principal of-
fender with respect to migration in the ground water is ruthenium, but sizable amounts of strontium often show up
as well. The reporter made clear that trapping of radioisotopes in the soil is primarily attributable to ion exchange
reactions. However, if the wastes contain phosphate ions, then these react with the soil calcium carbonate to
form an artificial apatite which acts to trap radioactive strontium. When fluorine ions are present in the discard,
these react with soil calcium carbonate to form fluorite, which enhances the trapping of the rare earths, strontium,
uranium, and plutonium. This report provides strong arguments against directly dumping liquid radioactive wastes
into the soil and underlying earth, even under such favorable, hydrogeological conditions as prevail at Hanford.
Parker (USA) reported on continuing research geared toward discovery of disposal techniques in handling
liquid radioactive wastes, using salt mines as dump sites (a report on this approach was given at the second Geneva
conference on the peaceful uses of atomic energy). A pilot project is under study at the present time (in a
natural salt bed). However, nonradioactive solutions are being used in simulating experiments.
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Hansted (USA), et al., in a report entitled "Migration of radioactive wastes in natural waters at Hanford,"
discussed questions related to pollution of the Columbia River by radioisotopes. The water used as coolant for the
reactors in the Hanford complex was contaminated by over 60 different radioisotopes which came into being
chiefly on account of neutron activation of dissolved impurities. These waters are passed through hold-up ponds
for 1 to 3 hours, after which they are discharged into the river. The reporter pointed out the fact that the effect
of the ionizing radiation on the population near the Hanford plant who consumed the water of the Columbia River
averaged 20010 of the maximum permissible dose. Taking into account the possibility of accidents and the atten-
dent higher contamination level, one could hardly view the data cited as completely reassuring.
Barbier and Michon (France) reported on calculations of absorption of radioisotopes by tilled soil from
low-level wastes entrained in the irrigation water. They arrived at the conclusion that contamination of vegetable
crops by radioisotopes will not be proportional to the content of the isotopes in water, but much higher.
V. I. Spitsyn, V. D. Balukov, et al., (USSR) told of the results of laboratory and field tests on sorption of
fission-fragment elements when solutions of the latter were allowed to seep into the ground. The paper stressed
the fact that radioactive strontium absorbed in soils and earth was readily displaced by the calcium constantly
present in natural waters. This undermines any expectation that strontium will be firmly absorbed in soils. On
gaining access to the ground water, radioactive strontium begins to migrate with it. Radioactive ruthenium is
absorbed weakly by soil minerals. Radioactive cesium is absorbed slightly more readily.
Many of the papers presented by American scientists on burial of wastes at great depths attest to the great
interest accorded by scientists to this problem.
Neys gave a detailed review of geological research (carried on in the USA under contractwith the atomic
industry) centered mainly in the field of radioactive waste disposal. He gave greatest significance to disposal
of tow-level and medium-level wastes, the dumping of which in areas around atomic enterprises inevitably
leads to an appreciable increase in the radioactivity of the earth's surface, a procedure which may entail un-
desirable genetic after effects, if continued over a protracted period.
The most suitable formations for this type of disposal are synclinal depressions in sedimentary rocks.
Compact rocks may become embrittled by hydraulic action or explosives. The USA oil industry has hundreds
of thousands of cubic meters of heavily salt-laden waters at its disposal each passing year, in exchange for which
radioactive wastes could be pumped into used-up oil wells. The nature of the rocks surrounding the well are of
utmost importance. Clayey shales have high sorptive capacity and easily retain radioisotopes. However, they
have poor thermal conductivity, and their argillaceous minerals are susceptible to decomposition by acidic solu-
tions. Sandstones are viewed favorably in this context. Limestones fall short by chemical properties; furthermore,
they always suffer from cracks and passages permitting the leakage of solutions poured over them. Gypsum rocks
are suitable for removal of solid wastes, but their usefulness for removing liquid wastes is held in doubt. Great
hopes are placed in a method for burying radioactive wastes in salt mines, particularly rock salt deposits.
Simpson (USA) stated in this report that salt deposits and deep-lying water-permeable formations are being
studied at dump sites for high-level wastes. Shallow burial of packaged wastes is considered for medium-level
wastes, with pouring into the soil as alternative. In these cases, the ground water movement, the dispersion of
impurities introduced into the ground water, ion exchange and adsorption processes are being studied.
Brown (USA) told of the results of geological investigations in the vicinity of the Hanford atomic plant.
There were 551 borcholes drilled here; the filtration coefficient, speed of travel and direction of migration of
the ground water were studied. At the present stage, information on the geological structure of the region is being
supplemented by new data secured with the aid of seismic, magnetometric, gravimetric, and other techniques.
The reporter expressed the opinion that until the geological constants of the region are determined more precisely
than they have been up to the present, land burial of radioactive wastes should not be stepped up.
A paper submitted by W. de Lagoun (USA), which was not read at the conference, discussed problems of a
similar nature. This author feels that the methods in use at present at Hanford and Oak Ridge for waste disposal
in the ground are unsatisfactory, since it is impossible to indicate the precise ultimate destination of the wastes.
Kaufman (USA) told of the results of two years of experience in a pilot plant at the University of California,
where radioactive solutions have been pumped into a water-bearing layer 1.2 m thick, lying at a depth of 28.5 in.
Tritium-tagged water was used to study the hydraulic behavior of the ground water. The results obtained show
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that buryingwastesdeepin the earth makes it possible to attain the same decontamination factors as in the most
highly perfected chemical processes.
Wager and Richter (West Germany) reported on the results of geological and hydrogeological research con-
ducted in West Germany with the purpose of finding out the suitable sites for burial of radioactive wastes in depth.
A selection of points was found where liquid radioactive wastes could be pumped into structures containing old
ground water.
In the summary of the discussion on the papers read, great promise was attributed to further development of
methods for burial of radioactive wastes deep. in the earth. However, attention was turned to the need for com-
plete localization and keeping the discard under control over protracted storage periods.
The problem of dumping radioactive wastes at sea was the most heatedly discussed item on the agenda,
literally from the first day of the gathering. Most of the papers submitted by the American and British scientists
dealt directly or indirectly with proof of the admissibility of effecting such disposal at sea without fear of harm-
ful consequences to humanity.
For example, Dunster and Weeks (Great Britain) reported that 106 m3 of low-level wastes, containing over
50,000 curies of a activity and 85 curies of y activity are poured into the Thames River or dumped at sea each
year in Britain. They proved the possibility of further disposal in this manner, and stressed that the choice of
dump site was governed. predominantly by economic considerations.
Burns (Great Britain) stated in his report that radioactive liquid wastes of low activity are being dumped
into the Thames.
Rodger (USA) pointed out the fact that burial of high-level wastes in casks at sea depths within the Gulf of
Mexico and at a number of shoreline regions of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans is being carried out in the USA.
The reporter, laid stress on the need to delineate regions subject to subsequent checking, for burial sites.
Dunster (Great Britain) gave a survey of existing and proposed methods for dumping low-level liquid wastes
into the sea; in view of the completely insignificant increase in the average activity of the oceans on a world
scale resulting from this procedure, sees the disposal of radioactive wastes in rivers and at sea as harmless.
A detailed study of the justification for the possibility of dumping waste at sea and in oceans was presented
by Pritchard (USA). The author strove to demonstrate in this paper that, on the basis of existing knowledge in the
field of oceanography, disposal of sizable amounts of liquid waste, including highly active waste, in the sea
depths (amounts of the order of several megacuries annually) creates no hazard for humans. Particularly worthy
of mention is the position taken by Pritchard to the effect that waste disposal in shore waters may adversely affect
the interest of only that nation processing the shoreline in question.
It is clear from the foregoing that the problem of admissible disposal of radioactive wastes in sea basins
has acquired particular sharpness, and that would explain why three plenary sessions were devoted to the diverse
aspects of this question, with 17 papers, three of them from the USSR, presented at those sessions.
The most interesting papers for mention here include one by Gordon (USA) on a method for studying ebb
and flow patterns in the coastal waters by introducing fluorescent dye materials. A mathematical interpretation
of the rate of vertical and horizontal mixing of the radioactive material in the ocean was presented by Miyake
and Saruhashi (Japan). They pointed out that, while the radioactivity in the Northern Pacific in 1954 was observed
only above the thermocline, in 1955, it reached a depth of 600 m, at a time when the thermocline lay at a depth
of 75 m.
A paper presented by Morgan (Great Britain) on research devoted to a study of the seasonal migrations of fish
in regions neighboring dump sites for radioactive wastes, the radioactivity of those fish, and the percent of the
fish population drawn upon annually for food, excited its share of interest for its methodological approach. There
were 36,000 head of flounder tagged for the investigation. Within a years' time, - 50%v of the tagged flounder
had been caught in the fishing grounds. It was found that the number of.cases of increased radioactivity in the
flounder stock was not high, providing a basis for optimistic inferences. Although, this paper was of unusual in-
terest from the methodological standpoint, objections were still to be raised against the conclusions drawn and
the averaging of the probabilistic data regarding the feasibility of using this fish as food.
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Schaeffer (USA) devoted his paper to the need for new research work on evaluation of concrete-sea pre-
serves suitable as burial sites for radioactive wastes. He stressed the significance of enormous expanses of open
sea where fishing was unfeasible and which constitute a biological wilderness from that point of view. Schaeffer
stated that a program has been developed on a broad scale in the USA for similar investigations, to span a five-
year period and running into research costs of 30 million dollars.
The gist of the reports reduced to the idea that disposal of radioactive wastes at sea was admissible. How-
ever, the ones who delivered papers on this topic [Ketchum, Schaeffer, Chipman, et al. (USA); Morgan, Prit-
chard, Monas (Great Britain); Valdichuk (Canada)] adduced a wealth of facts which argued strongly against the
admissibility of such a conclusion.
For example, it turned out that the concentration of the most dangerous elements, viz., Csts7 and Sr90,
builds up to. 20-30 times higher in the tissues of shellfish and scaled fish than in the surrounding waters, while
the phytoplankton evinces a capacity to build up its concentration of some radioisotopes to 1,200 times ex-
ceeding the concentration of the water environment.
In the paper mentioned, Morgan referred to the fact that every tenth flounder fished in grounds just adjacent
to the disposal sites for the radioactive wastes showed symptoms of radioactive injury, including leukemia symp-
toms. The data cited by American researchers to the effect that the radioactivity level had increased in zoo-
plankton gathered in regions where wastes were disposed of near San Francisco are familiar.
The Soviet delegation held fast to a negative position on this question from the very first day of the con-
ference. In the papers presented by Zenkevich, Fedorov, Moiseev, as well as in reiterated brief interventions
in the discussion by other members of the Soviet delegation, insistence was placed on the position of the inad-
missibility of radioactive waste disposal at open sea or in the. oceans.
The Soviet delegation motivated its stand by the following fundamental tenets:
1) a series of investigations has established the fact that reasonably intense intermixing takes place in the
seas and oceans and even in deep ocean troughs, and that consequently, radioactivity will make its way from
any depths to the surface layers;
2) plankton and fish are capable of accumulating radioactivity by two to three orders of magnitude greater
than that of the water environment;
3) assuming it is possible to speak of the harmlessness of low concentrations of natural radioactivity to which
the human organism is already conditioned, it is certainly not admissible to make statements on the genetic
sequelae affecting the organism in the case of even low concentrations of artificial radioactive isotopes;
4) waste disposal operations in coastal waters cannot be dismissed as an "internal" affair, since migration
of the activity may well proceed by both hydrophysical and biological pathways, thus, affecting the population
of neighboring states;
5) in resolving the problem of the methods to be used in burying radioactive wastes, the economic factor
cannot be given priority. Here, as in other respects, the question of the life and health of mankind must be the
first question on the agenda. Nor should it be forgotten that at the present time, mankind consumes over 30
million tons of products originating from the sea, annually.
The Soviet delegation advanced, as a fundamental principle, the need to reprocess all forms of liquid
radioactive wastes while isolating concentrated products for safe burial in containers or in vitrified form, and
the need to use water purified of the bulk of its activity in a closed cycle within the particular nuclear enter-
prise.
In the ensuing free discussion among oceanographers present, who did not remain uninfluenced by the
active interventions of the members of the Soviet delegation, representatives from France, Norway, India, the
Netherlands, Italy, Bulgaria, Poland, and Finland expressed, in one form or another, the danger inherent in the
drift of radioactivity, especially borne by living marine organisms, over the expanses of the world's ocean bodies.
The insistent need to develop research in depth and on a broad front to.tackle these questions was stressed.
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Rovell (USA), summarizing the discussion, was obliged to acknowledge the extreme inadequacy of the data
now available to the scientists, which does not allow them to work with the proper certainty toward a resolution
of the problem concerning the possibility of sea burial of radioactive wastes and the appropriate methods.
The trenchant victory won by the Soviet stand was reflected in a statement by the UNESCO representative
Vittorio Perez who, in his closing remarks at the termination of the conference, said that the foregoing discussion
necessitated a reexamination of previously held concepts on the possibility of disposal of radioactive wastes at sea.
He himself remarked that the economic factor should be put into the background in judging this question, and
should yield before the problem of the preservation of the health of mankind.
This outcome of the Conference may be viewed as the result of the positive effect of humanistic principles
upheld by the Soviet delegation throughout the conference.
1. Despite numerous research efforts conducted in various countries and especially in the USA and Great
Britain, disposal of radioactive wastes at sea and in ocean waters cannot be considered as proven safe from the
standpoint of the possible spread of radioactivity. Before giving an answer to that question, it is necessary to ex-
pand present oceanographic, biological, and genetic research to the fullest.
2. The pathways and trends followed in reprocessing medium-level and low-level wastes in diverse coun-
tries differ only slightly from one another on the whole, and boil down in the long run to successive operations in- .
volving coprecipitation of hydroxides and phosphates, the use of adsorption for further purification, and oxidation-
precipiation operations at-the initiation of the process in cases where organic impurities are present.
The one thing we cannot find agreement with here is the practice frequently encountered in foreign coun-
tries of dumping solutions of low activity into natural reservoirs and counting on their becoming diluted in time.
The principle of closing the cycle and using the water turnover in this case is indisputably more reliable and safe.
3. The burial of concentrated pulps in casks of cement blocks inside of earth caverns, of various types,
following processing of the medium- and low-level wastes yields comparatively positive results. It is absolutely
inadmissible to approve of burial of such forms of waste without protective encasing, since all. studies show the
presence of quite extensive migration of the most dangerous active elements.
4. The method of greatest promise for the disposal of wastes of medium and even of high activity must be
acknowledged to be burial in vitrified form in earth caverns, pits or trenches, but even here great innovations
are to be expected, in all probability, in the technological organization of this procedure, the best studied one
to date.
As a provisional measure for disposing of high-activity wastes, we must consider storing them in stainless
steel containers, an approach which has been adopted universally.
5. Investigations in the area of burial at depths. in wells and closed geological formations must be viewed
as promising, but are far from completed at present.
6. The choice of the fundamental technology in the processing of nuclear fuel should be made with observance
of such considerations as the volumes of radioactive waste resulting, and the form in which the yield from the
processes will appear. In particular, the use of chemical methods for decladding fuel elements results in a sharp
increase in the volumes of liquid active waste, which is hardly justifiable in terms of an apparent convenience
gained in execution of.the process.
Any complex form of fuel elements following machining operations may be brought to a state allowing
the nuclear fuel to be dissolved without requiring dissolution of the cladding material. The solid waste from the
cladding is small in volume, activity is well localized, and burial is consequently simpler and more reliable.
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"THE ATOMS FOR PEACE-" PA,VIL.ION AT THE
USSR INDUSTRIAL EXHIBIT IN IRAQ
In April, 1960, an Industrial ,Exhibit under the auspices of the Soviet Union ran for three weeks in Baghdad.4
The exposition was inaugurated by the, First Vice-Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, A. I. Mikoyan
The pavilion in which the achievement of the Soviet Union ;in the field of the peaceful uses of atomic
energy were displayed was a center of"interest for all those who visited the exposition. -
"Represented in the pavilion were 'several fields 'of the national economy benefited by- the use of-atomic
energy. In the'section on power, visitors took an eager interest in the functioning models of the world's first
atomic-fuel electric power station, and, models of a-water- cooled,water-.moderated reactor and uranium-
grap-hite reactor. -A 'scale -model of-the world's first Nuclear-propulsion icebreaker, the "Lenin," drew special 'interestit
did operating models,of the .10 Bev proton synchrotron and the 680 Mev synchrocyclotron: The section telling
as
of research conducted. in the-Soviet Union in'the field. of thermonuclear reactions was very popular with repre-
sentatives of scientific circles in-Iraq,..
At the Exposition in Iraq.
568
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The equipment used in prospecting for radioactive ores was well represented in the exhibit. These con-
sisted chiefly of portable radiometers with different ranges of measurement.
Those sections of the pavilion telling of isotope applications in geology, medicine, biology, and agricul-
ture were very popular. The reason here is also that these sections were supplied liberally with the appropriate
instruments. Specialists visiting the exhibit paid glowing tribute to the quality of the instrumentation.
In the section on shielding and dosimetry, in which a large amount of dosimetry equipment was on display,
the manipulator device stole the show.
Fifty-thousand copies of the prospectus drawn up for the exhibit and 50,000 copies of V. S. Emel'yanov's book
"The Atom in the Soviet Union Serves the Cause of Peace", both printed in Arabic, were distributed to the visitors
during the run of the exposition.
The display attracted the attention of people from outside Baghdad as well; people from the most diverse
regions of Iraq traveled to see it. About 40,000 people were on hand on opening day. All in all, the number of
visitors totalled half a million.
The activity of the exposition received wide publicity in the Iraqi press. The newspaper "Istiqlal" devoted
an entire page to the atomic pavillion in the exhibit. The newspaper "Ittihad Al-Shaab" told of the displays in
the "Atoms for Peace" pavillion, concluding: "The Iraqi people left the pavilion with the thought that the Soviet
people and Soviet scientists are leaving nothing undone to harness the colossal energy of the atom for the cause
of peace and socialism, and not for war and destruction."
Some specialists and other visitors left their impressions about the atomic pavilion in writing. For example,
Yussef Abbud, professor at Baghdad University, wrote in the guest book: "Having visited the Soviet Industrial
Exhibit, we cannot help expressing our admiration at the tremendous successes achieved by the Soviet Union.
What we have seen in the atomic pavilion is worthy of our highest estime. With all our heart, we wish our great
friend - the Soviet Union - still greater successes in the field of science, industry, and economics". The worker
Tawui Makhdi wrote: "The atomic pavilion has aroused great interest. I wish the Soviet people even greater
successes in its noble cause of using atomic energy for peaceful purposes". And here is another salutation: "The
Soviet atomic pavilion is a shining piece of evidence of the successes of scientific thinking in the Soviet Union.
In getting acquainted with the achievements of that country in the field of the use of atomic energy for the cause
of peace, one is astounded by the scope of the work in this field of science so important for mankind."
A. M. Panchenko, G. V. Fedorov
THE DANISH DR-3 HEAVY WATER REACTOR
In January, 1960, the DR-3 heavy-water.research reactor, designed chiefly for materials. testing, was brought
to criticality at Ris (Denmark) (Figs. 1-3).
The reactor was built under a contract dating back to June 20, 1957, between the Denmark Atomic Energy
Commission and the Atomic Energy Control Board of Great Britain. Most of the reactor construction work was
contracted by Danish firms. The cost of the reactor, including the fuel and.heavy water, is 1,564,000 pounds
sterling.
The DR-3 reactor is similar to the British DIDO and PLUTO reactors at Harwell [1]. The power rating is
10 Mw in this case too; heavy water functions as both coolant and moderator (10 tons in the system), while the
reflector is'graphite; fuel assemblies are box types. The fuel elements are manufactured as plate elements of
an alloy of enriched uranium with aluminum clad in aluminum [2, 3].
The variation in the design of the DR-3 reactor from its British counterparts is only slight. There are also
some differences in the planning of the reactor buildings and in the use of electrical equipment for control of
the DR-3 reactor to conform to Danish engineering standards. The pump house was enlarged somewhat to ac-
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Fig. 1. General view of interior of reactor house.
Fig. 3. Assembly of equipment inside reactor pres-
sure vessel.
Fig. 2. Assembly of DR-3 pressure vessel.
comodate a ventilation ducting system, a water-treat-
ment facility, and equipment for the air purification
system. The ventilation system and the air condition-
ing system have been altered with respect to the British
variants, to satisfy requirements imposed in Denmark.
Attention was also given to attainment of high cleanli-
ness and improved deactivation of the rooms and compartments used for operations with radioactive objects.
There are differences in the charge-discharge and transportation systems for spent fuel elements. Since the per-
formance of British-make pumps used to pump system heavy water in the DIDO and PLUTO concepts leaves
something to be desired. replacement pumps were purchased in France.
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A supply of heavy water costing 340,000 pounds sterling was obtained on credit from the US Atomic
Energy Commission, under terms of annual payment of 4% of the cost of the heavy water.
After the reactor has been brought up to full power (10 Mw) at the end of the summer of 1960, experi-
ments designed to test the performance characteristics of the British DRAGON concept built at Winfrith Heath
will undoubtedly be repeated on the DR-3 [1].
LITERATURE CITED
1. Nucl. Power, 5, 47, 131 (1960).
2. Nuclear Reactor Album [in Russian],(Moscow, Atomizdat, 1959) p. 215.
3. Nuclear Reactor Album [in Russian]. (Moscow, Atomizdat, 1959) p. 217.
BERYLLIUM PRODUCTION IN THE CAPITALIST COUNTRIES
Beryllium has come more and more into the forefront in recent times. Until 1957, processing of beryllium
concentrates was carried on mainly in order to fabricate copper-beryllium alloys. Beryllium metal has become
the important end product in steadily increasing quantities since 1957. The fundamental application for this
metal has been found in atomic industry, aviation, rocket construction, and shipbuilding [1]. At the present con-
juncture, there are about 50 firms engaged in research on widening the scope of beryllium applications in the
various branches of industry [1].
Basic production volume of beryllium concentrates in foreign countries averaged about 10 thousands of
tons annually (figures based on concentrate with 10% content of beryllia) during 1957-1959. The main producers
of beryllium concentrates are Argentina, Brazil, Belgian Congo, and Mozambique [3].
Production of beryllium concentrates in the USA amounts to a total of about 500 tons annually. The mining
of the mineral beryl, in which about 200 firms are engaged, is prosecuted principally in conjunction with mining
of other commercial minerals, such as fluorite, feldspar, spodumene, etc. [1-3].
Because of the dearth of rich beryl deposits in the USA, intense work is pursued on enriching the low-grade
beryllium raw material, resorting to flotation techniques predominantly. Several flotation plants have been
erected in the state of Colorado for the beneficiation of low-grade beryllium ores [3, 4]. Domestically produced
beryllium concentrates are listed at higher prices ($ 529 per short ton) than imported concentrates ($ 357 per short
ton) [5].
Processing of beryl concentrates is carried on in the USA and on a small scale in Britain and France. In
recent years, the volume of concentrates processed in the USA rose steeply: 4,400 tons of concentrates were
processed during 1956, and 5,000 tons in 1957 [6]; 6,200 tons in 1958, and in 1959, according to a provisional
estimate, about 7,250 tons [3].
Increased beryllium consumption in the USA has been accompanied by a reorganization of existing plants
for processing and manufacturing this metal, and the building of new ones. For example, The Beryllium Cor-
poration outfitted its plant at Hazleton with new high-productivity equipment (hot-extrusion vacuum presses) [7].
Mineral Concentrates Inc. of the state of Colorado is engaged in building a processing plant for beryllium concen-
trates yielding beryllium hydroxide as product [8]. Brush Beryllium is building a new plant at Hayward near San
Francisco. The construction of the plant is estimated to run into $ 500,000 [2]. In 1957, these firms completed
the building of two new plants for production of nuclear-grade beryllium. 'Each of the plants boasts 45 tons annual
capacity. The plants were completed under contract with the USAEC with delivery terms covering five years
'for 90 tons of beryllium annually priced at about $ 100/kg. However, in 1958,.the USAEC altered the terms of
the contract: the amount of delivery scheduled was cut down to 34 tons annually, and the.delivery term was
stretched to four years. Production of nuclear-grade beryllium in the USA actually amounted to 21 tons in 1958.
The cutback in beryllium deliveries to meet USAEC needs left a surplus over to satisfy the requirements of the
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aviation industry and the navy in beryllium metal [1]. Moreover, beryllium is being used in the building of new
nuclear reactors in other countries. In particular, Brush Beryllium Company has signed contracts stipulating de-
livery of beryllium goods totaling 1.2 million dollars for the new Belgian BR-2 nuclear reactor [9].
The yearly consumption of beryllium concentrates by the British economy amounts to approximately
100 tons [1]. Small-scale beryllium production is carried on at the Milford Haven plant and in a pilot plant
belonging to imperial Smelting Company. In line with the use of beryllium for fabricating some reactor parts,
and also as cladding for fuel elements in gas-cooled and other reactor types, a plant for producing beryllium
metal goods, with 7-10 tons annual capacity, was built and put into operation in 1959. Construction of the plant
ran into estimated costs of 1 million pound sterling [10].
At Evenmouth, England, the British-American company Consolidated Beryllium Ltd., is building a plant
for fabrication of. nuclear-grade beryllium and copper-beryllium alloys. It is expected that this plant will have
one of the largest outputs of its kind in the world [11].
Production of beryllium and beryllium compounds is carried on on a small-scale in France [6].
A 15-ton capacity (annual) plant is being set up in India for production of beryllia, and of items made of
beryllia and beryllium metal [12, 13].
The last few years have thus witnessed an increase in' amount of beryllium concentrates processed to yield
beryllium metal, and an expansion of the beryllium-producing areas of the world.
1. Metall. No. 12, 1167 (1959).
2. Mining J., 253, No. 6485, 578 (1959).
3. Mining World, 21, No. 5, 67 (1959).
4. Mining J., 253, No. 6473, 237 (1959).
5. Mining J., 251, No. 6411, 18 (1958).
6. Mining World, 20, No. 5, 72 (1958).
7. Mining J., 253, No. 6470, 169 (1959).
8. Mining J. ; 250, 6408, 695 (1958).
9. Chem. Age, 80, No. 2038, 195 (1958).
10. Mining J., 253, No. 6487, 638 (1959).
11. Mining J., 253, No. 6464, 35 (1959).
12. Mining J., Annual Rev., May, 51 (1959).
13. Mining J., 250, No. 6393, 237 (1958).
In May, 1960, the joint Institute for Nuclear Research (Dubna) held a workshop conference on the theory
of dispersion relations. About 70 theoretical physicists participated in the deliberations, their number including
Bulgarian, Hungarian, Vietnamese, Chinese, German, Polish, Rumanian, and Czechoslovak scientists. The con-
ference was opened by N. N.. Bogolyubov.
About 20 papers were read at the conference, and might be broken down into two basic groups: 1) proof
of dispersion relations and the study of the general analytic properties of scattering amplitude; 2) applications of
dispersion relations to obtain approximate equations describing processes of strong interaction and decay processes.
The participants listened with great interest to the report by A. A. Logunov, A. N. Tavkhelidze, I. V. Todorov, and
N. A. Chernikov, which develops a method for finding the Majovana operator to Feynman diagrams, and thus
makes it possible to investigate in detail the analytic properties of amplitude with the aid of perturbation theory,
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and also the paper by V. A. Meshcheryakov, A. V. Efremov, D. V. Shirokov, and Chu Hung-Yuan, on investigations
of the possibility of deriving approximate equations for partial waves in meson-nucleon scattering, with the aid
of.binary dispersion relations.
K. A. Ter-Martinosyan presented a paper in which equations derived with the aid of binary dispersion re-
lations 'are studied on the basis of examples of concrete models.
Interesting results were reported by V. B. Berestetskii, I. Ya. Pomeranchuk, and V. N. Gribov, in papers
linked to a study of the degree of increase in the amplitude of a process with increase in energy.
V. S. Vladimirov, in the course of investigating the general properties of causal commutators, developed
a technique which yields the possibility of deriving an integral expression of the Dyson type for the commutator;
in addition, this method proved highly effective in the theory of differential equations.
An entire series of papers was devoted to applications of binary dispersion relations to derive approximate
equations describing processes involving the participation of unstable particles.
Summarizing the proceedings of the conference, D. I. Blokhintsev noted that the very composition of those
in attendance indicated per se the great interest stirred by the theory of dispersion relations, and noted the fact
that many interesting pieces of research reporting the solution of concrete problems in scattering theory had been
presented. However, D. I. Blokhintsev did not fail to note that insufficient progress had been registered in appli-.
cations of dispersion relations as the basis of the theory, and that the future would disclose the principal difficul-
ties that still remain to be overcome.
V. Biryukov
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Bibliography
Books and Symposia
A wide selection of books on ion exchange have appeared in recent months, containing as a rule very
valuable information on the theory and application of exchange resins in uranium technology; radiochemistry,
and in the production of nuclear energy. A prominent place must be given, in our view, to the following books:
1. Ion Exchange and Its Application, A Symposium Edited by K. V. Chmutov, Moscow, Izd. AN SSSR, 1959.
2. Ion Exchange Technology, Symposium Edited by Nachod and Schubert. Academic Press, N.Y. Russian
translation by Metallurgizdat, 1959.
3. R. Kunin, Ion Exchange Resins. J. Wiley, New York, 1958.
In addition to those books, we shall also discuss "Ion exchange in laboratory practice" by Salmon and Hale,
London, Buttersworth, 1959, and "Ion exchange resins" by Kitchener, Methuen & Co., London, 1957.
The symposium "Ion exchange and its applications" has a chapter entitled "Ion exchange resins", compiled
by E. B. Trostyanskaya, which gives a classification of ion exchange resins, lists the general requirements imposed
upon them in applications, discusses conditions governing the preparation of ion exchange resin beds for practical
use, and cites the basic methods used for testing the resins. The principal properties of Soviet ion exchange resins
are cited, along with several specimens of exchange resins common in the USA. Of those exchange resins dis-
cussed, we were particularly interested in the copolymers of acrylic and methacrylic acid, dimethacrylic acid-
ethylene glycol ester, and carboxylic resins based on polyvinyl alcohol and acrylonitrile. Selenic.acid cation
exchange resins may be prepared by reacting selenic acid with styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer.
For the sorption of a number of radioactive and fission elements, interest focuses on phosphoric acid cation
exchange resins, prepared.by phosphorylating polymers of polyvinyl alcohol and phenol derivatives, or styrene-
divinylbenzene copolymers. Condensation polymerization of hydroxyphenylarsonic acid with formaldehyde yields
a cation exchange resin having an arsenic acid residue as ion exchange functional group.
Copolymers based on maleic anhydride and divinylbenzene as a result of subsequent sulfonation of the
copolymer to yield cation exchange resins containing carboxylic sulfonic groups may also be of interest to a
degree. Great expectations are held for anion exchange resins based on polyvinyl chloride reacted with pyridine
or other aminating agents under pressure. A special group is constituted by chelating ion exchange resins of the
type which are derivatives of Trilon A and Trilon B, and which are highly valuable in radiochemistry.
In the chapter by M. M. Senyavin, "Elements of the theory of ion exchange and ion exchange chromato-
graphy", there appears a critical analysis of contemporary views on the statics, kinetics, and dynamics of sorption,
and experimental data obtained for various species of ion exchange resins are reviewed in the light of these
approaches. An analysis is made of the three outstanding viewpoints, interpreting the mechanism of the ion ex-
change process as a membrane equilibrium, as a double-layer heterogeneous chemical reaction, and as an osmotic
transport process. The most important criteria determining the effectiveness of separation processes are discussed.
The dependence of separation factor on the nature of the ion exchange resin and chelating substance is shown.
To amass data needed for arriving at rational separations techniques, it is proposed to determine the equilibrium
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constants and diffision coefficients of the ions. Criteria making it possible to distinguish bands of outward and
inward diffusion in chromatographic separation are discussed.
In a chapter by the same author, devoted to ion exchange chromatography in analytical chemistry and in
the technology of inorganic substances, a eminently complete review is given of Soviet and foreign papers
covering all the groups of the Mendeleevian periodic table of elements. This marks the first time such a sys-
tematic review of work on ion exchange chromatography has been accomplished, and is a monumental bit of
valuable reference material reflecting the current state of the art. Several variants to be pursued in the separa-
tion of alkali, alkali-earth, and rare-earth elements are discussed in detail. Valuable information is made avail-
able on sorption of uranium, thorium, and other radioactive elements.
The physical-chemical and physical-mechanical characteristics of the most important ion exchange
membranes, methods for fabricating them, and their areas of application are treated in the chapter entitled
"Ion Exchange Membranes." A correlation is drawn up of the different methods used in desalting ocean water,
and it is shown that the most economically feasible technique, where a cheap supply of electric power is avail-
able, is the method of electrodialysis using ion exchange membranes.
The book "Ion exchange technology" provides a picture of the state of development of ion exchange
technology in virtually all branches of industry where applications of ion exchange resins are possible in the USA.
However, for a number of instances the authors of this book adduce only the most general information without
making any deep-going analysis of industrial practice in applications of ion exchange technology in the USA.
Readers will find the data on deionization by a mixture of ion exchangers, which makes for more com-
plete removal of electrolytes than may be had using conventional deionization procedures, quite interesting.
The use of this procedure for removing radioactive elements yields excellent results. Much attention is given
to. electrochemical processes entailing the use of ion exchange membranes. The theoretical bases underlying
processes of electrodialysis using ion exchange membranes are outlined, and the electrochemical properties of
the membranes (electrical conductivity, membrane potential, permselectivity, etc.) are discussed.
A new and interesting process of electrolytic regeneration of ion exchange resins is described, but it is
well to note that the authors failed to offer any convincing interpretation of the mechanism involved. A diagram
of a multicompartment electrodialyzer for separation of ion mixtures is presented. According to the view ex-
pressed by the authors, this process may find applications in the future in separating mixtures of ions possessing
similar physical and chemical properties, as for example isotopes. It was found that partial enrichment of D20
in water may occur as the result of electroosmosis through membranes of the Nepton SP-51 type. The separation
constant does not exceed 1.07 in experiments carried out with aqueous solutions of lithium chloride, ammonia,
and sulfuric acid in a cell with a single membrane.
In the chapter by F. Spedding and J. Powell, "Quantitative separation of rare earths of high purity by the
ion exchange technique", the perspectives envisaged in the use of rare earths are surveyed, and a theoretical
justification is given for the ion exchange separation process applied to the rare earths. Practical experience
gained in operation of a pilot plant is described.
Of considerable interest in this book are the chapters dealing with the use of ion exchange technology in
hydrometallurgy, in processing radioactive isotopes, and in treating radioactive wastes. The broadest area for
industrial applications of ion exchangers, following behind water softening and deionization, is found in the hy-
drometallurgy of uranium. Plants in the USA, Canada, Union of South Africa, and some other countries have made
widespread use of ion exchange technology for recovering uranium from leach liquors and pulps. Quaternary
ammonium bases (permutit SK, SKB, amberlite IRA-400, or Dowex-1) are used as sorbents.
The effect brought about by high activity levels on the physical and chemical stability of ion exchange
resins was studied in relation to an investigation probing the use of exchange resins in radiochemistry,. and puri-
fying of discard waters formed in the productionof fissionable: materials. Some authors have shown that ion ex-
changers deteriorate partially when exposes to prolonged high activity levels, an effect which is related to the
appreciable losses of sorptive capacity.
Very brief data are presented on continuous ion exchange plants for separating nuclear fission products.
It is probably that the use of continuous ion exchange processes on an industrial scale is in its early stages in
the USA. An extremely important area of ion exchange technology is found in the disposal of radioactive wastes
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(cesium, strontium, ruthenium, zirconium, etc.). It was established that the capacity of the resins is dependent
on the salt composition of the solution, in cases where the active elements are absorbed. For example, in the
sorption of active cesium from distilled water, the capacity of the cation exchanger nalcite HCR is practically
infinite, since 1 ml of HCR is capable of taking up 2.07 curies of cesium.
Various opportunities for applications of anion exchangers in the removal of radioactive iodine, ruthenium,
tellurium, molybdenum, and zirconium were discussed.
The book by R. Kunin, bearing the title "Ion exchange resins", appeared in print in 1958, and is the second
edition of a book of the same name by R. Kunin, and R. Myers, published in New York, in 1950. The first chap-
ters are devoted to the theory of the mechanism of ion exchange, characteristics of cation exchange resins and
anion exchange resins, and some supplementary data on the affinity and selectivity of various exchange resins.
The dependence of resin properties on the content of divinylbenzene is discussed. A correlation is offered of
current theories on exchange (Gregor, Gliickauf, Soldano,and others). The chapter on "Synthesis of ion exchange
resins" has been largely expanded. A reasonably complete table of the ion exchange resins prepared in the USA
and in other countries throughout the world is presented. The basic principles governing the preparation of ion
exchange membranes are outlined in concise fashion. Of a number of new sorptive agents listed, those meriting
a greater measure of attention are diallyl allyl phosphonate copolymers and allyl phosphonate polymers, which
contain an acid group capable of selectively absorbing uranium from nitrate. Resins containing diketone groups
selectively absorb copper.
Chapters Vi-IX are devoted to ion exchange applications to water softening and water deionization, and
deal at bottom with the same questions as in the book's first edition.
Chapter X treats, for the first time, of the use of ion exchange resins in hydrometallurgy. An account
is given of the history of the development of methods of uranium recovery from leach liquors and ore pulps.
A detailed description is given of a resin-in-pulp technique for processing gold-containing uranium ores. Cyani-
dation leaching of the gold is the first step, followed by routing of the residue to be leached with sulfuric acid
for uranium recovery. The gold from the pregnant cyanide solutions is extracted by means of an anion exchange
resin, in the company of nickel, silver, iron, copper, and zinc sorbates. Nickel, iron, copper, and zinc are
successfully eluted by dilute hydrochloric acid with sodium cyanide, following which the gold and silver are
eluted by a solution of hydrochloric acid in methanol. The uranium is then taken up from the sulfuric acid leach
liquor by an anion exchange resin, and passed througha mixture of ammonium nitrate and sulfuric acid as eluants.
Chapter XI is devoted to permselective membranes and their uses. For membrane types C-I and A-I,
electrochemical characteristics are given. The most widespread use found for ion exchange membranes is in
electrodialysis of water. Among other areas of application, we might cite the possibility of using them in the
recovery and precipitation of uranium, and also in decontaminating radioactive solutions.
Ion exchange resins also have a wide range of application in analytical chemistry. This question is the
subject of chapter XIII, which cites data on the use of exchange resins for concentration, ion exchange chroma-
tography, determination of the total concentration of electrolyte, determination of equilibrium constants, of
activity coefficients, etc.
Chapter XIV considers the principal areas of application of ion exchangers; among these, the field of
application for resin exchangers in the atomic industry is of particular interest for us, to remove 8 and y activity
from reactor coolant water, and for the study of fission products.
Chapter XV. goes into detail on some of the methods used in studying the physical and chemical stability
of various resin exchangers.
Chapter XVI discusses the economics concerned with processes involving the use of ion exchange resins.
The book by Salmon and Hale, entitled "Ion exchange in laboratory practice", contains familiar data on
exchange resins and may be of interest to engineers and technicians having their first fling at the subject. The
book offers a large number of exercises which will help in rapidly assimilating laboratory research practices.
Kitchener's book "Ion exchange resins" presents in concise form the basic questions underlying ion exchang
theory and practice. Data on the chromatographic separation of the rare earths and the transurani
(actinides) are made available, based on familiar work already published.
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The chapter devoted to the further development of ion exchange processes and particularly to the production
of high-selectivity resins is of some interest. For selective absorption of copper and ferrous oxide, ion exchange
resins based on metaphenylene diglycine and other amino acids forming chelating groups are recommended.
Resins containing groups of hydroxamic acids exhibit enhanced propensity toward chelation.
B. Laskorin
G. N. Ushakov, The World's First Nuclear Power Station. Construction and Operating
Experience. Moscow-Leningard, Gosenergoizdat, 1959, 223 pages, 8 rubles, 40 kopeks.
This book contains three chapters. The first chapter provides a detailed description of the world's first
nuclear electric-power generating station. The design of the uranium-graphite reactor and its accessory systems
is discussed. The primary and secondary loops of the station, a series of auxiliary low-pressure circuits, the sys-
tems for technological and dosimetric monitoring of the station, the drainage, ventilation, accessory electrical
power supply, transporting and technological operations systems incorporated into the plant as a whole are des-
cribed. The experimental possibilities lodged in the reactor and the means relied upon to provide adequate
shielding against radioactive emissions are explained.
The second chapter deals with the problems of construction and assembling of the power generating station.
The stringent specifications imposed on the quality and precision of the assembly work are stressed. Particular
attention is reserved for welding and quality control of welding operations. The organizational measures invoked
to bring about correct systems and instrumentation assembly, intermediate testing and checking out of assemblies
mounted in place, and the handling of technical documentation of the progress reached in stages of assembly
are described. Comprehensive checking-out operations on the facilities, including the physical start-up of the
reactor and running of the station through various sets of performance conditions, a prerequisite to putting the
station on the line definitively, are discussed.
In the third chapter, we have outlined before us five years of experience in running the plant. Steady-state
and transient operations come under discussion. Detailed description of the reactor power transient from zero
power to the predetermined level is described, as well as the checkout and setting into operation of various
systems, prior to running the power station through the initial power transient. An analysis is given of the per-
formance of various monitoring systems - the system for monitoring the state of the process channels, radioac-
tivity of the working fluids, performance of the heat power section of the power plant, health-physics monitoring,
and so forth. Experimental data on reactor reactivity increments as a function of reactor power and period are
given. Other items discussed are emergency reactor scrams and routine maintenance shutdowns, charging and
discharging of fuel channels to lengthen the life of the channels and to greatly increase nuclear fuel burnup.
Some other questions of a more trivial nature, but nevertheless quite possibly interesting for the operating
personnel in nuclear electric power stations, are dealt with in the book. On the whole, the book is directed at
the engineer level; if offers an ample selection of graphs, flowsheets, engineering diagrams, and may prove use-
ful not only to specialists in power engineering, but equally to students in power engineering institutes and en-
gineering students majoring in that field.
N. V. Nelipa, Introduction to the Theory of Multiple Scattering of Particles.
Moscow, Atomizdat, 1960, 160 pages, 5 rubles, 10 kopeks.
This book elucidates the traversal of y photons, electrons, and neutrons through matter, with multiple scatter-
ing taken into account. A detailed description of various methods used to solve multiple scattering problems
referable to those particles is given, for different particle sources. The general methods of solution are illustrated
by concrete numerical calculations. Comparison of the results of theoretical prediction and existing empirical
data is offered. The book is furnished with tables of build-up factors, energy spectra of photons, etc.
The book is written for physicists and engineers interested in multiple scattering problems, and may also
prove useful as a textbook. -
B. M. Gokhberg and G. B. Yan'kov, Electrostatic Charged-Particle Accelerators.
Moscow, Atomizdat, 1960, 52 pages, 1 ruble, 50 kopeks.
Charged-particle accelerators in which electrostatic generators are used as high-voltage, sources are des-
cribed in this brochure.
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A short survey covers various types of electrostatic generators and goes into their operating principles.
Most of the attention is reserved for accelerators of recent design with band generators in pressurized gas. An
analysis is given of the performance of components determining the energy and stability of the beam of accelerated
ions.
J. Kaspar. Minerals of Radioactive Elements,. Their Genesis and Extraction.
Prague, Statni Nakladatelstvi Technicke Literatury, 1959, 155 pages.
This book is the first monograph on the mineralogy of radioactive elements to be published in Czechoslovakia.
It centers its attention on the geochemical peculiarities of the radioactive elements and on descriptive mineralogy.
The introductory portion is devoted to a brief characterization of the processes of radioactive decay. Decay
chains for uranium, actinium, thorium, and neptunium are studied. The geochemistry of uranium and the geochem-
istry of thorium are taken up separately, later on. Both of these chapters include general information on uranium
and thorium content in certain rock species, their behavior in the process of magma differentiation, and their be-
havior in sedimentation processes. Over half the book is given over to a description of uraniferous and thorifer-
ous minerals. This description is richly illustrated with crystal. diagrams and color photographs of pertinent
minerals. In the following chapter, rather reduced in volume, a concise description appears on the paragenesis
of pitchblende and of the stages of mineralization of the. most important hydrothermal deposits of uranium. A
chart of uranium provinces and their characteristics is appended. The end of the book contains typical flow
process diagrams of uranium ore. processing operations.
The book is written for'specialists working with radioactive ores, and also for students, geologists, mineralo-
gists, geochemists, and chemists.
ARTICLES FROM THE PERIODICAL LITERATURE
I. Nuclear Power Physics
Neutron and reactor physics. Physics of hot plasma and controlled fusion. Physics of charged-particle
acceleration.
Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR, 130, No. 6 (1960).
G. A. Skuridin and K. P. Stanyukovich, pp. 1248-1251. Approximate solution of the problem of the
motion of a conducting plasma.
Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR 131, No. 1 (1960).
G. A. Skuridin and K. P. Stanyukovich, pp. 72-74. Motion of a conducting plasma in response to a
plasma piston.
Zhur. Tekn. Fiz. 30, No. 2 (1960).
V. M. Kel'man, et al., pp. 129-137. Achromatic magnetic mirrors.
P. I. Strel'nikov and A. I. Fedorenko, pp. 138-141. Study of focusing properties of a paraboloid magnetic
S. A. Kuchai, pp. 142-152. Optical properties of axisymmetric magnetic fields with a central source of
charged- particles.
Zhur. Tekn. Fiz. 30, No. 3 (1960).
K. D. Sinel'nikov, et al., pp. 249-255. Motion of charged-particles in a spatially periodic magnetic field.
K. D. Sinel'nikov, et al., pp. 256-260. Study of a magnetic trap.
A. I. Morozov and L. S. Solov'ev, pp. 261-270. Motion of particles in a toroidal corrugated magnetic
field.
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A. I. Morozov and L. S. Solov'ev, pp. 271-282. Motion of particles in a helical toroidal magnetic field.
K. D. Sinel'nikov, et at., pp. 282-288. Investigation of ion cyclotron resonance in a dense plasma.
I. F. Kvartskhava, et at., pp. 289-296. Experiments on electrodynamical acceleration of a plasma.
I. F. Kvartskhava, et at., pp. 297-305. Some magnetohydrodynamic effects observed in a pulsed plasma
pinch.
R. A. Demirkhanov, et at., pp. 306-314. High-frequency oscillations in a confined plasma.
R. A. Demirkhanov,.et at., pp. 315-319. Interaction between a beam of charged-particles and a plasma.
V. D. Kirillov, pp. 320-329. Energy losses from radiation in a gas-discharge plasma.
Yu. V. Vandakurov, pp. 330-337. On the stability of a thin annular plasma conductor in a magnetic field.
Zhur. Eksp. i Teoret. Fiz. 38, No. 2 (1960).
V. I. Veksler, pp. 324-334. Energy distribution of sputtered and scattered ions in bombardment of a tanta-
lum and molybdenum surface by positive cesium ions.
A. N. Protopopov, et al., pp. 384-386. Fission of Th23z by neutrons of 14.9 Mev energy.
G. G. Dolgov-Savel'ev, et al., pp. 394-403. Investigation of a toroidal discharge in a strong magnetic
G. E. Belovitskii, et at., pp. 404-408. On the mechanism involved in the fission of uranium nuclei by
? mesons.
L. V. Groshev, et al., pp. 588-597. Gamma spectra from capture of thermal neutrons by heavy nuclei. I.
V. M. Strutinskii, et at., pp. 598-611. Gamma spectra from capture of thermal neutrons by heavy
nuclei. II.
V. S. Sorokin and I. V. Sushkin, pp. 612-620. Stability of equilibrium of a conducting fluid heated from
below in a magnetic field.
D. P. Grechukhin, pp. 621-630. Circular polarization of gamma photons accompanying capture of a slow
neutron in the nucleus.
i
Zhur. Eksp. i Teoret. Fiz. 38, No. 3(1960).
Yu. A. Vasil'ev, et at., pp. 670-684. Measurement of spectra and average number of neutrons in fission
of U285 and U238 by neutrons of 14.3 Mev energy.
I. F. Kharchenko, et at., pp. 685-692. Interaction of an electron beam with a plasma.
L. M. Kovrizhnykh and A. A. Rukhadze, pp. 850-853. On the instability of longitudinal oscillations of an
electron- ion plasma.
Izvest. Vyssh. Ucheb. Zaved. Radiofizika 2, No. 6 (1959).
V. V. Zheleznyakov, pp.858-868. On the interaction of electromagnetic waves in a plasma. II.
Nauka i Zhizn' 27, No. 3 (1960).
A. N. Lebedev, pp. 38-39. A new accelerator.
Pribor i Tekn. Eksp. No. 1 (1960).
A. V. Kutsenko, pp. 3-16. Coincidence circuits in nuclear physics.
A. P. Babichev and N. D. Fedorov, pp. 16-19. On acceleration of ions in a cyclotron riding a "subharmonic".
A. G. Khabakhpashev, pp. 25-29. A fast neutron scintillation spectrometer.
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B. S. Kozachina, et al., pp. 110. Voltage stabilization of the deflection system of a cyclotron.
V. M. Kirsanov, et al., pp. 111-112. Measurement of the current density distribution in,the external beam
of a cyclotron.
Yu. K. Gus'kov, et al., pp. 143-144. Preparation of uranium monolayers by vacuum evaporation.
Uspekhi Fiz. Nauk 70, No. 2 (1960).
V. L. Ginzburg and A. V. Gurevich, pp. 201-246. Nonlinear phenomena in a plasma immersed in a
variable electromagnetic field. . I
Fizika Tverd. Tela 2, No. 3 (1960).
V. L. Bonch-Bruevich and A. G. Mironov, pp. 489-498. Contribution to the theory of an electron plasma
in a magnetic field.
Arkiv Fys. 16, No. 3 (1960).
K. Larsson, et al., pp. 119-217. Time of flight spectrometer with a slow-neutron chopper:
B. Bonnevier and B. Lehnert, pp. 231-236. Motion of charged particles in a rotating plasma.
Canad. J. Physics 38, No. 2 (1960).
J. King, et al., pp. 231-239. Cross section of the (y, n) reaction for N14.
Industries Atomiques IV, Nos. 1-2 (1960).
R. Levy-Mandel, pp. 71-75. The SATURNE proton synchrotron at Saclay.
I. Linhart, pp. 81-82. New investigations in the area of thermonuclear fusion.
Jadern2 Energie 6, No. 3 (1960).
I. Chochlovsky, et al., pp. 80-82. Laboratories for. the Van de Graaff accelerator at the Institute.of
Nuclear Research of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences.
Jaderna Energie 6, No. 4 (1960).
J. Habanec. pp. 109. The first Czechoslovak cyclotron.
L. Dr3?ka and R. Hejlek, pp. 116-119. A plan drawn up by the department of technical and nuclear physics
at Praha-Liben.
Nuclear Energy 14, No. 142 (1960).
------ pp. 112-113. The mass spectrometer at Argonne National Laboratory.
Nuclear Inst. and Methods 6, No. 2 (1960).
B. Cohen, et al., pp. 105-125. The Oak Ridge Relativistic Isochronous Cyclotron. Part II. Design of the
magnetic field for the ORIC.
R. Ritchie, et al., pp. 157-163. A spherical condenser as a high-resolution particle spectrometer.
P. Grivet and A. Septier, pp. 126-156. Magnetic quadrupole lenses [in French].
H. Bruckmann, pp. 169-175. A modulator for the Bonn FM cyclotron, with a ferroelectric ceramic [in
German].
H. Kumagai, pp. 213-216. Design of cyclotron magnets with a wide range of field intensity variation.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060001-7
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/14: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100060001-7
Nuclear Inst. and Methods 6., No. 3 (1960).
M. Gordon and T. Welton, pp. 221-233. The Oak Ridge Relativistic Isochronous Cyclotron. Part.IlI.
Investigation of ion motion within the cyclotron.
R. Bassel and R. Bender. pp. 234-237. The Oak Ridge Relativistic Isochronous Cyclotron. Addendum.
Some recent results on the study of the ion motion.
C. Wagner, et al., pp. 238-242. The techniques of chemical research performed with the Van de Graaff,
electron accelerator.
Nuclear Inst. and Methods 6, No. 4 (1960).
R. Ballini and S. Shafroth, pp. 331-336. Low-energy neutron detection by the NaI(Tl) crystal in a time-
of-flight spectrometer.
Nuclear Phys. 15, No. 1 (1960
W. Cross and R. Jarvis, pp. 155-165. Scattering of 14.6 Mev neutrons by Mg, Ca, Cd, Ta, and Bi.
Nuclear Phys. 15, No. 2 (1960).
I. Preiss and R. Fink, pp. 326-336. New nuclides of cobalt; activation cross sections of nickel, cobalt, and
zinc by 14.8 Mev neutrons.
F. Everling, et al., pp. 342-355. Atomic masses of nuclei from A