THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF ATOMIC ENERGY VOL. 8 NO. 3

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 98
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 19, 2013
• Sequence Number: 3
• Publication Date: May 1, 1961
• Content Type: REPORT

Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Volume 8, No. 3
May, 1961
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
_
- Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ALL-UNION SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
CONFERENCE ON THE APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
MOSCOW, 1957
L
Application of Radioactive Isotopes in Biochemistry and
the Study of Animal Organisms
Jan.-Feb.,-1959 heavy paper covers 20?papers,
illustrated $50.00
A
Application of Radioactive Isotopes in the Food
and Fishing Industries and in Agriculture
Jan.-Feb., 1959 heavy paper covers 16 papers,
illustrated $30.00
Application of Radioactive Isotopes in Microbiology
Jan.-Feb., 1959 heavy paper covers 5 papers,
illustrated $12.50
Radiobiology
Jan.-Feb., 1959 heavy paper covers
37 papers,
'illustrated $75.00
SPECIAL PRICE for the 4-:VOLUME SET $125.00
Individual volumes may be purchased 'separately
?
The utilization of ? isotopes and radiation in biology,
, medicine, and agriculture is covered in 78 reports.
Included 'in these significant papers are the latest
Soviet techniquies in the action of radiation on the
living organism for the purpose of producing directed
changes in plants and animals, curing of human ill-
nesses and the utilization of isotopes as tagged atoms
In the study of vital processes. Every biologist: chem-
ist, health physicist, and physician employing the
techniques hould have access to this outstanding
reference work.
,1??????0??
Notei Individual reports from each volume are
available at $12.50 each. We will gladly- supply
a detailed table of contents upon request.
A
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
227 WEST 17TH STREET. NEW YORK 11. N Y
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
?
?
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhall
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
VI. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Aseistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated March, 1960)
Vol. 8, No. 3 May, 1961
CONTENTS
The Late Frederic Joliot-Curie (On the Occasion of his Sixtieth Birthday)
A Cyclotron With a Spatially Varying Magnetic Field. D. P. Vasilevskaya, A.A. Glazov,
PAGE
167
RUSS.
PAGE
I
V. I. Danilov, Yu. N. Denisov, V. P. Dzhelepov, V. P. Dmitrievskii,B. I. Zamolodchikov,
N. L. Zaplatin, V. V. KoPga, A. A. Kropin, Liu Nei-ch'uan, V. S. Rybalko,
A. L. Savenkov, and L. A. Sarkisyan
168
189
Acceleration of Ions in a Cyclotron with an Azimuthally Varying Magnetic Field.
R. A. Meshcherov, E. S. Mironov, L. M. Nemenov, S. N. Rybin, and Yu. A. Kholmovskii. .
179
201
Method of Obtaining an Average Value for the Nuclear Constants, Involved in Fast Reactor
Calculations, Taking into Account the Neutron Values. A. I. Novozhilov and
S. B. Shikhov
186
209
The Feasibility of Using Organic Liquids, Heated in Nuclear Reactors, as Working Fluids in
Turbines, from the Thermodynamical Standpoint. P. I. Khristenko
191
214
Some Force and Deformation Characteristics in the Metal Forming of Uranium. I. L. Perlin,
195
219
I. D. Nikitin, V. A. Fedorchenko, A. D. Nikulin, and N. G. Reshetnikov
Prospecting Criteria for Uranium Deposits. M. M. Konstantinov
203
228
Dosimetry of Intermediate-Energy Neutrons. A. G. Istomina and I. B. Keirim-Markus
212
239
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
The Neutron-Deficient Isotope Ho155. B. Dalkhsuren, I. Yu. Levenberg, Yu. V. Norseev,
219
248
V. N. Pokrovskii and S. S. Khainatskii
Determination of the Dampness of Dry Granular Substances, by Means of Neutron Moderation.
A. K. Val' ter and M. L. Gol'bin
220
248
Local and Mean Heat-Transfer for a Turbulent Flow of Nonboiling Water in a Tube with High
Heat Loads. V. V. Yakovlev
221
250
On the Question of the Choice of Heat Carriers for Nuclear Reactors. E. I. Siborov
224
252
Turbulent Temperature Pulsations in a Liquid Stream. V. I. Subbotin, M. I. Ibragimov,
226
254
and M. N. Ivanovskii
Electrolytic Preparation of Layers of Uranium Compounds with Densities of 1-3 mg/cm2.
V. F. Titov
229
257
Solubility of Uranium (IV) Hydroxide in Sodium Hydroxide. N. P. Galkin and M. A. Stepanov. .
231
258
Catalytic Effect of Iron Compounds in the Oxidation of Tetravalent Uranium in Acid Media.
? Vikt. I. Spitsyn, G. M. Nesmeyanova, and G. M. Alkhazashvili
233
261
Effects of Gamma Radiation on the Electrode Properties of Lithium Glass. N. A. Fedotov
235
262
Measurement of Gamma-Radiation Dose by the Change in Optical Activity of Certain
Carbohydrates. S. V. Starodubtsev, Sh. A. Ablyaev, and V. V. Generalova
237
264
Annual subscription $ 75.00
Single issue 20.00
Single article 12.50
CD 1961 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York II, N.Y.
Note: The sale of photostatic copies of any portion of this copyright translation is expressly
prohibited by the copyright owners.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
CONTENTS (continued)
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
VII Session of the Learned Council of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (Dubna)
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
M. Lebedenko.
239
266
Conference of Representatives of 12 Governments. M. Lebedenko..
241
267
TH All-Union Technical-School Conference on Electron Accelerators Yu.M. Ado and
242
268
K. A. Belovintsev
Symposium on Extraction Theory. LV. Seryakov
243
269
_
Development of Nuclear Power in Sweden. M. Sokolov
245
270
[Research ,Reactors in West Germany
273]
[Start-Up of a BWR in Norway
275]
Plasma Research on the Stellarator
247
277
[Entropy Trapping of Plasma by a Magnetic Field with Inflation of Magnetic Bottle
2811
[New Electrostatic Accelerator Designs
283]
[American Research in the-Area of Nuclear Fuel Processing
285]
New Shielding Materials
252
285
BRIEF NOTES
252
286
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature
253
289
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all material that appears in Atomnaya Efnergiya. Those items that originated
in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brackets. Whenever
possible , the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given.
Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
THE LATE FREDERIC JOLIOT-CURIE
(on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday)
March 19, 1960 marks the passage of sixty years
from the time of the birth of the outstanding French
scientist sand physicist Frederic Joliot-Curie, ardent
fighter for peace and member of the French Communist
Party. The name of this scientist is inscribed in gilded
letters in the history of science. The most important
stages of the development of nuclear physics in the
first half of the XX Century are associated with his
name.
Frederic Joliot-Curie launched into the study of the.
physics of the atomic nucleus back in 1928, in collabor-
ation with his wife Irene Joliot-Curie. In 1934 they
discovered the phenomenon of artificial radioactivity.
This discovery played an exceptionally great role in the
development of concepts on the properties of atomic
nuclei. The Joliot-Curies were jointly awarded the
Nobel prize for this, discovery, outstanding in its im-
portance. The phenomenon of artificial radioactivity
has come into advantageous use in our time on a
broad and fruitful scale in almost all branches of
science and in many branches of industry.
Joliot-Curie performed much important work pre-
paratory to and conducive to the discovery of the
neutron. He was the first to record and photograph the
results of a neutron-proton collision in a Wilson cloud
chamber. An important phase of Joliot-Curie's en-
deavors was also devoted to research on the formation
by gamma photons of pairs of oppositely. charged
particles, the position and electron.
The outstanding scientist Joliot-Curie was one of
the first to grasp the enormous significance of the dis-
coveries of nuclear physics for the future of mankind.
He took a firm stand against secrecy clouding research,
and against military uses of nuclear research.
In 1946, soon after the liberation of France from
the Hitlerite usurpers, Joliot-Curie became head of the
Commissariat de l'nergie Atomique, of which he was
the founder, and on December 15, 1948, France's first
nuclear reactor, named ZOE ("life" in Greek), was
commissioned under his supervision.
In 1943, Joliot-Curie became a member of the
Paris Academy of Sciences, and in1947 became a
Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences of
the USSR.
Joliot-Curie was also very much active in public
life. From 1946 on he was president of the World
Federation of Scientific Workers, and from 1951 held
the post of Chairman of the World Peace Council..
Joliot-Curie died on August 14, 1958.
Soviet scientists also found in Frederic Joliot-Curie
a true friend, and felt pride for his being an outstanding
scientist and fighter for peace.
167
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
A CYCLOTRON WITH A SPATIALLY VARYING MAGNETIC
FIELD*
D. P. Vasilevskaya, A. A. Glazov, V. I. Danilov, Yu. N. Denisov,
V. P. Dzhelepov, V. P. Dmitrievskii, B. I. Zamolodchikov,
N. L. Zaplatin, V. V. Ka ga, A. A. Kropin, Liu Nei-ciruang
V. S. Rybalko, A. L. Savenkov, and L. A. Sarkisyan
Translated from Atomnaya gnergiya, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 189-200,
March, 1960
Original article submitted August 27, 1959
This article is devoted to the design of a cyclotron with a spatially varying magnetic field. The basic con-
clusions of the linear theory of motion of charged particles in a magnetic field of periodic radial and azimuthal
structure are given. The theoretical and experimental results of the study of nonlinear resonance close to the
center of the accelerator are presented. Formulas are obtained for the calculation of required magnetic field
configurations. Methods of shimming, measurement, and stabilization of the magnetic field are suggested. An
accelerator designed with pole faces of diameter 120 cm was used for modeling the ion phase motion and for in-
vestigating spatial stability; Deuterons were accelerated to an energy of 13 Mev at an accelerating voltage of
5 kv.
Introduction
The idea of using a spatially varying magnetic
field in cyclical accelerators to provide stable motion
of the particles was first expressed in 1938 [1]. This
idea was not further developed at that time because the
limitation on the energy attainable in the cyclotron
was caused by the phase motion of the ions, and the
proposed method removed this limitation only in a
narrow region of accelerated ion energies. As a result
of the discovery of the autophasing principle in 1944-
1945 by V. I. Veksler [2] and E. McMillan [3], the
energy limitation in cyclical accelerators was removed.
There arose, however, serious difficulties of a technical
and economic nature in the design of accelerators for
energies of the order of 10-15 Bev and above.
The application of magnetic fields with a varying
gradient in ring accelerators [4] permitted a decrease
in the volume of the magnetic field in which the ac-
celeration of the particles takes place and an increase
in the energy of the accelerated protons to several tens
of billion electron-volts [5-71 The pulse character of
the operation of these accelerators, however, greatly
restricts the average accelerated particle current and,
to a considerable degree, narrows the possibilities of
their use in nuclear research.
The proposed application of colliding beams of
particles for the study of nuclear processes, the excep-
tional importance of investigations of nuclear reactions
168
"ffit
produced by secondary particles (it, K, p. E. etc.),
the constantly increasing requirements of experimental
accuracy all lead to the heed of increasing the particle
beam intensity obtained from the accelerators. In this
connection, there is a pressing need for a detailed in-
vestigation of new possibilities of accelerating tech-
nique [8, 9] involving nonhomogeneous structures of
stationary magnetic fields.t
In 1955, there was suggested a magnetic field whose
intensity varies periodically in both the azimuthal and
radial directions [12]. Theoretical investigations of the
particle dynamics in such fields indicated that these
fields are more advantageous than the magnetic fields
suggested in [1]. For cyclical accelerators these ad-
vantages lead to an increase in the limiting energy of
the accelerated particles and also to a considerable de-
crease in the required amplitude of variation (flutter) of
the magnetic field intensity. For accelerators of the
phasotron type, such fields permit one to obtain dy-
*A brief account of the starting up of this accelerator
appeared in the journal Atomnaya Energiya 6, 6, 657
(1959). [Original Russian pagination. See. C. B. translation]
t Here we shall not consider questions related to the use
of the properties of relativistic plasma [10] for accelera-
tors or the possibilities of a coherent method of accelera-
tion [111 since this goes beyond the scope of our dis-
cussion.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
namically similar orbits during the entire acceleration
cycle and also to "accomodate" a large range of pulses
of particles in a relatively narrow ring-shaped zone of
the magnetic field.
During 1955-1958, in the Nuclear Problems
Laboratory of the Joint Institute of Nuclear Studies in-
vestigations of spiral-ridge magnetic fields were carried
out on an accelerator of the cyclotron type designed
and built on the basis of the theory of spatial stability
developed at Dubna [13-15] and Harwell [16-18].
Linear Theory
The motion ora charged particle in a magnetic
field is described by the equations (in the cylindrical
coordinate system)
r" ? =
2r'2'
e 1-I r,2?r2+z,2
r'2
r z '
gr'z' e 1 ,?2-Fr11 ` r 2 rJir "r 7,2
r
V
- MC
H
(1)
--r ,
The equation of the closed orbit in the linear
approximation obtained from (4) has the form
Q" [ 1 + 71+ ER + (2 n) Ell -6 ? ERI. (5)
Denoting by p the particular solution of the inhomo-
geneous equation (5), we obtain a linearized equation
of oscillations with respect to the closed orbit:
Q" [ eR4Lr + (2 + n) ef
where r' and z' denote differentiation with respect to
cp; Hz, Hr, I-Lp are the components of the magnetic
field intensity ; my is the momentum of the particle.
We represent the magnetic field of a cyclotron in
the median plane in the form
Hz-- II (0[1+ 8/ (r, cp)1, (2)
where E is the flutter of the magnetic field; f (r, 99) is a
periodic function of r and cp with an average value of
zero.
After inserting (2) into (1), we obtain the following
system of equations, which describes the motion of
particles of momentum
p mv = -e- (R)I1 (3)
apart from terms higher than the second order:
Q"H [1+ 71+ 8R + (2 n) ef Q
d 1 2nj_ 8 7\
L R -1- R -1 R
+ 8(2 + n) + '95;-/22 Q2 ?
[2111_ _ 3 Re e,2 1 [
, 2d df a f n
1- gi + 2" TIT + 6 Cir." (1 +61)?
a,/ 82f 0 e of .
R acr + 817 ar2] z--Rdcp zil +
+ 21R (I + 81) Z'2 = ?R/;
Z" [ n gni + ER z
Or J
? [ (n d) 4g-
26 (1 + n) .V7 + eR aw,122] z@+
^ 4?- ZQ' ?
(4)
where Co .--- r ? R; n= HR dH (r)
(R) dr r=i?
x
1i2 d2H (r) 1
I? the values of the function f
H (R) (1r2jr=.R '
and its partial derivatives are taken at r = R.
(1 + 2n 4-ti) -}- 26 (2 + n) 6 L'f__
2F.
2n. + d) /6-1- eRed o
pr ?
=0;
z" ? [rz enf GR (n+ d)
(n d) e/ 26 -h Q
ER6aW:122 /IF z
(6)
We shall consider a case encountered in practice
in which the lines of the extreme values of the vertical
component of the magnetic field intensity are Archi-
medes spirals:
= sin ? Ny) ,
(7)
where 2irt is the radial pitch and N is the periodicity
of the magnetic field structure.
Since in a cyclotron (coo = const) the exponent of
the field n should vary as 132/(1 -- 2), then the choice
of the magnetic field structure in which the extreme
values of the intensity are distributed over a logarithmic
spiral [16] is impractical.
For the cyclotron under consideration the basic
focusing action is determined by terms containing the
ratio R/*. For a nonconservative choice of parameters
[19], this ratio considerably exceeds unity throughout
the range of radii, except for a small zone at the center
169
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
of the accelerator where the employed linear theory
is inapplicable.
After neglecting small terms and reducing the
system (6) to canonical form, we can write
+ (a, ? 2q cos 2E) Q 0; I
Z" (az ? 2q cos n) z = 0, f
where
4 A , e2 R2
a, =-- 2-0 {I -t- n 212 iiv2? (1+ n)1} ;
4 62R2
? n 2x2 EN2?(1+n)J ;
26/?
q N2t
= ? Ny.
(8)
From (8) it follows that for cyclotrons the intial
values of the coefficients in the Mathieu equations are
ar = 4/N2, az = 0, q = 0, i.e., the working point lies in
the first stability band [20]. The width of this band for
q < 1 is given to an accuracy of a few percent by
1 2 1 2
11
//
I
\
01st.
vapor 1
1;
/surp;erheated
\
V
va
3or
0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,0 2,4 2,8
Fig. 2. T-S diagram for water, diphenyloxide,
mercury: a) water; b) diphenyloxide; c) mercury
(scaled to 1 kg saturated vapor); b1) diphenyloxide;
C1) mercury (scaled to 6 kg saturated vapor).
7;?
192
350
30
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
_ .
I
1
/
1
NII4/
a
_
.1
-
N
/
,
,s... /
i._
,..,
sf.
_
/
1
0,2 0,3 44 4
Fig. 3. T-S diagram for diphenyloxide,
kerosene, and ethyl ether: 1) Diphenyl-
oxide; 2) kerosene; 3) ethyl ether.
mixture of diphenyloxide and diphenyl), and, apparently,
n-hexane, acetic acid, and naphthalene.
The thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine making
direct use of a heated liquid is shown in Fig. 4. The
isobar AB (coinciding with the lower limit of the curve)
characterizes the heat transfer of the liquid, while the
adiabatic line BC gives the liquid expansion in the
turbine nozzle, and the isotherm CA gives the vapor
condensation.
If the working fluid satisfies the condition CL >
> I3T _ _r I
, then (assuming a long enough nozzle)
T
vapor or a two-phase liquid will emerge from the
nozzle. This cycle could be termed a boiling-liquid
cycle.
The efficiency of this cycle (assuming the specific
heat of the liquid to be constant) is
T2 in
? ir 2
1 T1?T2
(1)
where T1 is the peak temperature of the cycle. and T2
is the low-point temperature of the cycle (temperature
in the condenser).
If we take advantage of the fact that the lower
limiting curve coinciding with the isobar in the T-S
diagram is quite close to linear over a limited tem-
perature range (say, to 100?C, for water), we can then
derive the formula giving an approximation to the
cycle efficiency:
T1? T2
=
(2)
Comparing the efficiency of this boiling-liquid
cycle to the Carnot cycle efficiency
T1_-T2.
(3)
lt T
for the same temperatures T1 and T2 in both cycles, we
find that a machine operating on the Carnot cycle uses
almost double the amount of heat of a machine operat-
ing on the boiling-liquid cycle. But the thermal effi-
Fig. 4. T-S diagram of cycle of boil-
ing liquid with regeneration.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
ciency of the boiling-liquid cycle may be raised
appreciably (and even brought close to a Carnot cycle)
by resorting to heat regeneration.
The theoretical regenerative boiling-liquid cycle
with an infinite number of bleed stages is indicated on
the T-S diagram (Fig. 4) by the figure ABDE, or the
figure D'BCEe.
Cycle ABDE may be brought about for either a
boiling liquid in droplet form or for a gas. It constitutes
a thermodynamic cycle similar to that achieved in a
gas turbine with gas heated under constant pressure in a
regenerative heater and combustion chamber (lines
AD' and D'B), under adiabatic expansion of a gas in a
turbine (line BD), with the gas cooled under constant
pressure in a regenerative heater (line DE), and in the
case of isothermal compression of the gas in a corn -
pressor (line EA).
For a heat engine operating on a boiling-liquid
regime, lines AD' and D'B correspond to the case of a
liquid heated in a multistage regenerative heater and
heat generating unit, lines BD and DE correspond to
adiabatic expansion of the liquid without bleed-off and
with multistage extraction of the working fluid, while
EA corresponds to condensation of the vapor.
The cycle D'BCE' represents a cycle obtainable in
a gas turbine with heating under constant pressure (line
D'E), adiabatic expansion of the gas (line BC), and iso-
thermal and adiabatic compression of the gas (lines
CE' and E'D', respectively).
Denoting as Tr the regeneration temperature, the
efficiency of the cycle with regeneration will then
appear, under the conditions assumed earlier, viz.,
C= const and C dT = T dS, in the form
ln
Tr
Tit I T2 (4)
7'1?Tr ?
The approximate value of the above is given by
2T2
tit ? 1
Ti+Tr ?
Consider the use of diphenyloxide, heated inside
the reactor loop, as the working fluid for a steam
tubine. The critical temperature of diphenyloxide is
530?C, the pressure at that point being 32.7 atm, and
accordingly: 6 atm at 350?C, 16.5 atm at 450?C, 0.05
atm at 150?C. Pure diphenyloxide melts at 28?C, and
melts at much lower temperatures in the presence of
trace impurities, while diphenyloxide decomposes at
high temperature. Experience has shown that 1-2/0
of the diphenyloxide decomposes when exposed to 15
atm and 440?C for 700 hours [2].
The limits of application of diphenyloxide may be
found from inspection of the T-S diagram. For the
initial temperature of the liquid at entry into the
machine, the range is 300-400?C (points T1 and Ti),
and for the final temperature the range is 120 -200?C
(points T2 and T;). This corresponds to initial pressures
of 2.0-16.5 atm, and final pressures of 0.015-0.15 atm.
Since the final temperature of diphenyloxide vapor
after discharge from the turbine remains high (120 -
-200?C), these machines must be used only as first-
stage units. The remaining heat must be utilized
either for industrial process needs or to drive the
second stage of turbines operating on low-pressure
steam.
In the latter case, use of heat from a reactor will
proceed along a two-stage thermodynamic cycle, a flow-
chart for which appears in Fig. 5, along with a T-S
diagram. The first stage of this cycle is indicated by
the figure D'BD, bounded by the isobar D'B, along which
heat is delivered to the liquid diphenyloxide in the re-
actor 1 (Fig. 5a), by the adiabatic line BD', along
which the heated diphenyloxide expands with vaporiza-
tion in the nozzle of the single-pressure-stage turbine
2, and by the isotherm DD', along which diphenyloxide
vapor condenses in the condenser 3. This condenser
5
Fig. 5. Flowchart (a) and T-S
diagram (b) of the dual cycle:
Stage I) heated diphenyloxide;
Stage U) saturated steam;
1) reactor; 2,4) turbines;
3,5) condensers; 6) re-
generative feed heater.
193
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19 :_CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
at the same time functions as an evaporator unit to
produce saturated steam, the working fluid for the second
second stage of the dual cycle. The second stage of
the cycle is illustrated graphically by the figure D'DEA,
bounded by the isotherm D'D, along which vaporization
of the water in the condenser 3 takes place, to yield
saturated steam, by the line DE, depicting adiabatic
expansion of the steam in the steam turbine 4, which
has multistage bleed-offs for regenerative feed heating,
by the isotherm EA and isobar AD', along which con-
densation of steam in condenser 5 and heating of feed-
water in regenerative feed heater 6 take place respec-
tively, heat rejected from the bled-off steam being
used to heat the feedwater.
The thermal efficiency of the binary cycle using
liquid diphenyloxide (stage I) and steam (stage II) is
0.43 (at temperatures ti = 350?C, tr = 200?C, and cooler
temperature tc = 35?C). If we assume the internal
turbine efficiency 770 = 0.75, the mechanical efficiency
71M = 0.96, the electrical efficiency nE = 0.97, and the
theoretical cycle efficiencyth = 0'9'
then the plant
n
may attain an efficiency as high as 27%. This would be
a very high efficiency, considering that the diphenyl-
oxide pressure does not exceed 6 atm, with the tem-
perature at 350?C.
In some cases, as for instance in designing a
nuclear propulsion engine for transportation purposes,
where weight and size of the plant are prime considera-
tions, design may be limited to include one turbine
using an organic fluid as working fluid. In that case,
the thermal efficiency of the thermodynamical cycle of
the plant would be n = 0.2-0.3, and the total plant
efficiency would be '7pl = 0.13-0.2.
The organic coolant media which have been most
thoroughly investigated, and which are currently least
expensive, are diphenyl, diphenyloxide, and their
eutectic mixture, Dowtherm.
For example, by using Dowtherm as the working
fluid with initial temperature ti = 300?C and enthalpy
= 149.5 cal/ kg (or ti = 400?C and Hi = 219 cal/ kg),
and taking into account expansion of the fluid in the
turbine nozzle to a state of saturated or slightly moist
vapor, then we shall obtain, at turbine exit, either
vapor at pressure Pvap = 0.017 atm with specific
volume v = 11.5 ma/ kg and enthalpy 11= 149.5 cal/ kg,
or vapor at pressure Pvap = 0.25 atm with v = 1.0 m3/ kg
and Hvap = 219 cal/ kg.
The heat drop during adiabatic expansion of the
liquid to a state of saturated vapor will be approximately
= 25 and A 112 = 55 call kg, and the speed at which
the vapor leaves the turbine nozzle ci 450 and c2
600 m/sec. The value of these speeds, as well as
the need to expand the boiling liquid to a state of
saturated vapor within the entrance nozzle of the
turbine, govern design considerations. The design
would apparently be a velocity-stage impulse turbine
194
with one or more (depending on power rating) two-row
or three-row discs.
If we bear in mind the comparative low speeds at
which the vapor leaves theturbine nozzle, the low
pressures, and the specific volumes of the organic vapors,
then the design of turbines for several hundred to several
tens of thousands of kilowatt ratings will be within
reach. The cost of turbines based on this principle
should not exceed the cost of conventional units.
We must also bear in mind the fact that the use of
turbines operating in a direct cycle with liquid organic
coolants heated in-pile would obviate the need for
installing a first stage of steam generating units with
pressure 30-40 atm.
A thermodynamical cycle utilizing heat rejected
from nuclear reactors would depend largely on the
method of heat removal.
In one case, where coolant heated in-pile retains
its original state of aggregation, the energy of the
coolant alone may be used to perform work, by cooling
the coolant medium in the engine and extracting work
from the higher temperature imparted to it in the re-
actor to the lower temperature corresponding to the
cold source. The theoretical thermodynamical cycle
for such (nonboiling) reactors must of neceSsity be the
cycle considered here.
In another case, where the coolant suffers a change
in its state of aggregation while in the reactor (the
liquid being converted to vapor), the latent heat of
vaporization of the liquid may be utilized to per-
form work, i.e., vapor produced in-pile is allowed to
expand adiabatically in the engine. A part of the heat
rejected by this vapor is transformed into work, and
the vapor is then condensed in the condenser. The
theoretical-thermodynamical cycle for such (boiling)
reactors must of necessity be a cycle bounded by two
isobars and two isotherms. The efficiency of this
cycle will be equal to the efficiency of the Carnot
cycle.
An intermediate position between boiling reactors
and nonboiling reactors is occupied by the uranium-
graphite reactor now being built by the USSR, which
features superheated high-pressure steam. In this reac-
tor, a conventional regenerative thermodynamical
cycle with steam superheat, common for modern steam
heat-power installations, is achieved.
As we have shown, a theoretical cycle for coolants
heated inside the reactor loop is realizable with the
aid of liquids which are fully capable of vaporizing
during adiabatic expansion.
LITERATURE CITED
1. V. Shyule, Engineering Thermodynamics [in
Russian] (Gos4nergoizdat, Moscow-Leningrad, 1934)
Vol. I, book 2.
2. Petrorius, "Efficiency and increased power in back-
pressure machines," Verein deutscher Ingen. 7,
No. 6 (1927).
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
SOME FORCE AND DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS IN
THE METAL FORMING OF URANIUM
I. L. Perlin, I. D. Nikitin, V. A. Fedorchenko,
A. D. Nikulin, and N. G. Reshetnikov
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp, 219-227,
March, 1960,
Original article submitted February 23, 1959
To determine the system of metal forming of uranium in order to produce sheets, bars, tubes, etc., an investiga-
tion was made of the force and deformation characteristics in rolling, extruding, wire-drawing, and stamping of
uranium. Determinations were made of the relationship between rollability of uranium and the temperature and
between the average specific pressure of uranium on the rolls, the absolute widening and the degree of reduction
(from 10 to 50%), and the temperature (from 400 to 1000?C). A calculation of the average specific pressure of
uranium on the rolls according to the analytical formula of A. I. Tselikov [1] showed good agreement between
the calculated data and the experimental results.
A study was made of the dependence of the extrusion stress on the drawing (up to 54), the temperature (from 250
to 800?C), and the scale factor (the ratio of diameters of the containers equal to 5),. The concepts are introduced
of extrudability and the modulus of the extrusion stress, methods are proposed for calculating them, and the de-
pendence is determined on the temperature of extrudability and the modulus. A study is made of the dependence
of the wire drawing stress and the safety coefficient on the degree of deformation (from 5.5 to 34%).
The metal forming of uranium differs in that, in
contrast to a number of industrial nonferrous metals,
uranium has a strong similarity to oxygen and to the
metals of the iron group. Additional difficulties in the
selection of optimum thermomechanical systems for
processing uranium are caused by the fact that it under-
goes three allotropic transformations with the formation
of modifications which have very different plastic and
strength characteristics.
Due to the large thermal effect during processing
caused by the high resistance of uranium to deformation
and its low specific heat, cases are found in practice
where ,during extrusion and rolling with high reductions
and speeds, the metal is heated due to the heat of
deformation and is converted from the a-phase to the
13-phase.
Oscillograms of the temperature changes inside
an uranium billet during the process of upsetting on a
friction press showed that at 420?C during deformation
of specimens from 90 to 60 mm in one impact, the
temperature of the metal is increased by 90-100?C.
A similar effect is also observed at other temperatures.
The intensive oxidation of uranium also affects
the change in temperature of the metal during pro-
cessing.
Bearing in mind the possibility of a considerable
increase in temperature due to the thermal effect of
deformation and oxidation, with appropriate control
of the heating it might be possible to select a system
of deformation in which the temperature remained
practically constant, i.e., an " isothermal " process
might be established.
It is mainly these considerations which determine
the methods used in the metal forming of uranium.
Methods have been developed for preparing uranium
components with all types of metal-forming processes.
Success has been achieved in the production of bars,
profiles, tubes, wire, various sheets, strip, and also com-
ponents with a more complex configuration.
Rolling
The maximum permissible reductions in the rolling
of uranium (E max - H?h 100%) cannot be determined
simply on the basis of the mechanical characteristics of
uranium (relative elongation, impact toughness, etc.),
since during rolling, as in any other metal-forming pro-
cess, the stress state has a complex form. The rolla-
bility (or plasticity of the metal during rolling) is there-
fore usually determined by rolling wedge-shaped speci-
mens into a strip of equal thickness. Figure 1 shows the
influence of temperature on the maximum permissible
reduction per pass in the rolling of cast uranium speci-
mens of 15 mm width. It can be seen from the dia-
gram that in the temperature ranges 500-600? and
770-1000?C, the uranium permits reductions during the
195
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
TABLE 1
Relationship between the Average Specific Pressure of the Metal on the Rolls and the Initial State of Uranium,
Reduction and Rolling Temperature
Initial state of uranium
Initial
thickness
H, mm
Final
thickness
h, mm
Initial
width B,
min
Relative
reduction
? I 50
Rolling
temperature
t, ?C
Average spe-
cific pressure
Par kg! mm2
Cast
10.2
9.3
30.0
8.8
20
163
The same
10.3
8.2
30.0
20.4
20
175
Rolled in the a-phase
7.0
6.4
27.8
8.6
20
558
The same
7.0
6.45
28.5
7.8
20
512
Rolled in the y -phase
25
10
100,0
60
950
2.5
The same
25
10.3
100.0
58.5
850
3.1
pass equal to > 80/0. Below 300?C the rollability of the
uranium falls sharply. At temperatures of 300-500?C
the permissible reductions are 50-7550. If the tem-
perature is accurately controlled, 8-uranium can be
rolled with reductions up to 30%. Temperatures close
to the transformation points a -* 0 and 8 y are the
most dangerous from the point of view of breakdown in
the rolled components. The obtained relationship is
approximate for the development of the method, since
plasticity during rolling depends on the character of the
stress state and, consequently, on the deformation con-
ditions (the shapes of the components and billets, ratios
of width to thickness, type of groove design, etc.).
In connection with the considerable anisotropy of
the properties and the reduced plasticity at temperatures
from 20 to 200-250?C, uranium is exceptionally sensitive
to unevenness in the distribution of deformation in the
rolled component. For example, thin uranium strips
(0.05-0.20 mm) can be obtained by rolling in the cold,
with a total reduction of 80-8550 and better for one
pass without breakdown. The increased plasticity in
this case is due to the low degree of unevenness in the
distribution of deformation in the rolled strip. When
rolling thin plates in the cold with a change in the
rolling direction, the resultant unevenness in deforma-
tion along the width causes the metal to break. Reduced
plasticity is observed at temperatures up to 250?C in all
cases where the metal is deformed with a high degree
of unevenness (for example, when rolling bars into strip).
Resistance to deformation. An investigation of the
change in the average specific pressure of the metal on
the rolls (pay) in relation to various factors was carried
out on a two-high mill with rough ground steel rolls
of 220 mm diameter. The pressures on the clamping
screws were determined by means of inductive or
graphite pickups and an MP-02 loop oscillograph. Two
series of experiments were carried out. In the first series,
cast and mechanically machined specimens with initial
thickness H = 10 mm and width B = 25 mm were rolled
in one pass with various reductions. In the second series,
specimens of varying thickness (8-14 mm), quench-
196
hardened from the 8-phase ,were rolled to the same
final thickness h = 7 mm. Rolling in the y -phase was
carried out on specimens measuring 10 x 100 x 180 and
25 x 100 x 180 mm.
The average specific pressure of the metal on the
rolls falls sharply with the rolling temperature (Fig. 2)
and increases considerably on transformation to the
8-phase. The greater pressures for the same reductions
in the second series of experiments (compared with the
first) are due to the use of quench-hardened specimens.
The average specific pressures of the metal on the
rolls at room temperature can exceed the pressures in
the y -phase by more than 80-100 times (Table 1).
The dependence of the average specific pressure on
the reductions during the pass for various temperatures
is different (Fig. 3). The drop in the value of the
average specific pressure with increase in reduction at
temperatures of 100, 200, 300 and 700?C is mainly due
to the increase in temperature of the metal during
rolling from the heat of deformation. Increase in tem-
perature of the metal during rolling at t = 630?C causes
transformation to the 8 -phase,which is recorded on the
oscillograms in the form of sudden changes in the
curves.
100
?- so
E 80
u,
d. 60
50
7, 40
4.)
30
z 20
10
?
as
V.)
170
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 SOO 1000
Rolling temperature, ?C
Fig. 1. The effect of temperature on the rollability of
uranium: x) no breakdown observed in the specimens.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
TABLE 2
Mechanical Properties of Extruded Uranium
Initial state of uranium
Yield strength,
ab, kg/ mm2
Relative elongation
(S, clo
Necking of the
transverse section
lii? 10
Extruded at 350?C
143.0
9.2
8.9
Extruded at 730-750?C
61.3
9.2
4.1
Extruded at 900?C
80.9
7.6
4.0
Extruded in the a-phase with sub-
sequent quench hardening from
the 8-phase
75.0
7.0
6.0
Remarks: 1) Each number is the arithmetic mean of three measurements.
used in the tests.
2)
Small specimens were
16
14
80
..
40/
50%
10%
20?
'
\\
T
NM
111
\
III
fig
,1/4
if
Iv
40 7?
.
,
--?figr
?-r..
,
HI
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 GOO
700 800 900 1000
Rolling temperature, ?C
Fig. 2. The relationship between the average specific pressure of the
metal on the rolls and the temperature; the first series
of experiments; ? ? ? the second series of experiments.
The calculation of average specific pressures from
the Tselikov analytical formula [1] showed good agree-
ment between the calculation data and the experimental
results:
72 (1 ?e)( 1/1/ Ft
Pay ? i) H)LH
--
where =
1] ,
H? h
is the relative reduction; hH is the
height of strip in the neutral section; e?
A h
is the coefficient of friction, D is the diameter of
the rolls); k = 1.15ny as (fly is the coefficient of
hardening, as is the yield stress at high plastic de-
formations).
Two curves of Fig. 3 were plotted on the basis of a
calculation according to this formula. In the calcula-
tions, the coefficient of hardening for all reductions
was taken constant and equal to 1.3 for t = 600?C and
1.5 for t = 200?C. However, as the investigations
showed, it changes in relation to the reduction and
temperature. The following hardening coefficients
are recommended when calculating with the Tselikov
formula [1]: 1 at 760-1000?C; 1.2-1.4 at 500-650?C;
1.4-1.6 at 200-500?C. The last two values of the
hardening coefficient increase with the reduction.
For a more correct approach to the calculation of
roll groove designs in the rolling of uranium it is essen-
tial in the first place to know the widening.
Figure 4 shows the relationship between the ab-
solute widening Ab = B1? B and the temperature during
the rolling of a square billet measuring 21 x 21 x 180
mm on 220 mm diameter rolls. The presence of a max-
197
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
17
11
10
3
a
7
0 6
-0
4
3
2
16
15
14
13
IZ
110
100
90
8
70
60
50
bO40
30
70
10
I?
I
I
/00?C
?
,?_!._
ccording
0.200.1;
Pr0.15;nse4
1
to
Tselikov
?
6
[ 0
'..1...p
300?C+
.,
700?C
400?C
1
500?C
600?C
800?C
-Cr--
Mil
? ?
III
11111
'
I
x
--........,
C.
a_M:
0.
o
6ccording
?.
CO
( t.
Tselikv
COO "0
;ny.43)
o
.
.
. lit'0,45
?
....'".."'/...7....
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 61]
Reduction s.--11/422. /00
Fig. 3. The relationship between the average specific
metal on the rolls and the reductions per pass--- ?
of experiments.
__10
0
3
'
b-----
-"r"----1-?
A
---t
"
0
0
-
V
0
--j---
'.1
I
I
Rolling temperature, ?C
Fig. 4. Relationship between the absolute widening of
the billet and the rolling temperature.
imum on the curves at tc.--,800?C is connected with the
presence of a maximum for the coefficient of friction at
this temperature. When t = 900-950?C, the coefficient
of friction (determined from the maximum angle of
bite) when rolling with steel rolls is equal to 0.4-0.45.
The differences in the value of widening for t 600
and t 1000?C are very small, especially with reduc-
tions up to 30clo. It follows that with the same groove
design it is possible to roll uranium at t 600 and
t 900-1000?C.
Extrusion
Uranium is extruded with varying degrees of diffi-
culty in the temperature range 250-1000?C.
198
pressure of the
first series
dal
.6
:i1.
ln Ln
Drawing
Fig. 5. Relationship between the extrusion stress of uranium
and drawing.
Gamma-uranium is extremely plastic and is ex-
truded with very small extrusion stresses, but readily
fuses with the components of the extrusion tool (iron,
nickel and cobalt), forming low melting eutectics.
Gamma-uranium is extruded in a graphite shell using
a carbide or steel tool with special coatings (for ex-
ample, molybdenum or chromium) and various lubri-
cants. Good results are obtained using ceramic tools.
Under ordinary extrusion conditions, a-uranium
binds strongly with the steel extrusion tool. In the ex-
trusion of a-uranium, as in the extrusion of y -uranium,
it is essential to avoid contact of the uranium with the
steel tool and with air. To achieve high quality in
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
the components and a good yield of useful metal in the
extrusion of a-uranium it is essential to ensure con-
ditions of fluid friction at the contact surfaces. As a
rule, a-uranium is extruded in various metal and non-
metallic shells (for example, in copper, zirconium,
nickel and graphite) or without a shell using lubricants
with fillers which are resistant to extrusion. In the
extrusion of a-uranium, the tool is of heat-resistant
steels, _carbides, or ceramics. When the billets are
heated before extrusion in a salt bath, the fused salt
serves not only as a heating medium, but also as a
lubricant in the extrusion.
Uranium components are made by both forward
and backward extrusion. Alpha-uranium is extruded
with rates of 1-400 mm/ sec and greater, depending on
the shape and dimensions of the component. The rate
of extrusion of y -uranium is practically unlimited.
When a- or y -uranium are extruded without a shell,
the components are often cooled in water immediately
after leaving the die in order to reduce oxidation and to
improve the structure of the metal.
Extrusion stress. The methods for calculating the
working stresses during extrusion involve the selection of
difficultly determined coefficients. In order to make
these coefficients more precise, as well as data on the
mechanical properties of uranium at high temperatures,
it is therefore necessary to know experimentally de-
termined values of the working stresses during the ex-
trusion of uranium.
At temperatures of 600-650?C, a-uranium can be
extruded with high degrees of deformation (99.50/0 and
better).
Figure 5 shows the relationship between the ex-
trusion stress and the drawing. The extrusion was
carried out at temperatures of 600-560? with a hydraulic
press. For all billets, the length was three times the
diameter. The force of extrusion was recorded by a
self-recording manometer. With increase in degree of
deformation the extrusion stress increases smoothly. The
scale factor has a considerable effect on the extrusion
stress. With decrease in the diameter of the container
the extrusion stress increases, and vice versa.
The extrusion stress of uranium also depends on the
uniformity of heating of the billets. Sometimes the
heating of the billets (for example, by high frequency
induction) is best carried out so that the surface layers
have a higher temperature than the inner layers. The
higher temperature of the surface layers then com-
pensates their cooling due to contact with the tool
during extrusion.
The extrusion stress also increases, other conditions
being equal, with increase in the length of the billet
(during the isothermal extrusion of a- and y -uranium
a length of the billet which is between three and five
times the diameter of the container has no noticeable
effect on the extrusion stress).
Figure 6 gives the relationship between the extru-
sion stress of uranium and the temperature. There is an
increase in the extrusion stress in the 8-phase region.
When the surface layers of the billet cool during ex-
trusion from the temperatures of y -uranium to those of
0-uranium, the component cracks? a "jag" is formed
(periodic disturbances in the continuity of the com-
ponent). When the surface layers of the billet cool from
the temperatures of -uranium to those of a-uranium.
no "jag" forms. In this case, the hard and brittle 8 -
uranium is pressed into the soft and plastic shell of ctc-
uranium, which means that in the core consisting of
8-uranium there are no tensile stresses.
It can be seen from Fig. 7 that the relationship
between the extrusion stress and the integral index of
the degree of deformation i(i = lnp) in semilogarithmic
coordinates is expressed by a straight line passing
through the origin.
The experimentally found regularities in the change
in extrusion stress as a function of the degree of de-
formation and temperature are in full agreement with
the theoretical principles, which means that a nomogram
can be drawn to determine extrusion stresses (Fig. 8).
The dotted line corresponds to an extrusion stress equal
to 150 kg/ mm!; the crosshatched area shows the effect
50

ICV 100 300 400 500 600 700 800 300 1800
Temperature, ?C ?
Fig. 6. Relationship between the extrusion
stress for uranium and the temperature.
0
0
.0'6\
...0
..,
...., ...
ee? e-'
d? .0-..r....-,
0
2
Degree of deformation i
Fig. 7. The relationship between the maximum and
minimum extrusion stresses and the integral index of
the degree of deformation.
199
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
of the scale factor on the extrusion stress with a ratio
of the container diameters equal to five.
Modulus of extrusion stress. Certain data were
published in [2, 3] on the extrusion constant of uranium,
determined from the formula
K=
E? hi IL'
where K is the extrusion constant; P is the force of ex-
trusion; FH is the area of cross section of the container;
? is the drawing.
Some papers mention that the value of K depends
on the state of the contact surfaces, the lubricant and
the length of the ingot [3] and also on the degree of
deformation [2]. Consequently, the value P expresses
the total force of extrusion determined in the general
case by the formula [4]:
P = RM + Ts + TM + Tf,
where Itm is the force on the press plate needed to pro-
vide the basic deformation without allowing for the
contact friction forces; Ts is the force on the press
plate needed to overcome the friction forces arising
on the side surface of the container; TM is the force
on the press plate needed to overcome the friction of
the deformed metal against the surface of the die; Tf
is the force on the press plate needed to overcome the
friction forces on the surface of the sizing flange of the
die.
In our experiments it was found possible to neglect
the forces of contact friction (before the center of de-
formation) in view of their small values. As can be
seen from Fig. 7, with increase in the degree of de-
formation the extrusion stress increases according to
a linear law and the straight line passes through the
origin. The total extrusion stress is then determined
from the formula
Rm + Tm
a ex = FH - Mexi,
where 0ex is the extrusion stress.
The value Mex, which is the coefficient of pro-
portionality in the formula connecting the stress and
deformation, by analogy with the modulus of elasticity
we have called the modulus of extrusion stress.
Figure 9 shows the relationship between the modulus
of the uranium extrusion stress and the temperature. In
the 8 -phase region there is an increase in the modulus
of the stress. In y -uranium the stress modulus is approx-
imately six times smaller than in a-uranium at ?650?,
and approximately twenty times smaller than for a-
uranium at 300?C.
Extrudability. The extrudability (resilience) of a
metal is a value determined for a general case from the
formula
a ex
iex =
Mex
where lex is the extrudability with extrusion stress
200
Of interest is the maximum extrudability of a
metal, which is determined at an extrusion stress which
is equal to the permissible yield strength of the press
tool material, i.e., 150 kg/ mmz. From the maximum
extrudability it is possible to evaluate the capacity of a
metal to deform by extrusion at a given temperature.
Figure 10 shows the effect of extrusion temperature on
the extrudability of uranium. The upper curve shows the
change in the maximum extrudability and the lower
curve the change in extrudability for
?ex 15 kg/ mmz.
In the region of the 8-phase there is a considerable
reduction in the extrudability of uranium; y uranium
has a very high extrudability (-35), which corresponds
to an extremely high degree of drawing (more than
1.5 ? 1015).
The mechanical properties of extruded uranium.
Components extruded in the region of the a-phase have
a fibrous macrostructure and porcelain-like fractures.
Components extruded in the y - and 8-phases have a
granular macrostructure, whereas the fracture of uranium
extruded in the 8 -phase is coarser grained than the frac-
ture extruded in the y -phase. The mechanical pro-
perties of extruded uranium correspond to the grain
sizes (Table 2). As can be seen from the table, uranium
extruded in the a-phase has a higher yield strength and
-
VC
?C4
e%
0111\7(W,
N

)..
'
/
//
50 / /
/ i, ,
ii,e / ...?
?/:.-
.
e.---
ikh,
-
6 o?c
Degree of clef ormati n i
Fig. 8. Nomogram for determining extrusion stresses.
150
100 200 500 400 NO 600 700 800 300 CIO
Temperature,?C
Fig. 9. Relationship between the modulus of
the uranium extrusion stress and the tempera-
ture.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
TABLE 3
Relationship Between Drawing Stress and Reduction
Initial state of uranium bar
Initial dia-
meter di,
mm
Final dia-
meter df,
mm
Reduction per
pass a ,50
Drawing
force Pdr,
kg
Drawing
stress (tdr,
kg/ mm2
Annealed
11.45
10.7
12.7
1950
21.7
Preliminarily deformed {10.3
9.8
10.0
1700
22.5
j 9.5
8.5
20.
2650
47
a considerable necking of the transverse section com-
pared with uranium extruded in the y -phase. Heat
treatment of uranium extruded in the a-phase reduces
the yield strength, the relative elongation and the
necking of the transverse section.
Wire Drawing
Uranium wire and other components can be ob-
tained by drawing in the cold state or with heating.
When drawing bars in the cold state the lubricant can
be a graphite preparation with various fillers; the
material is applied to the bar before drawing and is
dried. This lubricant has good covering power and is
not pressed out of the die plate, clings firmly to the
bar and gives a bright smooth surface. An additional
thin layer of lubricant must be applied to the bar be-
fore each pass.
In the cold drawing of a bar the reduction per pass
can be 10-20/0. In some cases the partial deformation
can be increased. During the drawing the coefficient of
friction in the couple uranium ? metal of the die plate
is fairly high. Using from [5] the formula for determin-
ing the drawing stress
crdr
coo(a-FQ
2)
a (SK
s11) Clq )
a +1
C/TC X
a
and the corresponding experimental data we found that
in the couple uranium ? carbide with a graphite lubri-
cant the friction coefficient is equal to 0.2-0.25.
Table 3 gives some results for the cold drawing of
uranium bars.
The investigations showed that in the drawing of
the uranium in the cold state it is necessary to have
intermediate annealings and to have special electrolytic
coatings on the wire and the self-drawing should be
carried out with small rates and small reductions per
pass.
Wire should be made by drawing with heating
over a wide range of temperatures up to 600?C.
Measures should then be taken to prevent oxidation of
the metal. With this method, tubes and bars can be
made with varying sizes and shapes. The hot drawing
of uranium wire can be carried out with reductions per
pass of 13-2010, but the uranium permits reductions of
up to 30-3550 also (Table 4).
Figure 11 shows the relationship between the draw-
ing parameters and the degree of deformation per pass.
In this case the wire in the initial state is annealed,
the wire drawing should be carried out through the same
die plate and the necessary reductions per pass are
achieved by different initial diameters of the wire. It
follows from the diagram that the force and stress in-
crease regularly with increase in the degree of deforma-
tion but lag behind its growth. This lag is uniform and
is due to the fact that on the one hand the intensifica?
tion of the drawing process reduces the relative losses on
external friction and on the other hand that the yield
strength of the uranium wire, having an effect on the
value of the drawing force, increases along a gently de-
caying curve with increase in the degree of deformation.
Drawing with heating makes it possible to prepare
uranium wire with 2 mm diameter and smaller. With
certain changes in the heating conditions it is possible
to prepare fine wire with diameter down to 0.1 mm.
Stamping
Uranium is satisfactorily stamped in hammers and
high speed presses at the temperatures of a- and y -
4
06
Cil
I I 306 406 560 600 700 800 300 1000
Extrusion temperature, ?C
Fig. 10. Relationship between extrudability of
uranium and the temperature.
201
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
TABLE 4
Parameters for Drawing Wire with 3-7 mm Diameter
Reduction per pass
6, 070
Drawing stress adr,
kg/ mm
Safety factor during
drawing Ks
Coefficient of
friction f N
5.5
14
6.0
0.2
13
24
3.7
0.22
28
38
2.47
0.25
34
39.4
2.4
0.25
bo
'L.56il
0.
-as
4g0
cu
o ? 300
21111
.00
I_Zi` .6- -dr
66
dr
0
ill 30 hi) ,50
60
Degree of deformationA
Fig. 11. Relationship between the drawing parameters and the
degree of deformation per pass.
regions. Alpha-uranium at temperatures of 600-650?C
can be stamped with speeds of hammer-working stroke
of 6000-7000 mm/sec. If the billets are overheated to
the temperature of the i3-phase during stamping with
high rates the uranium cracks. Serious cooling of the
billets can also lead to cracking. When stamping in the
7-Phase, cooling of the uranium to the 8-phase state
leads to breakage of the components.
Uranium components can be deep drawn at tem-
peratures of 200-600?C using special lubricants. The
forces in drawing and also compression obey the same
laws as the forces in the drawing of steel and copper;
the values of the forces are about the same as for steel.
When developing a drawing method it is essential to
allow for the anisotropy of the properties of a-uranium
and a special rolling method must be used to remove
the festoons.
Forging
Billets can be prepared by the usual manual and
machine free forging in the a- and y -phases. In a
number of cases it is convenient to use rotation forg-
ing of uranium components at room temperatures and
202
high temperatures. The standard equipment and tools
are used for rotation forging. The reductions per pass
are 10-25/0. To improve the conditions of rotation
forging and to reduce oxidation (when forging at 500-
600?C) the components should be coated with a graphite
lubricant. Rotation forging is also used when forging
the ends of uranium components which are intended
for drawing.
LITERATURE CITED
1. A. I. Tselikov, Rolling Mills [in Russian] (Metallur-
gizdat, 1947).
2. D. Howe, Materials of the International Conference
on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva,
1955) [Russian translation] (Goskhimizdat, Lenin-
grad, 1958) Vol. 9. p. 221.
3. Kaufmann, Materials of the International Conference
on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva,
1955) [in Russian] (Goskhimizdat, Leningrad, 1958),
Vol. 9, p. 261.
4. I. L. Perlin, Tsvetnye Metal. 9, 73 (1957).
5. I. L. Perlin, The Theory of Wire Drawing [in Russian]
(Metallurgizdat, Moscow, 1957).
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
PROSPECTING CRITERIA FOR URANIUM DEPOSITS
M. M. Konstantinov*
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 228-238,
March, 1960,
Original article submitted November 20, 1959
The author discusses criteria which can be used for assessing the possible occurrence of uranium in a particular
region and for prospecting for uranium deposits and individual ore bodies.
In the Soviet Union prospecting criteria are con-
sidered to include all geological laws (both particular
and general), natural phenomena, and historical data
which in the final analysis can be used for discovering
workable accumulations of mineral products.
Some investigators distinguish in prospecting
criteria between geological grounds for prospecting
and prospecting indicators [1]. Prospecting criteria are
generally subdivided, according to their nature, into
structural, petrographic, mineralogical, etc.
The grouping we have adopted is an attempt to
classify prospecting criteria on the basis of problems
solved by means of particular criteria or, to be more
accurate, on the basis of the "geological objective"
for which they are intended (see table).
The arbitrary nature of the boundaries between in-
dividual groups of prospecting criteria should be noted.
There are also all-purpose criteria, which are suitable
both for the determination of the uranium content of
a particular ore field and an assessment of the prospect-
ing possibilities of large regions. One of the most im-
portant criteria ? the presence of a uranium ore occur-
rence or deposit? is included in such criteria. But the
System of Grouping Prospecting Criteria
majority of present-day prospecting criteria fall within
our system, which is not to deny the usefulness of other
classifications. Practical geologists frequently request
scientific workers engaged on metallogeny, geo-
chemistry and other studies to develc:p prospecting
criteria, but they are dissatisfied with the results of
their investigations because they have been given
prospecting criteria of a scope of application different
from that requested. Our proposed assessment of the
scope of prospecting criteria will make it possible to
introduce clarity into some of the problems of their de-
velopment and utilization.
Theoretical Criteria Based on Regional
Geology (A)
This category includes geological factors which
make it possible to assess the prospects of large geo-
logical regions. From this aspect the following are the
most essential criteria:
1. The location of provinces in zones linking
Archean massifs with Proterozoic folded structures.
These zones are located along the marginal areas of
?Deceased.
Categories of prospecting criteria
Types of ore concentrations ?
objects for prospecting and
? assessment
Problems solved by means of
prospecting criteria
A
(Theoretical criteria based on
Metallogenic province. Ore zone.
General assessment of the
regional geology)
prospecting possibilities
B
(Field criteria based on regional
Ore complex. Ore field.
Distinguishing of the ore-
geology)
bearing sites for carrying out
prospecting.
C
(local-prospecting).
Deposit. Ore body.
Discovery of deposits and ore
D
bodies.
(prospecting-surveying)
Ore chutes.
Discovery of workable con-
centrations within prospected
and worked deposits.
203
? Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
shields (Canadian, Australian) or in the inner regions
of shields (Baltic, Indian) (Fig. 1). It is this factor
which is the principal criterion for a positive assess-
ment of the prospects of finding uranium in Precambrian
shields.
2. In addition to this structural factor, a specific
metallogenic appearance, inherent in the main uranium
provinces of Precambrian shields, should be noted. This
specific character consists in the presence of thick strati-
form deposits of iron, copper, cobalt and nickel ores
(southern sector of the Canadian belt, the South African
belt and the Bihar belt of India).
3. The following must be considered as favorable
conditions for prospecting endogenic deposits of uranium
In folded regions: a) the presence of rigid massifs with
a Precambrian base, compressed by young folds (Fig.2);
b) the presence of young, markedly differentiated in-
trusive activity; c) the presence of large disruptive
intrusions of a different type.
4. Certain authors emphasize the great import-
ance of an arid climate for the formation of sediment?
ary uranium deposits (2, 31. But examination of the
paleoclimatic conditions of a number of sedimentary
uranium deposits shows that they are more probably
correlated with zones transitional between a humid and
arid climate, characterized by instability and frequent
change of the climatic conditions.
Fig. 1. Location of uranium-bearing belts in Precam-
brian shields: 1) Precambrian shields; 2) ore belts
with large uranium deposits; 3) ore belts with slight
uranium mineralization.
204
5. Marginal troughs of platforms, extended zones
of intermontane depressions, where the uranium con-
centration may be associated with phosphorite deposits,
fish bones, residual petroleum products and organic
matter of various origins are favorable for the pros-
pecting of uranium deposits of the sedimentary type.
6. The presence of specific epochs of formation
of uranium deposits may be used as a criterion for the
assessment of a number of regions. Thus, for Western
Europe, higher uranium concentrations in deposits of
Cambrian-Silurian age are characteristic; for the Me-
diterranean folded region the higher uranium concentra-
tions are found in Permian-Carboniferous (Alps) and
Cretaceous deposits (Morocco) (the phosphorites of
Morocco, Israel, etc.), while in the American sector
of the Pacific zone the maximum uranium content is
found in Jurassic and Triassic deposits, and to some ex-
tent in Cretaceous deposits.
7. The problem least solved is that of the con-
ditions of accumulation of uranium in the sedimentary
covering of platforms. But the presence of uranium
concentrations, which are large when viewed from the
aspect of reserves (although having low contents), in
the shales of Sweden and the black shales of the USA
Indicates the possibility of the discovery of uranium
deposits in the sedimentary covering of platforms. In
general, those parts of the platform in which the follow-
ing factors are present are the most promising; 1) the
sedimentary blanket was laid down on the uranium-
bearing zones of the foundation; 2) during the pro-
cess of formation of the covering the foundation re-
tained a certain mobility, which led to considerable
differentiation of the superincumbent sedimentary
rocks.
Field Criteria Based on a Regional
Scale (B)
For a general positive assessment of the prospects
of finding uranium in a large region extending for
hundreds or even thousands of kilometers it is necessary,
of course, to employ more immediately practical
criteria which would make it possible to distinguish in
j
j
Y2
2
3
Fig. 2. Diagram of the correlation of uranium mineral-
ization with rigid massifs in a folded region: 1) rigid
massifs; 2) fold axes; 3) uranium deposits.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
these vast areas regions where the occurrence of uranium
mineralization is most probable.
The following geological factors may be such
criteria:
1. Regions with a relatively lesser degree of meta-
morphism of the sedimentary rocks are favorable for the
prospecting of sedimentary-metamorphic (stratiform)
uranium deposits in ore regions of Precambrian shields.
Areas with more intense metamorphism, the develop-
ment of fissure tectonics, the occurrence of granitiza-
don and the younger intrusive activity in the shield
are favorable for prospecting deposits of the vein type.
2. Median rigid massifs with a Precambrian base
and their surrounding folded terrains (Fig. 3) are favor-
able for prospecting uranium deposits in folded zones.
A spatial association is often noted between uranium
ore fields and regions of development of granitoid
massifs, primarily of acid or medium composition,
normal biotite granites and small intrusions of the type
of quartz monzonites, trachytes, trachyliparites and
quartz porphyries.
3. A more intense occurrence of young volcanism,
together with uranium mineralization, is noted in areas
of discordant superposition of young folding on older
folding (for example, Laramie folding on Variscian in
North America, the Cordilleras and Andes).
4. In intermontane depressions uranium is most
frequently found in depressions characterized by the
2
F7.1
3
IL
Fig. 3. Diagram of the location of uranium mineral-
ization on the Colorado Plateau and in its surrounding
terrain: 1) boundary of the Colorado Plateau;
2) effusive coverings; 3) region of development of
sedimentary uranium deposits; 4) hydrothermal de-
posits and ore occurrences of uranium.
alternation of deposits typical of arid conditions (in-
cluding haloid deposits) and beds rich in organic matter,
formed in a hot moist climate, with an increased
uranium content in dispersed or concentrated form in
rocks of folded structures surrounding the depression
(region of removal) and also characterized by the pre-
sence (frequently, but not always) of acid effusives with
an increased uranium content at the periphery of the
depression or in the series of its sedimentary deposits.
5. In foothill troughs and large intermontane de-
pressions, the most promising regions are those adjoining
the most mobile areas of the folded zones, where oro-
genic activity was still taking place recently. By
affecting the adjacent region of the trough, this recent
movement causes a change in the hydrodynamic con-
ditions and intensified filtration of underground water
through the series of terrigenous rocks, which may lead
to migration of uranium and its concentration in beds
impregnated with organic matter.
6. The littoral facies of marine paleobasins, con-
sisting of shallow-water deposits: carbonaceous-
argillaceous shales, phosphorite-bearing deposits,
limestones and sandstones containing organic matter,
and also quartz-pebble conglomerates containing or-
ganic matter and bearing traces of mineralization
(pyritization, the presence of gold, etc.) are favorable
for prospecting sedimentary deposits.
7. Basins located in a region of extensive occur-
rence of eruptive and metamorphic rocks are favorable
for prospecting uranium deposits in coal, particularly
if the clarke of uranium in the sedimentary rocks is
high. In this connection, the most promising areas are
young coalfields with a high degree of metamorphism
of the coal (lignites, brown coals, metamorphosed hard
coals) [4].
8. The conjunction of sedimentary and hydro-
thermal deposits is a general rule for all uranium-
bearing provinces of ancient and young folded regions.
The discovery of hydrothermal deposits may, therefore,
indicate the presence of deposits of the sedimentary
type. On the other hand, the presence of sedimentary
formations may be used as a criterion for the occurrence
of hydrothermal deposits in those areas where these
formations are subjected to metamorphism, granitiza-
tion, etc.
9. A. P. Vinogradov [5] has recently drawn at-
tention to the possibility of using specific ratios of
isotopes of lead, sulfur and other elements as a geo-
chemical criterion. This idea was developed for
uranium deposits in [6], in which it was shown, that
the presence of increased amounts of radiogenic lead
in nonradioactive minerals can be considered as a
criterion of the probability of the existence of uranium
deposits in a region.
10. An appreciable enrichment of water with
uranium over considerable areas is one of the important
205
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
prospecting criteria for uranium fields [7, 8]. But the
use of radiohydrochemical indicators meets with a
number of difficulties and can only be effective if
the geological, climatic, and other factors influencing
the formation of underground water are fully taken in-
to account. Thus, it is found that a hydrogeochemical
background must be established both for each region
separately and for each season of the year and each
type of rock. It must also be taken into consideration
whether the hydrochemical conditions in which the
water-bearing rocks are located assists or impedes the
solution and migration of uranium.
In the majority of uranium regions, the uranium
content in the surface water varies between 1 ? 10-6 to
10 ? 10-6 g/ liter, but in acid underground water it
may reach n ? 10-5 g/ liter. Large rivers, with the
exception of those flowing directly beneath uranium-
206
bearing regions, generally scarcely differ in radio-
activity from the background of the given region.
Contents generally 3-10-fold higher than normal,
depending on the geological and chemical factors,
are taken as anomalous contents which can be con-
sidered as a prospecting indicator.
11. An increased radioactivity of granitoids, with
which a uranium mineralization may be genetically
established, was considered by certain investigators as
a positive criterion for prospecting uranium-bearing
ore fields. But practice showed that this criterion is not
acceptable for all uranium provinces. W. Gross [9]
considers that the presence of local zones of increased
radioactivity in granite intrusions may indicate the
probability of the occurrence of uranium ores in the
adjacent structures and that if high and local con-
centrations of radioactivity are not found in these in-
2
500 0 500 f 000 1500
3
)702
4
5
6
7
8
Fig. 4. Diagram of the location of ore zones of the Central City, Colorado re-
gion: 1) Precambrian; 2) quartz-monzonite; 3) bostonite; 4) ore veins; 5)ura-
nium-bearing veins; 6) ore breccia; 7) boundary of the area of the quartz-mon-
zonite outcrop; 8) boundary of the ore zones. [A) gold-pyrite zone; B) uranium
zone; C) polymetallic zone].
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
trusions the latter may be excluded from detailed pros-
pecting operations.
12. The y -anomalies recorded in an aerial survey,
associated with geologic features of the region? spe-
cific formations of rocks, tectonic zones, etc. ? which
are favorable for the occurrence of uranium ores may
be a more specific criterion. The y -anomalies can be
divided as a first approximation into three groups, ac-
cording to whether they were determined in an airplane,
on the ground or in underground workings; the aero-y -
anomalies correspond to the above-described category
of regional-prospecting criteria (B), the surface anoma-
lies to local-prospecting characteristics (C), and the
underground anomalies to prospecting-surveying
characteristics (D).
Local-Prospecting Criteria (C)
When the presence of uranium in a region has
been established by general geological premises,
direct prospecting characteristics, radioactive anoma-
lies, the occurrence of uranium minerals, individual
ore occurrences of uranium, etc., the main problem is
the discovery of industrial uranium deposits. It should
be noted that this problem can also be solved in the
earlier stages of the investigation of the region, com-
mencing with the reconnaissance of the latter, a geo-
logic survey on various scales, etc. The following
very important prospecting indications can be used for
prospecting workable deposits:
1. A structural check of the mineralization is of
great importance of endogenic uranium deposits.
During the prospecting of such deposits, the following
are of primary interest: large fault zones with a de-
veloped system of feather joints and, in between them,
zones transverse to the general direction of folding;
zones located in regions of intense bending of the
folding, and most important, deep-lying zones over-
lying a Precambrian base.
2. Stocks, stockworks, and laccoliths of the acid
varieties of granitoids and adjoining regions of the
intruded rocks are favorable for prospecting uranium
deposits in young folded regions which are characterized
by the development of small intrusions. The uranium
mineralization is sometimes correlated with a specific
ore zone around the intrusion (Fig. 4).
3. The neighborhoods of dikes of basic rocks near
the contact face are often favorable for the concentra-
tion of an endogenic uranium mineralization and,
therefore, for prospecting.
4. For individual uranium-bearing provinces there
are specific "families" of deposits of various metals,
including uranium deposits. Thus, in the Variscan
folded region of Europe uranium deposits are found in
many cases in the same ore zones as tungsten-tin de-
posits. They are located in different fissures and be-
long to different stages of the mineralization but are
characterized by a consistent spatial relation. For such
regions the presence of a tungsten-tin mineralization
may be considered as a criterion for the possible occur-
rence of uranium ores, too, in the same ore field. Other
"families" of deposits and different prospecting criteria
can be established for other provinces.
5. Uranium is an "omnipresent" element, giving
workable concentrations in various mineralogical forma-
tions.
But the number of uranium-bearing mineralogical
formations in individual provinces, particularly those
correlated with Precambrian shields, is evidently
limited. Thus, in the Canadian ore zone, where there
are numerous deposits and ore occurrences of uranium
of various scales, two types of mineralization are con-
sistently present: the so-called "five-element" forma-
tion (principally in the north) and carbonate-pitch-
blende ores of simple composition. Three types of
uranium mineralization are noted in the European
uranium zone: the same "five-element" formation,
the uranium-fluorite and the true uranium type.
In Alpine folded regions, uranium is found in
various mineralogical formations. But here, too, as
experience is accumulated it may be possible to dis-
tinguish formations in which it is most frequently found.
In a number of cases it is possible to establish
certain minerals which are indicators of uranium
mineralization. Thus, in the case of the European ore
zone and the Cordilleras of the USA, purple fluorite,
nearly black in color, is considered as an indicator of
the possible presence of uranium mineralization.
Thus, although it is impossible to distinguish spe-
cific mineralogical formations or mineral-indicators,
which could be employed universally as prospecting in-
dications for uranium, they can be established within
the limits of the same metallogenic provinces and used
successfully for prospecting work.
6. Modifications of adjacent rocks in the neigh-
borhood of hydrothermal veins are one of the prospect-
ing criteria used in a number of regions.
Hematitization (reddening) of the adjoining rocks is
found most frequently. In a number of cases the follow-
ing and investigation of a reddening zone made it pos-
sible to discover workable uranium ores, although regions
exist where such zones are not associated with uranium
mineralization.
Goliath sandstone
Uranium ore
Anhydrite cap
agarta
clay
Oakville clay
atahoula
sandstone
Salt plug
0 500 1000 1500 m
Fria clay
Tackson clay
Fig.5. Diagram of the position of uranium mineralization
in the petroleum structure in the Panhandle, Texas.
207
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Zones of bleaching (Marysvale region, Utah, etc.),
the formation of which is due to sericitization and kao-
linization of the adjoining rocks, are also used for pros-
pecting uranium deposits. In certain regions a close
association is noted between uranium n.ineralization
and fluoritization, in other regions chloritization zones
are a characteristic feature [10]. In a number of de-
posits an association is established between uranium
mineralization and zones of development of sodium
metasomatism (albitization).
Modifications of the adjoining rocks of uranium
deposits near veins may, therefore, be used as a pros-
pecting indication within the limits of individual pro-
vinces, where a typical type of modification of the
adjoining rocks has already been established for these
deposits.
7. Areas with relatively calm hydrodynamic con-
ditions are the most favorable for the accumulation of
uranium in deposits of the littoral zone of marine
paleobasins. Such paleogeographic elements as bays
and areas cut off from the open sea by a submarine
terrace or lip are, therefore, one of the important pros-
pecting criteria for uranium.
Individual sedimentary deposits are correlated with
the sediments of ancient estuaries, deltas and sounds;
certain investigators explain this by the precipitation of
uranium in the zone where waters of markedly different
chemical composition mix.
8. Concentrations of organic matter in sedimentary
rocks are a very important prospecting indication.
When uranium-bearing solutions circulate through beds
enriched with organic matter, if conditions are favor-
able the latter can act as a precipitating agent for the
uranium, both during the process of sedimentation and
epigenesis. For this reason, on the Colorado Plateau the
courses of ancient paleocurrents enriched with plant
residue are one of the most important prospecting
criteria.
Ancient petroleum structures with a deposit of re-
sidual petroleum products of the asphaltite type, which
can be collectors of uranium mineralization (Fig. 5),
are of substantial importance in regions where uranium
is found in sedimentary rocks.
9. In uranium-bearing coal basins, ore beds of the
infiltration type must be sought in the areas located
near granite massifs or covered by tuffaceous or sedi-
mentary rocks containing a large amount of pyroclastic
material [4].
10. Lithologic criteria in the form of series, forma-
tions and facies zones favorable for uranium mineraliza-
tion are a great help in prospecting uranium deposits in
a number of provinces. On the Colorado Plateau, for
example, sandstones of fluvial origin are the most
favorable for the localization of uranium,whereas sand-
stones of marine or eolian origin are generally unmi-
neralized. The majority of deposits in the Morrison
208
formation were accumulated by facies transitional
between massive sandstones and argillites in areas
where there is a fine laminar alternation of these rocks.
The distinguishing of zones of development of favorable
facies or formations, extending for hundreds of kilo-
meters and having a width of tens of kilometers, was an
effective help in prospecting uranium deposits within
such zones.
The presence of rocks with optimum porosity,
enclosed in less permeable deposits, or, as already
noted, the presence of organic matter: coal, lignites,
asphaltites and other deposits is favorable for infiltra-
tion deposits.
11. The different dispersion (including diffusion)
aureoles formed around a deposit are of particular im-
portance in the prospecting criteria used for the dis-
covery of deposits. These include aureoles of secondary
minerals (salt aureoles) and in certain (rare) cases
aureoles of primary minerals, hydrochemical, botanical
and radiogenic aureoles.
Secondary minerals of uranium formed in the out-
crops of ore bodies and giving rise to aureoles around
them show a definite tendency to zonal location.
The distinct aureoles near the outcrops of uranium
ores form uranium minerals of micaceous habit
(uranium phosphates, arsenates and vanadates), which
are good prospecting indicators. The laws of the dis-
tribution of uranium micas near uranium ore bodies
disintegrating in the supergene zone have been in-
vestigated and described by V. G. Melkov [7].
Uranium-bearing secondary minerals: opal,
chalcedony calcite, and limonite, developed in the
oxidation zone of uranium deposits, are also good pros-
pecting indicators, forming aureoles around the outcrops
of ore bodies.
12. Dispersion aureoles of primary uranium
minerals are not characteristic of uranium deposits;
this is due to the poor stability of uraninite and pitch-
blende in the supergene zone. But in certain cases,
fine grains of these minerals, enclosed in a firm en-
.)/
2 qi1OZ,, 3
Fig. 6. Connection between the radioactivity of plants
and a uranium deposit : 1) plants with normal (back-
ground) uranium content; 2) plants with abnormal
uranium content; 3) uranium layer; 4) sandstone.
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
velope of vein quartz or quartzite, can be transported
together with these for considerable distances. The
preservation of uraninite is sometimes assisted by
organic matter investing the grains of the mineral.
As regards brannerite and davidite, which in a number
of deposits are the principal uranium minerals, they
can evidently give considerable dispersion aureoles.
13. In a number of regions the accumulation of
uranium by plants can serve as a prospecting character-
istic. Plant ash generally contains 0.2-1.0 g/t of
uranium. But in plants whose roots are located in
rocks enriched with uranium the uranium content of the
ash may sometimes reach 100 g/ t. Different plant
species accumulate uranium in different ways. Ex-
periments showed that the plants which tend to accu-
mulate uranium most readily are those with the strong-
est tendency to absorb large amounts of sodium, sulfur,
selenium, calcium and small amounts of potassium.
Conifers and steppe shrubs of the family Compositae
are, in particular, examples of such plants (Fig. 6).
The depth at which the ore can be detected by
means of plant analysis depends on the nature of the
plant roots and their access to water. In the uranium-
bearing desert regions of the Colorado Plateau the
depth of penetration of the root system of a shrub or
tree is generally 15-25 m.
The mineralized areas of a coal seam in the La
Ventana Plateau (New Mexico) were successfully dis-
tinguished by the analysis of pines and junipers, the
roots of which penetrate through a 25 m layer of sand-
stone.
It is considered, however, that prospecting of ores
lying at a depth of more than 20 m by the plant
analysis method is evidently not very effective [11].
14. Plant-indicators are used as a prospecting
characteristic for uranium in the region of the Colo-
rado Plateau, the Katanga copper belt of North Rhodesia
and in other regions.
In the Colorado Plateau region, the most character-
istic plant-indicators are astragalus (Astragalus pattersoni
A. Gray), belonging to the vetch family.
In addition to Astragalus, selenium indicators,
which can also serve as uranium ore indicators if the
selenium content in the ore is less than 2 g/ t, are
Aster venustus M. E. Jones, Gindelia spp., Oryzopsis
Rimonoides and Stanleya spp.
In the copper-uranium belt of Katanga, North
Rhodesia, where the uranium concentration is associated
with copper and cobalt deposits, plant-indicators of
copper and cobalt can be used as an indirect prospect-
ing indicator for uranium.
15. Radiohydrochemical anomalies can be used not
only for detecting uranium-bearing areas but also in
prospecting for uranium deposits. The underground water
circulating in the ore regions may be enriched with
uranium and also with radium and radon, and create
hydrochemical aureoles with anomalous contents of
these elements around the deposit. In a number of cases
an increased uranium content in underground water has
been recorded at distances up to 1-5 km from the de-
posit (Fig. 7).
In some cases an appreciable enrichment with
radon (tens to a few hundred emanations) is observed
at distances of several hundred meters from the uranium
mineralization. Abnormally high radon contents (up to
several thousand emanations) are generally clearly
traced at distances of several dozen meters from the
ore body.
An increased radium content in water also indicates
the presence of uranium mineralization in the imme-
diate neighborhood.
16. In practice, the most important prospecting
criteria for uranium deposits are y -anomalies established
by y -surveying on the surface. The degree of reliability
of y -anomalies as prospecting criteria is different and
depends on the type of y -surveying (by automobile, on
foot) and its degree of detail. This problem has been
examined in special handbooks [7].
17. During the process of radioactive decay there is
continual emanation of radium (radon), thorium (thoron)
and actinium (actinon). Thoron with Ti = 54.6 sec,
2
and actinon T = 3.92 sec occur not more than 10-20 cm
and 2-3 cm,respectively, from the source (ore body).
Radon with TA = 3.82 days penetrates 4-5 m from the
2
ore body, and a still further distance if secondary disper-
sion aureoles are present in its vicinity. Being accu-
mulated in ground water, radon creates characteristic
aureoles of developed gas around uranium-bearing ore
bodies, which are one of the most important prospect-
ing characteristics of uranium deposits. They are dis-
tinguished by means of emanation surveying.
Prospecting-Surveying Criteria (D)
This group combines criteria which can be used
for prospecting uranium ore bodies (including blind
bodies) in already known uranium deposits and in ore
fields with nonuranium mineralization, and also for
the assessment of deposits from outcrops.
The majority of these criteria are of a local
character and since they are only effective for in-
dividual deposits and regions?cannot be of value for
other deposits.
The following may be mentioned as prospecting
criteria of relatively high importance:
1. In many uranium ore fields bands or individual
rock beds particularly favorable for the localization of
uranium ores are distinguished (Fig. 8). More than 80/0
of all the uranium reserves of a given ore field or deposit
are often included in such "uranium-loving rocks."
These rocks are generally characterized by the presence
of mineral-precipitants of uranium (amphiboles, pyro-
xenes, pyrite, etc.), and also by physical properties
209
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
favorable to the precipitation of uranium (optimum
porosity, fissuration, etc.). The distinguishing of such
uranium-loving rocks and their use as prospecting
criteria increases markedly the efficiency of prospect-
ing operations for uranium ore bodies in a given ore
field or region.
2. In some deposits reddening (hematitization) of
the adjoining rocks gives such distinct local aureoles
in the immediate vicinity of the uranium-bearing
areas that they can be used as prospecting criteria for
uranium ore chutes. The Sunshine deposit in the USA
and the Ace-Fay and other deposits in the Lake Atha-
baska region of Canada may serve as examples. At the
Lake Contact deposit, by the reddening of the adjoin-
ing rock it was not only possible to establish the proxi-
mity of the uranium ore but also to judge the richness
of the ore from the intensity of reddening.
3. Structural prospecting criteria are of primary
importance for the discovery of regions with industrial
uranium ores.
In many deposits some particular system of fissures
is a structure favoring ore localization. In this con-
nection it is noted that the ore is more often found in
conjugated fissures of the second and third order, not
in fissure structure of the first order. Sometimes, when
fissures of the first order are slightly opened the uranium
ore may also be localized in the main fissures in the
latter stage of the ore process.
210
In some deposits accumulations of uranium ore
were recorded in the interstitial conjugated fissures of
different direction or in areas where there was a sudden
(angular) change in their strike. Such prospecting
criteria must be established and used for specific de-
posits.
4. In infiltration deposits of the type with shifting
current bedding maximum concentration of uranium is
found at intervals characterized by a marked change in
the hydrodynamics of the current ? in bottom depres?
sions, bends of the bed, transverse washouts, etc. Areas
of enrichment with organic matter are a general feature
of the accumulation of uranium in infiltration and
sedimentary-syngenetic deposits.
5. Gamma-anomalies recorded by means of under-
ground y -surveying are widely used for prospecting
uranium ore chutes, particularly when deposits of other
mineral products are examined for the presence of
uranium. The type of the oxidation zone to which a
discovered uranium ore occurrence belongs may be a
criterion for the assessment of a deep-lying uranium-
bearing ore body and for deciding whether surveying is
worthwhile. Six mineralogical types of oxidation zones,
depending on the characteristic associations of the
uranium minerals, are quite clearly distinguished [12],
A general assessment of the type of primary ores
of an ore body from its surface outcrop may be accom-
panied by a certain forecast of its behavior at depth,
? 2
oJ a4
Scale
WO 9 100 200 300 400 111
Fig. 7. Map of radiohydrogeological testing of different activities: 1) ore-
bearing structure; 2) aureoles of anomalous waters of different concentra-
tion; 3) sites at which samples were taken from various springs and water
courses; 4) boreholes sunk in the first stage of prospecting-surveying
operations; 5) boreholes sunk in the second state of prospecting-surveying
operations; 6) anomalous springs (the figures indicate anomalous contents
of uranium and radium (g /liter) and radon (emanations).
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
20D m
LL,1 LL:Li 2 CIE 3
I- 11
5
Fig. 8. Influence of the adjoining rock on the localiza-
tion of uranium mineralization: 1) rocks unfavorable
for uranium mineralization; 2) uranium-loving rocks;
3) main (oreless) fault zones; 4) oreless quartz-carbon-
ate veins; 5) uranium-bearing veins.
because in the distribution of secondary uranium
minerals in the oxidation zone it is possible in a number
of cases to distinguish a specific secondary zonality,
which is different for true uranium and sulfide-uranium
deposits.
6. Criteria for prospecting blind ore bodies are
still in the early stage of development. In a number of
cases, primary dispersion aureoles of metals accompany-
ing uranium mineralization may be a fairly effective
criterion. Thus, according to A. D. Kablukov and G. I.
Vertepov (1959), in certain deposits where lead and
molybdenum are present together with uranium mine-
rals, the former create an aureole in the adjoining rock,
extending 100-200 m above the upper end of the blind
ore body, whereas the uranium aureole terminates much
lower down (Fig. 9). In ore fields with this type of
primary aureole, prospecting of blind uranium ore
bodies can be carried out by the detection of areas of
Increased galena concentration found on the surface.
LITERATURE CITED
1. V. I. Smirnov, Geologic Bases for Prospecting
Deposits of Mineral Products [in Russian]((Izd.
MGU, 1954).
2. F. Ippolito, Documents of the Second International
Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy
(Geneva, 1958). Selected Reports of Foreign
Scientists [Russian translation] (Atomizdat, Moscow,
1959) Vol. 8, p. 298.
3. N. Katayama, Documents of the Second Interna-
tional Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Primary aureole of
lead dispersion.
Primary aureole of
uranium dispersion.
Uranium-bearing
vein.
Fig. 9. Location of primary dispersions aureoles
around a uranium ore body (cross section) (accord-
ing to A. D. Kablukov and G. I. Vertepov).
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Energy (Geneva, 1958). Selected Reports of Foreign
Scientists [Russian translation] (Atomizdat, Moscow,
1959) Vol. 8, p. 271.
Z. A. Nekrasova, Problems of Uranium Geology.
Appendix No. 6 to the journal Atomnaya Energiya
[in Russian] (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1957) p. 37.
A. P. Vinogradov, Atomnaya nerg. 4, 5. 409 (1958).
(1958)4
R. Cannon, L. Stieff? and T. Stern, Documents of
the Second International Conference on the Peace-
ful Uses of Atomic 'Energy (Geneva, 1958).
Selected Reports of Foreign Scientists [Russian trans-
lation]. The Geology of Atomic Raw Material
(Atomizdat, Moscow, 1959) Vol. 8, p. 31.
V. G. Melkov and L. Ch. Pukhal'skii, Prospecting
of Uranium Deposits [in Russian] (Gosgeoltekhizdat.
Moscow, 1957).
A. N. Tokarev and A. V. Shcherbakov, Radiohydro-
geology [in Russian] (Gosgeoltekhizdat, Moscow, 1956).
W. Gross, Radioactivity as an Ore Indicator. Symp.
Geochemical Prospecting Methods [Russian trans-
lation] (IL, Moscow, 1954).
P. Kerr, Documents of the International Conference
on the .Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva,
1955) (Gosgeoltekhizdat, Moscow, 1958) Vol. 6, p. 795.
H. Cannon and F. Kleinhampl, Documents of the
International Conference on the Peaceful Uses
of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1955) (Gosgeoltekhizdat,
Moscow, 1958) Vol. 6, p. 937.
G. S. Gritsaenko and R. V. Getseva, Documents of
the Sceond International Conference on the Peace-
ful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva. 1958). Reports
of Foreign Scientists [Russian translation], Nuclear
Fuel and Reactor Metals (Atomizdat, Moscow, 1959)
Vol. 3, p. 69.
t Original Russian pagination. See C. B. translation.
211
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
DOSIMETRY OF INTERMEDIATE-ENERGY NEUTRONS
A. G. Istomina and I. B. Keirim-Markus
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 239-247,
March, 1960
Original article submitted March 31, 1959
The maximum and average-tissue doses of neutrons absorbed in the human organism is calculated from data in
the literature for the energy range from the thermal region to 1 Mev. The results are averaged for a typical
spectrum ?1/E and different conditions of irradiation. The maximum permissible flux of intermediate neutrons
is equal to 680 neutrons/ cm2 sec.
The known methods of recording neutrons are considered from the viewpoint of their applicability to the dosi-
metry of intermediate neutrons, and it is shown that for this purpose it is convenient, with certain restrictions, to
shield the detectors from thermal neutrons.
By intermediate-neutron energies we understand
neutron energies in the interval from 0.2-1 ev to 0.5-1
Mev.
From the standpoint of dosimetry, intermediate
neutrons have a number of special properties:
1. They constitute an important part of the ab-
sorbed dose of neutrons slowed down in the human body.
Thus, at a neutron energy of 0.5 Mev, more than 10a/r
of the average-tissue absorbed dose (in rems) is produced
by neutrons slowed down to thermal energies [1]. If the
same dose is expressed in rads, then the fraction of
gamma rays from the capture of slowed-down neutrons
comes to more than 50%0 of the absorbed dose [2]. For
neutrons of energy below 0.5 Mev, this contribution in
the absorbed dose due to the slowed-down neutrons is
still higher.
2. Owing to the important role of the y com-
ponent, the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of
intermediate neutrons, in contrast to the RBE of faster
neutrons, sharply varies over the volume of the body
and decreases with depth [3]
3. In the interaction with tissue, the ionization
due to recoil nuclei plays a less important role than the
ionization due to recoil nuclei from fast neutrons. Thus,
for neutrons of energy below 1 Mev, all recoil nuclei,
apart from the protons, gradually cease to participate
in the ionization of the tissue [4]. Hence, one of the
processes of energy transfer to the tissue, the most
effective biologically, is eliminated. Below 20 key, re-
coil protons, as a result of electron capture, also gradu-
ally cease to ionize the medium [4, 51. The energy
of such protons is partially expended in the collisions
on the rearrangement of the molecules of the medium ?
a process whose mechanism, relative contribution, and
RBE are not yet known. It may, however, be assumed
that the role of this process in the over-all effect of
212
neutrons on the organism is not large, since a neutron
of energy below 20 key spends practically its entire
lifetime inside the organidm as a thermal neutron, and
the energy released upon its capture is, in many cases,
several times as great as the kinetic energy of an
intermediate neutron.
4. Intermediate neutrons, as a rule, are obtained
from the slowing down of fast neutrons, owing to which,
in weakly absorbing media, the intermediate neutrons
have a characteristic spectra cp(E)dE",dE/ E, where q(E)
is the neutron flux of energy E.
5. Finally, an important, but not the principal,
property of intermediate neutrons is the complexity of
their registration. This is one of the reasons why up
to the present time intermediate neutrons have not been
taken into account in dosimetry practice, despite the
fact that they frequently compose an important part of
the total neutron flux. Thus, in beams of radiation
brought out from the active zone of a thermal nuclear
reactor, the intermediate neutron flux is of the same
order as the thermal neutron flux [6].
Intermediate neutrons compose about 401, of the
total flux in neutron radiators [7]. In nuclear air showers,
the intermediate-neutron flux reaching the earth turns
Out to be an order of magnitude greater than that of
fast neutrons, since the fission neutrons are slowed down
in the charged layer and in air, while the thermal
neutrons are absorbed by the nitrogen of the air [8].
Thus, intermediate neutrons make a greater contri-
bution to the absorbed dose, since the effect of an inter-
mediate-neutron flux on the organism is stronger than
an equal flux of thermal neutrons.
In [1-3], the distribution of the absorbed doses of
secondary radiation in a flat tissue-equivalent layer
30 cm thick was calculated. These data are shown in
recalculated form in Fig. 1. In calculating the absorbed
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/19: CIA-RDP10-02196R000100050003-6
10
3
2
1
0,1
1000
00
100
0.1
I. ,.....
.'?Nk