THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF ATOMIC ENERGY VOL. 7 NO. 2

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• Publication Date: February 1, 1961
• Content Type: REPORT

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THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
IN S
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
Volume 7, No. 2
February, 1961
AJ
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STRUCTURE
OF GLASS
THE
Volume 2
Proceedings of the Third All-Union Conference on the
Glassy State, held in Leningrad,, November 16-20,
1959.
This notable volume contains papers presented at
the conference convened by the Institute of Silicate
Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences, USSR; the
D. I. Mendeleev All-Union Chemical Society, and the
SA. Vavilov (Order of Lenin) State Optical Institute
for discussion of recent experimental studies of vari-
ous properties of glass, the principal methods"for in-
vestigating glass structure, and the problem of glass
formation.
A'complete account is given of research work on the
glassy state since the previous conference. The most
modern optical, spectroscopic, and electrical tech-
niques were used in studying the -structure of glass- in
all its aspects, and the results are interpreted in- the
light of contemporary physical theories of the solid
state. -
Volume 2: $25.00
CONTENTS include
Volumes
Volume 1
Proceedings of 'the Second All-Union Conference on
the Glassy State.
"... The Glass Division of the American Ceramic
Society and the National Science Foundation. are to
be congratulated for making this inspiring collection
available ." - Journal of Chemical Education
"The book should" be of great interest to scientific and
technical personnel interested in glass technology,
ceramics, the states of matter, and an 'work involving-
.the vitreous state. They should all have the experience
of reading this book." ? - Chemistry in Canada
"... a stimulating experience ...
- Trans. British Ceramic Society
lively discussions which show the diversity of
opinions on every experimental report.".
-' The Glass Industry
"... the volume is excellent ... the translation was well
.worth while .:."
- R. 19. Douglas, Nature
Volume 1: $20.00
1 and" 2: $40.00 per set
Investigation of Glass Structures 'by the Methods of,Opti-
cal Spectroscopy. A. A. Lebedev
Diffraction Methods for the Study of Glassy Substances.
E. A. Porai-Koshits
The Cellular Structure of Glass. W. Vogel
Characteristic Vibrations of the Glass Network and Glass
Structure. A. G. V4asov
General Problems of the Structure and Properties of
Glasses. K. S. Evstrop'ev
Additivity of the Properties of Silicate Glasses in. Relation
to their Structure. L. 1. Demkina
Glassy Systems and the Problem of Glass Structure.
M. A. Bezborodov -
Chemical Characteristics of Polymeric Glass-Forming Sub-
stances and the Nature of Glass Formation.
R. L. Myuller
Characteristics of Glass Formation in Chalcogenide
Glasses N. A. Goryunova and B. T. Kolomiets
Glass as a Polymer. V. V Tarasov .
Formation of a Crystalline Phase from a Silicate Melt.
A. I. Avgustinik -
The Vitrification Process and Structure of Glass.
O. "K. Botvinkin
Formation of Glass Structure during the Melting Process.
L. G. Mel'nichenko
The Structure of Glass in the Light of the Crystal Chemis-
try of Silicates: N. V. Belov ,
492 pages
CONSULTANTS -BUREAU
227 W. 17 ST., NEW YORK 11, N. Y..
CONTENTS include
The Crystallite Theory'of Glass Structure. K. S. Evstropyev
Structure and Properties of Organic Glasses. P. P. 'Kobeko
The Structure of Glass. O. K. Botvinkin `
The Possibilities and Results of X-Ray Methods for Inves-
tigation of Glassy Substances. E.A. Porai- oshits
Structural Peculiarities of Vitreous and Liquid Silicates.
O. A. Esin and P. V. Geld
Raman Spectra and Structure of Glassy Substances. E.T.
Gross and V. A. Kolesova
The Quantum Theory of'Heat Capacity and the Structure
of Silicate Glasses. V. V. Tarasov
The Infrared Spectra of-Simple Glasses and Their Rela-
tionship to-Glass Structure. V.. A. Florinskaya and
R. S. Pechenkina
The, Coordination Principle of Ion Distribution in Silicate
Glasses. A. A. Appen ` "
Concepts of the Internal Structure of Silicate Glasses
Which Follow from the Results of Studies of the Prop-
erties of Glasses in Certain Simple Systems. -L. 1.
Demkina
Measurement of the Expansion of Glass as a Method for
Investigating its Structure. A. 1. Stozharov
The Theoretical Views of D. I. Mendeleev on the Structure
of Silicates and Glasses and Their Significance for
Modern Science. L. G. lllelniehenko /'
The Views of D. I. Mendeleev on the Chemical' Nature of
Silicates. V. P. Barzakovsky .
illustrated 296 pages
Complete contents available upon request
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
A. I. Alikhahov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal'
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Emel'yanov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF.
ATOMIC ENERGY.
A translation of ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the 'USSR
(Russian original dated August, 1959)
Vol. 7, No. 2
February, 1961.
CONTENTS
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
Industrial Production of Heavy Water. M. P. Malkov ........... ............ 613. 101:
Sorption Methods of Separating Barium and Radium, Aluminum and Gallium, and
Zirconium and Hafnium. B. N. Laskorin, V. S. Ul'yanov, R. A. Sviridova,
A. M. Arzhatkin, and A. I. Yuzhin ................................. 620 110
Hydrogen Condensation Pump with Built-In Liquefier. E. S. Borovik, B. G. Lazarev, and
I. F. Mikhailov .................... ......................... 626 117
The Problem of Stability of Nuclear Power Plants. A. S. Kochenov ............... 630 122
The Nuclear Reactor Circulation Circuit as a Radiation Source. Yu. S. Ryabukhin and
A. Kh. Breger ............................................... 636 129
Dosimetry Method for S Radiation Based on Investigations of the Electron Spectra in the
Fields of 8 Emitters. K. K. A.glinstev and V. P. Kasatkin .................. 644 138
Fine Structure of the Yield-Mass Curve for U Fission Fragments. V. K. Gorshkov and
M. P. Anikina .............................................. 649 144
120 cm Cyclotron. A. G. Alekseev, M. A. Gashev, D. L. Londysh, I. F. Malyshev,
I. M. Matora, E. S. Mironov, N. A. Monoszon, L. M. Nemenov, V. V. Pirogovskii,
NW A. Romanov, N. S. Strel'tsov, and N. D. Fedorov ...................... 653 148
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Dispersion Mechanism of Fluids in a Bubble-Tray Extraction Tower, and a Method for
Intensifying It, N. P. Galkin, V. B. Tikhomirov, N. E. Goryainov, and V. D. Fedorov 663 159
Separation of Mixtures of Zirconium and Niobium by Reversed-Phase Partition
Chromatography. S. Sekerski and B. Kotlinska ......................... 665 160
Composition and Dissociation Constants of Pu (V) Pu (III) Complexes with Ethylenediamine-
tetraacetic Acid. A. D. Gel'man, A. I. Moskvin, and P. I. Artyukhin ........... 667 162
Experimental Determination of the True Specific Heats of Uranium, Thorium, and Other
Metals. E. A. Mit'kina ........................................ 669 163
Measurement of Electrical Resistivity of Pile-Irradiated Boiling Nitrogen. Yu. K. Gus'kov
and A. V. Zvonarev .... ........... ......................... 671 165
Use of the Reaction 018 ((x ,n)Ne21 to Detetermine the Concentration of Alpha-Active
Substances in Aqueous Solutions. V. V. Ivanova, A. I. Nazarov, E. V. Polunskaya,
A. G. Khabakhpashev, and E. M. Tsenter .. 672 166
Gamma-Radiation of the Fission Fragments of U235 and Pu239 Yu. I. Petrov ........... 675 168
A Neutron Detector with Constant Sensitivity to Neutrons with Energies from 0.025 to 14 Mev.
P. I. Vatset, S. G. Tonapetyan,and G. A. Dorofeev ....................... 679 172
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
All-Union Symposium on Radiochemistry ................................ 682 175
Annual subscription $ 75.00
Single issue 20.00
Single article 12.50
? 1961 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
Note: The sale of photostatic copies of any portion of this copyright translation is expressly
prohibited by the copyright owners.
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CONTENTS (continued)
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
Scientific Conference of the Moscow Engineering and Physics Institute (MIFI) .. ? ? .. ? ?
683
176
Atoms for Peace ........... .................
685
177
[Low-Temperature Distillation of Hydrogen Isotopes.
Source: Chem. Eng. Profr. 54, No. 6,35 (1958) ......:................
180]
Magnetic Moment of the p Meson ..................................
688
184
The Present State of the Art in Proton Synchrotrons ........................
689
186
Brief Communications ...... ... .......................
692
188
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
New Literature ...............................................
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all material that appears in Atomnaya Energiya. Those items that
originated in the English language are not included in the translation and are shown enclosed in brack-
ets. Whenever possible, the English-language source containing the omitted reports will be given.
Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc.
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INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF HEAVY WATER.
M. P. Malkov
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 101-109,
August, 1959
Original article submitted December 10, 1958
:ra
This article takes, up possible methods for producing heavy water on an industrial scale. The most eco-
nomically competitive methods are described and they are compared in their engineering .and economic
aspects. Low-temperature distillation and the hydrogen sulfide (dual - temperature exchange) processes
are viewed as the best.
.Heavy water is an important commodity for nuclear
power engineering, where it meets with widespread use as
moderator of fast neutrons and as coolant. Heavy water
possesses some advantages over other moderators (Table 1).
However, heavy water has one outstanding drawback
as moderator: irradiation decomposes it into oxygen and
deuterium, which imposes the requirement of special meas-
ures to effect the continuous recombination of the oxy-
gen and deuterium evolved.
The following specifications have been set in the
USA for reactor-grade heavy water [21 D20 content not
less than 99.7 wt. To after introducing corrections for 018,
and not less than 99.75 wt. % on the average per sample
(pH = 6-6.6).
The chemical purity is monitored by measuring the
electrical conductivity; the use of heavy water with a
resistivity of 15 ?ohm/cm is permissible.
A nuclear power station of average power rating re-
quires 100-250 tons of heavy water. A power economy
based on heavy-water reactors, would thus require the
production of thousands of tons. It is,',therefore, impera-
tive to bring the price of heavy water as low as possible.
The opinion entertained in the USA is.that nuclear
electric power stations, may become competitive with
coal-fired stations, If the. cost of 1 kg of heavy water is
not higher than 90 dollars. The market price of 1 kg of
heavy water stood at 150-200 dollars,for a long period
[2-5], but is now 62 dollars.
The difficulties attending the production of heavy
water are due mainly to the fact, that deuterium is en-
countered in extremely low abundance in natural hydro-
gen containing compounds: it constitutes about 1 part
per 7 thousand parts of hydrogen. The method used for
TABLE 1. Properties of Several Moderators [1]
extracting the deuterium must then be one that com-
bines processing huge amounts of raw hydrogen with low
energy input and low capital expenditures.
Much work has been done in, various countries to
find. new methods for isolating deuterium, but only a
few of, them have proved economically. feasible for use
on an industrial scale.
Separation of.a mixture ofhydrogen isotopes is based
in practice on the difference in the physical properties
of its components; this difference resides in the dimen-
sions of the molecules, their mass, magnetic properties,
and on the intermolecular interaction forces.
The following methods.have been studied with re-
spect to separation of mixtures of hydrogen isotopes:dif~
fusion through porous membranes and centrifugation;
electrolysis of water; chemical isotope exchange; frac-
tional distillation of hydrogen-containing compounds
(H20, NH3, etc.), fractional distillation of liquid hydro-
gen; adsorption, absorption,and ion exchange; thermal
diffusion; . extraction and fractional crystallization.
Only the following methods were found suitable for
industry: electrolysis of water; various modification of
chemical isotope-exchange processes; fractional distil-
lation of hydrogen-containing. compounds; absorption;
fractional distillation of liquid hydrogen.
Some of these methods are now being applied in
the industrial production of heavy water.
With respect to the raw feed material used, the
methods employed in the production of heavy water
may be broken down into two groupings:
1. Methods using intermediate products from anoth-
er process than the feed (e.g., hydrogen obtained in syn-
thetic ammonia plants or in hydrogenation plants, or
Properties
H2O
D20
Be
C
BeO
Atomic or molecular weight
Capture cross section at 0.025 ev, barns
18
0,66
20
0,92.10-8
9
9.10-8
12
4,5.10-8
25
9,2.10-
Scattering cross sec. at 0.025 ev, barns
110
67
15
5820
6,9
160
4,8
169
11,1
180
Slowing-down constant
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Upflow to Higher enriching
stage
Fig. 1. Flowsheet of electrolytic production of
heavy water.
electrolytically produced hydrogen, etc). For example,
from the hydrogen processed at synthetic-ammonia plants,
0.21 kg of heavy water per ton of ammonia produced
may be extracted, i.e., a plant with an annual capacity
of 100,000 tons of ammonia, may yield in excess of 20
tons of heavy water annually [4].
2. Methods using a feed not derived from other
processes (e.g., distillation of light water or isotope ex-
change involving light water). The second grouping has
the advantage that the production of heavy water is not
limited by the nature of the feed.
We shall now briefly discuss the methods which are
of interest on an industrial scale.
Electrolysis, of Water. The electrolytic technique
for separting the isotopes of hydrogen was discovered
as far back as 1932. The essence of the approach con-
sists in the presence of an enhanced yield of heavy water
(three to eight times that in the feed material) in the
undecomposed residue, upon electrolysis of ordinary wa-
ter. The hydrogen fraction with lower deuterium content
is given off with the gas in electrolysis, and a buildup
of the heavy isotope of hydrogen takes place in the
electrolyte. Until the Second World War, electrolysis
was considered the sole technically feasible method for
the production of heavy water on a large scale (used by
the Norsk-Hydro company at Rjukan, Norway).
Figure 1 shows a flowsheet of a continuously oper-
ating bank of electrolyzers. The constant level of the
liquid in the principal electrolytic cell (stage one) is
maintained by addition of makeup water. The water
condensing as the hydrogen and oxygen are dried in the
refrigerating units al and bl enters thesecond stage as
feed. Cooling units a2 and b2 feed the third stage, and
so forth. The dimensions of the electrolytic cells are
tapered off as the deuterium concentration in the water
increases.
This type of cascade of cells is not feasible for the
production of heavy water in high concentration, since
hydrogen heavily enriched in deuterium is obtained from
the last stages, as a result of which the degree of extrac-
tion of deuterium falls in the arrangement. In order to
raise the degree of extraction of deuterium, the gas may
be burned from the cells, which yields hydrogen with
enriched deuterium content, and the water forming in
the cells containing a corresponding concentration of
deuterium in the electrolyte may be recycled. The per-
centage of hydrogen and oxygen produced for chemical
purposes is reduced in that method, and the production
costs for heavy water are increased.
The degree of separation of heavy water by simple
electrolysis is quite low (." 8-10%) [4]. If the entire
supply of electric power were to be consumed solely in
Hydrogen to Water from
upstream reactor upstream reactor
Catalyst
beds
Cooling
unit .
Water to higher enriching
stage
Fig. 2. Flow diagram of joint opera-
tion of electrolytic cells and isotope-
exchange reactor.
the production of heavy water in that process, as an ex-
ample, this would amount to 120-150 thousand kw-hr
per kg of heavy water. Production of heavy water by
simple electrolysis is thus shown to be highly uneconom-
ical. The degree of separation of deuterium may be in-
creased in the electrolytic process without resorting to
burning the hydrogen, however. To do this, the deute-
rium is extracted from the deuterium-enriched hydrogen
stream in the final stages of the electrolysis sequence
by means of catalytic isotope exchange with the con-
densed water of the preceding stages. The heavy-hydro-
gen isotope accumulates in the water, which yields the
possibility of the deuterium to the liquid phase.
Figure 2 shows a flowsheet for this variant of joint
operation of an electrolyzer stage with an isotope-ex-
change reactor. Water from the previous electrolytic
stage is fed to the top of the reactor. Water enriched
in deuterium from the gaseous phase is allowed to flow
in successively from one tray to the next and is admit-
ted to the electrolytic cells. Hydrogen from those cells
proceeds to the bottom of the reactor where it is mixed
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with water vapor. Phase exchange takes.place on the
catalyst bed placed between the trays, as a result of
which the deuterium from the hydrogen is converted to
steam (K > 1) and later condensed on the trays.
A similar flowsheet for operation of an isotope-ex-
change reactor in series with each electrolysis stage has
been devised. The degree of separation of deuterium
may be increased considerably over that resulting from
the simple electrolytic technique.
The combination of the electrolytic and isotope
exchange arrangements is widely used in industry.
Chemical Isotope Exchange. From the viewpoint
of practicability, the following reactions are of greatest
interest:
H20 +HD HDO+i1 rK=2,69
LL. If = 3,62
H2O+HDS; HAO+HLS K9'92
LL K2,34
NH3+III) F NH2D+H2 [K=5,83
at 100? C
at 25?C]
at l00? C
at 25? C
at 25? C].
The method of separation is based on the fact that
the equilibrium ratio of deuterium and hydrogen in those
reactions is different in one pair (H20 + HDO) from the
same ratio in the other pair (H2 + HD). If the substances
are contacted in countercurrent, the deuterium may be
separated in the same manner as in an absorption process.
Two exchange processes are known:
1) the simple equilibrium chemical exchange at
some optimum temperature, constituting a conversion
of a compound enriched in deuterium (e.g., the deute-
rium of HDO goes over into HD);
2) the "dual-temperature" exchange process in
which some hydrogen-containing compound is used in
a closed cycle. The isotope exchange is carried through
at two different temperature levels and, consequently,at
different equilibrium ratios, which provides the condi-
tions for continuous concentration of the deuterium.
Simple exchange of isotopes proves to be econom-
ically feasible only for the water vapor-hydrogen reac-
tion. It is possible to design a cascade of reactors with
platinum or chrome- nickel catalysts where the exchange
reaction proceeds in the vapor phase, while each suc-
ceeding reactor is fed by the water from the preceding
stage. As indicated above, simple isotope exchange is
being successfully employed in combination with elec-
trolysis of water.
The most promising approach is the dual-temper-
ature process. Many isotope-exchange reactions find
successful application in this process: of particular in-
terest is the reaction T-9 DS + H20, which proceeds at a
rather rapid rate without benefit of catalyst. Thesimplest
scheme for this reaction is shown in Fig. 3.
The feed water passes down through two bubble-cap
towers A and B in series, the top tower operating at a
temperature of 25?C, and the downstream unit at 100?C.
The equilibrium constant of the exchange reaction be-
Makeup
water
0
0
c. a
Cd ai
4.4
3 b
III
Fig. 3. Flow scheme of a "dual-
temperature" exchange process.
tween hydrogen sulfide and water' at 25?C is 2.34, and
at 100?C is 1.92. In both columns, the hydrogen sulfide
and the water circulate in countercurrent. Deuterium
begins to accumulate in the streams between the-two
columns in line with the equilibrium constants. The in-
termediate heat exchangers recover the heat from the
streams passing from one column to the next. The de-
gree of separation of deuterium by this method is about
15% [4].
The simplicity of the scheme and the comparatively
low energy input make this process the most promising
one. The disadvantage inherent in the method is corro-
sion of the associated equipment. These difficulties seem
to have been surmounted in the USA so that the method
described is widely used on an industrial scale in the USA
for the production of heavy water, and proves to be highly
economical [4, 5, 7].
The method may in principle become still more
economical if gaseous hydrogen sulfide, which requires
comparatively high-powered compressors to get it to
circulate, is replaced by some liquid compound with
suitable equilibrium constants for the reaction with water.
Aside from the choice of some such compound, difficul-
ties arise here in connection with the establishment of a
satisfactory reaction rate for isotope exchange between
liquid phases.
In the dual-temperature process, the H2O + HD sys-
tem. is characterized by more favorable constants than
the H2O + HDS system. The engineering of this process
requires an expensive tower with catalysts, and the main-
tenance of different pressure levels in the cold and hot
towers. However, the operating conditions of this system
may be significantly improved by using a catalyst in the
form of a sol or slurry [8]. Suitable catalysts are provid-
ed by metals of the platinum group and nickel deposited
on activated charcoal or chromium oxide to increase the
active area. An advantage of this system over the dual-
temperature hydrogen sulfide process is also found in
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the fact that water circulates with the catalyst in the
closed cycle, instead of hydrogen sulfide, so that the
amount of energy consumed in circulation is greatly re-
duced. The source of deuterium for this process may
be hydrogen produced in some other manner, e.g., the
gas used in the production of synthetic ammonia, or hy-
drogen used in hydrogenation processes.
As calculation have demonstrated [8], the circula-
ting flow in that system will be four to five times less
than in the H2S system. Calculations based on equili-
brium constants with the process rate accounted for show
that the temperature of the cold tower may be 30?C,
while that of the hot tower is 200?C. The process pro-
ceeds better at a pressure of 200 au-nos. When the produc-
tion.of large quantities of heavy water is called for, this
process must be highly economical [8]. At the present
time it has not yet been developed for industrial-scale
use, and only pilot-plant and design research is in progress.
To sum up, different modifications of the dual-tem-
perature exchange process, must be acknowledged to be
the most promising methods for separating deuterium,
while one of the variants, the hydrogen sulfide process,
has already been applied on an industrial scale, and may
become oae of the most economical methods.
Fractional Distillation of Hydrogen-Containing
Compounds. This method is based on the possibility of
distillation, when there is a sufficiently large difference
between the vapor tensions of the hydrogen and deuterium
compounds.
Table 2 lists data giving the ratios of the vapor
tensions of the most commonly encountered hydrogen
compounds and corresponding deuterium compounds at
the triple point and at the boiling point, under normal
conditions.
TABLE 2. Vapor-Pressure Ratios of Hydrogen and
Deuterium Compounds under Different Conditions
in series and thus comprise, as it were, a single tower
unit. The water is pumped from tower to tower.
The advantage of this method is the unlimited sup-
ply of raw material. A disadvantage in this method is
that the relative difference in the vapor tensions of H2O
.and HDO drops sharply as the temperature goes up, so
that operation at low pressures and, consequently, with
towers of larger diameter is necessitated. No small .
amount of difficulty is occasioned by the small vapor -
pressure drop along the height of the column. The degree
of separation of deuterium by the fractional-distillation
method is small( 3-4%). In the USA, such facilities
were closed down as unprofitable after a prolonged oper-
ating experience. The cost of a single kg of heavy wa-
ter produced at those plants was 300-500 dollars. The
economic competitiveness of the process of extracting
deuterium by the water-distillation method may be en-
hanced by using heat pumping action, i.e., by secondary
compression of steam for heating the column still, and
utilizing other improvements.
It is obvious that this method may become profit-
able only on condition that costs of the low temperature
heat sources be exceptionally low. Such conditions
may be had, e.g., ingeyser regions. According to avail-
able information [4], a combine consisting of a facility
for extraction of heavy water by the distillation method
and an electric-power generating station operated on the
heat from geothermal vapors is being built.
First stage Second stage
fem. II
Compounds
At, triple
point
At boiling
point under
normal con-
ditions
H20/HDO . . . .
1,12
1,026
NH3/NH2D . . . .
1,08
1,036
CH4/CH3D . . . .
1,0016
0,9965
H2/HD . . . . . .
3,6
1,7
The method of fractional distillation of water is
exceptionally simple in its arrangement, and reliable in
operation. Industrial plants based on this method were
build in the USA during the Second World War.
As a result of the relatively low value of the separ-
ation factor the number of trays for producing the end
product is very large, more than 700, which then brings
about a need for a large number of very high towers.
Figure 4 shows a simplified flowsheet of the first
two stages of a facility for separating heavy water by a
distillation procedure. In each stage, the towers operate
33
4
I
Makeup
steam
Fig. 4. Flowsheet of facility for extracting heavy
water by the water-distillation method.
The fractional distillation of liquid ammonia has
attracted great interest. It is quite true that this process
must be carried to completion under more exacting con-
ditions than the process of fractional distillation of wa-
ter. The scales of the industrial enterprises processing
ammonia are limited. The rectification process may
be combined with an ammonia-water isotope-exchange
process, but this results in much higher costs.
The British " CJB" firm has developed a process for
producing heavy water in which a hydrogen-ammonia iso-
tope-exchange step is combined with subsequent recti-
fication of liquid ammonia. In the first isotopeexchange
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column, operating at a pressureof 250 atmos. and a temp-
erature of -40?C, the deuterium concentration in the
ammonia is quintupled. This ammonia is admitted to
the system of two columns, whose operation is based on
the dual-temperature process. The cold tower operates
at a temperature of -40?C, while the hot tower runs at
+100?C. Hydrogen serves as a gaseous circulating me-
dium. At this point, the concentration of deuterium in
the ammonia is again quintupled. The hydrogen-am-
monia isotope-exchange process takes place only in the
presence of a catalyst suspended in the liquid ammonia.
Ammonia enriched 20-25 times in deuterium thus en-
ters the system of rectifying towers. To improve the
economic performance of this rectification process the
heat pump principle is resorted to: the overhead am-
monia vapors drawn from the top of the column are
compressed by a compressor and fed to the column still
soils for reheating.
According to the data of the company, the cost of
1 kg of heavy water obtained by this process is " 48 dol-
lars; capital outlay comes to.- 230,000 dollars, scaled
to the production of one ton of heavy water annually.
Methane is not suitable as feed since the relative
volatilities of CH4 and CH3D are close to unity. The same
reason rules out the successful use of other more com-
plex hydrogenous compounds.
Absorption. This approach is based on the differen-
tial solubility of gaseous H2 and HD in the absorbing
medium. A large assortment of solvents have been studied
experimentally and theoretically [6]: NH3, SO2, CH4,
H2S, NO, CO2, A, N2, Ne. These studies were performed
over a wide range of pressures(1-200 atmos.) and temper-
atures (27?-239?K). It was found, that in almost all
cases HD dissolves better than H2. The ratio of the
Henry coefficients may be used as a measure of the pos-
sibility of separation. For most absorbents, this ratio
lies within the range 1.03-1.2; for liquid neon, it is
very high (- 3.24). Using the best solubility of HD in
liquid, it is possible to set up a scheme of continuous
extraction of deuterium from some gas containing hy-
drogen (e.g., from a gas such as synthesis gas used in
the production of ammonia) by scrubbing it with liquid
absorbent (nitrogen or neon) in passage through the tower.
Calculations based on such schemes have shown that
the energy input per kg of D2O must amount toB-15,000
kw-hr [6]. Making this process a reality involves great
engineering difficulties and no way has yet been found
to surmount them.
Fractional Distillation of Liquid Hydrogen. The
search for cheaper ways of manufacturing deuterium led
to the study of the possibility of extracting the heavy
isotope of hydrogen directly by rectification of liquid
hydrogen.
Such a method is entirely possible in principle,
since the boiling point of deuterium is 23.5?K and that
of hydrogen 20.38?K, i.e., the difference in the boiling
pointsattains 3.12?K. In practice, because what is
present in the hydrogen is not D2, but HD whose boiling
point lies between that of hydrogen and deuterium
(22.13?K to be exact, the difference does not exceed
1.75?K This difference in boiling points ruffices to
provide a very high enrichrrtent factor of 1.7.
The feasibility of enriching deuterium by a simple
evaporation of liquid hydrogen was first proven under
laboratory conditions in 1932 [9]. In 1933, a small
tower was used on a laboratory scale for enriching liquid
hydrogen with deuterium [10].
As calculations demonstrated, this method for pro-
ducing heavy water requires rather low capital expend-
itures and involves relatively low input [2,4,5,11,12],
e.g., in order to extract 1 kg of D20, 4-5000 kw-hr of
energy must be supplied.
The method of fractional distillation of liquid hy-
drogen thus comprises one of the cheapest and most ef-
ficient methods of deuterium separation. However, this
interesting method is so novel and so unusual from the
engineering standpoint (i.e., fractional distillation of
liquid hydrogen and the attendant secondary processes),
that much preparatory research work would have to be
carried out to make it a reality.
Plans and designs for large-scale heavy-water sep-
aration facilities based on this approach were actually
worked out in the USA in 1950-1951; but while all of
the experts acknowledged the economic soundness of
the method, American specialists were unable to solve
all of the scientific and engineering problems standing
in the way, and the facilities were not constructed.
In processing hydrogen by the refrigeration method,
the decisive point is the removal of impurities from the
hydrogen. For example, when the hydrogen contains ap-
preciable amounts of oxygen and nitrogen,these substances
freeze and plug up the tubes when cooled to the boiling
point of hydrogen, thus impairing the normal operation
of the separation units. It is known that oxygen impuri-
ties may be readily removed by catalytic hydrogenation,
as is done with melanges in synthetic-ammonia plants
and in the liquefication of hydrogen [13].
When the hydrogen contains appreciable nitrogen
impurities (over 3-416), as does, for example, a melange
(25% N2 and 75%a H2), removal of the first batches of im-
purities is carried out with relative ease: when the
starting mixture is cooled down, the nitrogen liquefies
and is continuously rejected, while the entire hydrogen
fraction remains in the gaseous phase. The nitrogen
residues maybe frozen out in reversible heat exchangers,
or else absorbed in refrigerated absorbent [2,4,5,12,14,15].
Figure 5 shows a flow diagram for the separation
of deuterium from hydrogen by the refrigeration method.
The initial hydrogen, at a pressure of 2-3 atmos after
cooling in the heat exchangers (not shown in the dia-
gram) to a temperature close to the saturation point,
i.e., close to N 25?K, is admitted to the midsection of
the rectifying tower L The reflux from this column is
high-pressure recycled hydrogen which is cooled in the
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
heat exchanger and in the coils of-the still of column I,
after which the hydrogen stream, is. throttled and admit-
ted in liquid form to the top of the column. The recycled
hydrogen is simultaneously used for balancing off the cold
losses of the entire facility, for which purpose it is com-
pressed to high pressures. To compensate for cold losses,
reciprocating orturbo-driven expansion engines may also
be used. A concentrate containing. 5-10%HD is drawn
off from the still of column:- The degree of separation
of HD in the column may be stepped up to 90-95%.
This unit, which may be termed the first separation stage,
is basic both with respect to energy consumption and
with respect to equipment costs, in the entire process of
extraction of deuterium from hydrogen. The second en-
richment stage consists in obtaining - 100% HD from the
5-10%concentrate. To achieve this, the concentrate
produced in the first stage is fed to the fractionating
column II. The semifinished overhead product from this
column is then recycled to column I of the first stage
in order to recover the remaining HD. All the "100%
HD drawn off from the still of column 11 is passed through
heat exchanger T-1 and fed to the contacting unit P
where the reaction
2HD;H2+D2
takes place.
After the HD is passed through the contacting unit,
a ternary mixture containing - 50% HD, 25% D2, and
25% H2 is formed. In order to separate out 100% deute-
rium, this mixture is then passed through heat exchanger
T-1 and fed to the fractionating column III, which works
in a manner similar to column II. The product taken off
the top of the column, which may be viewed as discard
from this stage, is recycled to column II as feedstock for
the extraction of HD and D2. The second stage, and par-
ticularly the third stage, are tapered off in dimensions,
being incommensurably smaller than the first stage.
It should be noted that the scheme described re-
flects only the general operating principles of the ar-
rangement, and the concentrations of the intermediate
products referred to may therefore take on other values,
-'I00%HD
Com-
hydrogen presses
hydrogen
Fig. 5. Flowsheet for separation of deuterium by. the
refrigeration method.
just as a different combination of the operation. of the
discrete stages is also possible.
The feedstock used in this method depends on the
sources of the hydrogen used (synthetic-ammonia plants,
hydrogenation plants, etc.), so that while the sources of
feed are quite ample, they, are not unlimited. Produc-
tion could be rendered independent of the source of raw
hydrogen by introducing a closed hydrogen cycle, the
deuterium content of which would be renewed continu-
ously by isotope exchange with water vapor at high
temperatures [5]. Capital and operating costs would
naturally rise.
In the Soviet Union, the method of low-tempera-
ture distillation in deuterium production, has been re-
alized on an industrial scale. Details on the technique
were reported in a paper submitted to the Second Inter-
national Conference. on the Peaceful Uses of .Atomic En-
ergy [12].Prolonged operational experience in produc-
tion. based on this method has completely confirmed all
of the design data, with no complications of any kind
hindering the successful carrying out of the process. Thus,
the USSR was the first to achieve the transition, on an
industrial scale, from the region of temperatures of
around 80?K, widely used for separating air, to the region
TABLE 3. Comparative Data on Several Industrial-Scale Methods Used in the Production of Heavy Water
Parameter
Fractional
distillation
of water
Hydrogen-water
isotope exchange
in combination
with electrolysis
Fractional
distillation
of liquid
hydrogen
Hydrogen sulfide
method combina-
tion with fractional
distillation and
electrolysis of
water
put of electric power (kw- hr)
178 tons of steam
> 65 tons steam plus
or steam (tons) per 1 kg D2O
(lower isotherm)
70,000 kw-hr
4-5000 kw-hr
- 400 kw-hr
Plant costs based on capacity of
kg D20peryear, $thousands
1100
400
300-350
360
Operating unit cost of 1 kg D20
capital expenses not included)
dollars
340
132
35
30
Equilibrium settling time
4-5 mos.
15-18 mos.
20-50 mos.
--
Degree of separation of D20, 10
3,7
43
90-95
< 18
618
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of 20?K, for the separation of hydrogen isotopes.
In late 1958, the Hochst and Linde firms started up
(in Frankfurt am Main, Germany) a pilot plant for the
production of deuterium by the low-temperature distil-
lation method from gases by-produced at a nitrogen
fertilizer works [16]. This plant is designed for a capa-
city of 6 tons of D20 annually, with a future scale-up to
10 tons proposed. The L'Aire Liquide Corporation
(Toulouse, France) is also inaugurating a pilot plant
with a capacity of 4000 cubic meters per hour of gas as
feed to synthetic-ammonia plants [17].
In several cases, the simultaneous exploitation of
various enrichment processes, may prove to be econom-
ical in the production of heavy water. For example,
the USA'.s largest heavy-water plant, at Savannah River,
uses three methods [7]: 1) the dual-temperature hydro-
gen sulfide process for producing. 15% D2O; 2) vacuum_
distillation of water to produce 90'o D2O; .3) electrolysis
to obtain 99.75% reactor-grade D20. .
In India, a plant based on an electrolytic process-
ing facility [18]., where hydrogen samples with deuteri-
um content three times that found in nature will be
produced, has been proposed, and the hydrogen so ob-
tained will be processed further through the low-temp-
erature distillation method to extract the remaining
deuterium.-:, According to calculations, the cost per
kg of heavy water will not exceed 60 dollars.
Comparative data on several industrial methods in
heavy-water production are entered.in Table 3 above
[2, 7].
To sum up, fairly reliable and economical methods
have been worked out on an industrial scale for the pro-
duction of heavy water at the present time. The most
sophisticated of those :methods are agreed upon as the
low-temperature fractional-distillation method and?the
dual- temperature hydrogen-sulfide-exchange process.
There is every justification for the assumption that, with
future improvements in existing processes and the elab-
oration of new ones, unit costs of heavy water can be
reduced and the economic performance of nuclear pow-
er reactors using heavy water can be improved at the
same time.
LITERATURE CITED
1. R. Stephenson, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering
(McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1954).
2. P. Selak and J. Finke, Chem. Eng. Prog. 50, 221 (1954).
3. G. M. Murphy (editor), Production of Heavy Water
(McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1955).
4. W. Becker, Angew. Chem. 68, No. 1(1956).
5. M. Benedict, "Survey of heavy-water production
processes," P/819, Vol. 4, Geneva 1958.
6. D. Augood, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. 35, 394 (1957).
7. W. Bebbington and V. Thayer, "Concentration of
heavy water by distillation and electrolysis,"
P/ 1065, Vol. 4, Geneva 1958.
8. E. Becker, R. Hubene; and R. Kessler, Chem.-Ing.
Tech. 5, 288 (1958).
9. H. Urey, F. Brickwedde, and G. Murphy, Phys. Rev.
39, 864 (1932); 40, 464 (1932).
10. W. Keesom, H. van Dijk, and J. Heantyes, Commun
Kamerlingh Onnes Lab. Univ. Leiden 20, 1 (1933).
11. K. Clusius and K. Starke, Z. Naturforsch 4a, 549(1949).
12. M. P. Malkov, A. G. Zel'dovich, A. B. Fradkov,
and I. B. Danilov, P,112323, Vol. 4 Geneva 1958.
13. G. Koplen, J. Amer. Rocket Soc. 22, 6 (1952).
14. W. Denton, B. Shaw, and D. Ward, Trans. Inst. Chem.
Eng. 36, 179 (1958).
15. B. Bailey, "Some aspects of heavy-water production
by distillation of hydrogen," P/ 1063, Vol. 4. Geneva
1958.
16. Chem. Ind. 10, 712 (1958).
17. Chem. Eng. Progr. 54, 126 (1958).
18. D. Gami, D. Gupta, N. Prasad, and K. Sharma,
"Production of heavy water in India," P/ 1649,
Vol. 4 Geneva 1958.
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SORPTION METHODS OF SEPARATING BARIUM AND RADIUM,
ALUMINUM AND GALLUM, AND ZIRCONIUM .AND HAFNIUM
B. N. Laskorin, V. S. U1'yanov, R. A. Sviridova,
A. M. Arzhatkin, and A. I. Yuzhin
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 110-116,
August, 1959
Original article submitted November 25, 1958
Chromatographic methods of separating elements with very similar properties have now been developed.: How-
ever, a number of these methods are difficult to use industrially as their throughput is low. The efficiency of
chromatographic separation methods could be increased considerably by using appropriate complex formers,
which decrease the effective concentration of the ions being separated, and, in the first approximation, this is-
equivalent to a decrease in the amount of elements being separated. The difference in the formation constants
of the complex compounds increases the separation coefficient. By investigating chromatographic separation with
the use of various complex formers, we found the optimal conditions for separating barium and radium, zirconium
and hafnium, and aluminum and gallium. The throughput of these methods, with respect to the macroelement
was 15-60 kg/hr per m2 of column cross section.
Separation of Barium and Radium TABLE 1. Values of Kd and Ks of Barium and Radium
Barium and radium have been separated chromato- for Various Resins in a Hydrochloric Acid Solution
graphically [1]. An ammonium citrate solution was
used as eluant. The investigations were carried out with
milligram amounts of substance of Dowex-50 cationite.
It was shown that it is possible in principle to separate
barium and radium, though insufficient grounds were
given for the selection of the conditions and separation
method.
We investigated the statics and dynamics of the
separation of barium and radium, using various complex
formers, to find the optimal conditions for their chro-
matographic separation.
The main value characterizing the sorption of an ion by
a cationite or anionite is the distribution coefficient Kd. The
ratio of the distribution coefficients of two ions gives the sep-
aration coefficient Ks.
Table 1 gives the values of the distribution and the
separation coefficients of barium and radium on various
ion-exchange resins.
Sulfonate cationites with the greatest percent of
cross-linkage, have the maximum distribution and sep-
aration coefficients. The data obtained agreed qualita-
tively with the results given in [2-4].
For the separation it is advantageous to have the
maximum value of Ks. However, with an increase in
the percent of cross-linking, the diffusion coefficient of
the ion within the ion-exchanger falls, and as a result
the desorption band is not sharp, and the separation de-
teriorates. An increase in Ks is also possible by using
complex formers. It is known, that the stability of corn-
plex compounds decreases in the series calcium- radium ,
ago
N C
3 G
o
`~4 A
o ?v
.bC
Dowex 50 x 10..... .
2,22
23,8
36,0
1,51
Dowex.50 x 8 ..... .
2,38
16,2
22,9
1,41
Calcite ........
2,48
22,6
34,5
1,47
KU- 2 x 8 ........
2,32
16,2
22,9
1,41
KIJ-2x 5 ........
3,18
10,5
14,6
1,39
Espatite-1 ....... .
2,38
3,0
4,06
1,35
SBS-R ... ....... .
2,45
2,37
3,20
1,35
RF. ........
~
~
0,20
0,30
x
KMT
5........ .
17,9
22,4
" The barium concentration in the solution was
0.03 M.
while radium is retained most strongly by a cationite.
When a complex former is used, the separation coeffi-
cient is determined in the first approximation by the
expression
KS omp_KS without comp (KRform a /0' oa
rm
Table 2 gives the logarithms of the formation con-
stants of some complex compounds of alkali earth ele-
ments. The most suitable of all the acids were citric,
nitrilotriacetic (NTA), and ethylenediaminatetraacetic
(EDTA) acids.
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TABLE 2. Formation Constants of Complex Compounds
of Alkali Earth Elements
Logarithms of formation
constants
Acid
Ca
Sr I
Ba I
Ra
Citric
..........
2,54
2,34
.
Malonic .........
-
-
1,36
0,95
Tartaric .........
1,8
1, 65
1,62
1, 24
...
Acetic.......
1,00
0,97
0,93
-
.
Malic ..........
2, 66
-
2,19
-
Polyphosphoric ....
3,00
2,8
3,0
-
Imtnodiacetic.....
3,41
3,4
1,67
-
Uramil-N, N-diacetic
8,77
7,6
6,8
-
Ethylenediamine-
10;59
8
63
7
76
-
tetraacetic..... .
,
,
Propylenediamine-
7 12
5
18
24
4
-
tetraacetic.... ?
N itrilotriac etic.... .
6 41
,
4 94
,
4,82
-
1,2-diaminocyclo-
12 5
-
-
-
hexanetetraacetic .
The use of hydrochloric acid. as eluant. Figure 1
shows the relation of the distribution coefficients of
alkali earth elements to hydrochloric acid concentration
for a KU-2 cationite. The working range of acid con-
centrations was limited to 0-4 M solutions. With an in-
crease in concentrations to 7 M, the separation coeffi-
cient fell to 0 and then barium sorption was mainly ob-
served. In this concentration range, barium and radium
could not be eluted with small volumes of hydrochloric
acid as the distribution coefficients were above 25.
The following optimal conditions were found from
the experiments on the separation of barium and radium
with hydrochloric acid: KU-2 cationite with 81o cross-
linking, grain size of 100-200 mesh, temperature 90?,
a gradually increasing acid concentration from 0.5 to
5.0 M at the end of the experiment,and an elution rate
of 2 cm/ min. The barium and radium were'sorbed in
the upper section of the column. The height of the
cationite layer saturated with barium was 101o of the
total height of the sorbent layer. The results of the
separation under these conditions are shown in Fig. 2.
Elution with ammonium citrate solutions. Prelim-
inary experiments were first carried out using citric acid
as complex former to obtain the maximum separation
coefficient. The relation of the distribution and separ-
ation coefficient to the pH of a 5% ammonium citrate
solution was investigated for 0.03 M solutions of.barium
on a KU-2 cationite. Table 3, gives the results of these
investigations. The optimal value for the pH was in the
range 7-9 in which all the acid hydrogen was neutralized.
Table 4 gives the distribution and separation coef-
ficients for various types of cationite in the optimal pH
range. The experimental values of the separation co-
efficients were somewhat lower than expected from the
data on the stability constants of the complex compounds.
0 2 4 6 9 10
HCl conc., g ? mole/ liter
Fig. 1. Relation of distribution co-
efficients of alkali earth elements
to hydrochloric acid concentration.
Investigations of the relation of the distribution co-
efficients to the ion concentration in the solution showed
that in the concentration range from 0.001 to 0.1 M, Kd
depended little on concentration. In this connection it
was interesting to check the applicability of the "plate
theory" [5] to the separation of barium and radium.
Figure 3 shows theoretical and experimental data
on the elution of barium and radium from a column
7 cm in height and filled with KU-2 cationite with a
grain size of 100-200 mesh.
A 5% ammonium citrate solution with pH = 7.6 was
used for desorption. The position of the maxima on the
curve and the course of the elution agree well with the
theoretical curve (continuous line). The height of the
'theoretical plate" under these conditions was 0.54 mm.
The use of ammonium citrate solutions for elution
made it possible to separate barium and radium com-
pletely on 50 cm columns with barium saturating the
upper 10 cm of layer. The solutions used for the elu-
Ba, g/ liter Ra, g/ ml
I afo,
Ba
*I *
T
* Ra
Plo ~~
90
un
Ratio of eluate volume to sorbent volume
Fig. 2. Barium and radium separation with hydrochloric
acid elution.
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TABLE 3. Relation of Kd and Ks to pH of a Citric Acid
Solution
pH
xd Barium I
I{d Radium
Ks
5,4
16,6
28,6
1,72
6,5
6,2
12,4
2,00
7,6
6,1
12,8
2,11
9,4
5,8
11,9
2,05
Ba, g/ liter .. Ra, counts/ mip_
Fig. 3. Theoretical and experimental data on the
elution of barium and radium.
- Theoretical
8000 ? Ra
r-1 Ba
25 45 65
Eluate volume, ml
tion had an increasing concentration of ammonium
citrate (from 0 to 5%).
In further experiments, the usual procedure of
chromatographic separation was changed somewhat.
Barium and radium were sorbed not from chlorides, but
from a 51o ammonium citrate solution with a molar ratio
of barium to citrate anion of 1: 1. This procedure made
it possible to dispense with elution with solutions of
varying concentrations and decrease the volumes.
In this case, the optimal separation conditions were
KU-2 cationite with a grain size of 100-200 mesh, 200o
of the height of the sorbent layer spent, elution rate
2 cm/ min,and 516 ammonium citrate with pH= 8.0 used
as the regenerating solution.
The results of separating barium and radium under
these conditions are shown in Fig. 4.
Use of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. Among
the practically accessible complex formers, EDTAforms
complexes of alkali earth elements with the greatest
difference in stability constants. The relation of the
distribution and separation coefficients to the pH of a
416 EDTA solution for a KU- 2 cationite is given in Table 5.
The maximum separation coefficient was obtained
at pH = 6.2; with an increase in the pH of the solution,
the distribution coefficient fell sharply.
TABLE 4. Kd and Ks Values of Barium and Radium for
Citric Acid
Cationite
Barium
K d
Radium
Kd
Ks
Dowex 50 X 10....
6,3
16,0
2,54
Dowex 50 X 8 ... ,
6,15
13,5
2,20
KU-2 x 8 . . . .
6,08
12,8
2,11
Espatite-1.. . . . ..
2,70
4,1
1,51
SBS-R . . . . . . . . . .
1,20
1 , 8
1,50
RF . . . . . . . . . . . .
3,2
4,6
1,44
Ba, g/liter Ra, g/ml
1.108
to
_ o
Ba
- R
1?ID 8
-
-
x
1?}0
1.10 n
5 7 Ratio of eluate volume to sorbbent volume
Fig. 4. Barium and radium separation with ammonium
citrate.
From the data obtained, we calculated the forma-
tion constant of the radium-EDTA complex and its lo-
garithm was found to be 7.2.
Different results were obtained in the separation of
radiochemical amounts of radium and barium. An in-
crease in the amount of barium lead to a change in pH
along the axis of the column during elution. Due to the
strong dependence of the distribution coefficients on
pH, there was no separation. In order to avoid a change
in pH along the front of the elution curve, the column
was first completely saturated with barium not contain-
ing radium, and a solution of a complex of barium and
radium with EDTA, with the optimal pH value was fil-
tered through the column. Due to the lower stability of
its complex compound, the radium was completely ad-
sorbed by the resin under these conditions, while the
eluant contained only barium. In this type of experi-
ment, barium plays the part of the "retaining ion".
The technological scheme for separating barium
from radium, using EDTA solutions, consists of the fol-
lowing: the starting solution, with pH - 6.5, containing
20 g/ liter of barium (the radium content depended on
the initial raw material and varied over a wide range,
but was generally a factor of tens of thousands less than
barium) and 40 g/ liter of EDTA was filtered successive-
ly through a series of columns filled with KU-2cationite
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TABLE 5. Kd and Ks Values of Barium and Radium for
a KU-2 Cationite in Relation to the pHof EDTA Solutions
pH
Barium Kd
Radium Kd
Ks
5,00
48,6
90,0
1,85
5,25
-
-
-
5,50
24,7
72,4
2,93
5,75
17,6
56,7
3,22
6,00
8,40
42,0
5,00
6,25
4,55
23,1
5,08
6,50
2,90
14,6
5,05
-7,00
0,5
2,05
5
with a grain size of 100-200 mesh. The solution volume
equaled 13-14 column volumes and the filtration rate
was 3-4 cm/min. Regeneration was then carried out
with an EDTA solution with pH = 10. The last fractions
of the regeneration solution contained 99% of the initial
amount of radium. The EDTA was precipitated from the
regeneration solutions with hydrochloric acid and re-
turned to the process. Two concentrations stages gave a
radium enrichment of 5000-6000 times. Separation of ra-
dium from 100 kg of barium, required columns with a
total sorbent volume of 0.5 m3. The solution volume
was 8 ms. The throughput of this method equals that of
contemporary technological methods, and was 50 kg/ hr
per m2 of column cross section.
0.01 kg of EDTA, 1.5 kg of sodium hydroxide and
1.2 kg of hydrochloric acid were consumed per kg of
barium separated:
Separation of Zirconium and Hafnium
Efficient industrial methods of obtaining zirconium
free from hafnium are a pressing problem due to the
creasing use of zirconium as a construction material in
atomic technology. Numerous methods of separating
no Z.- 30g/lit
As Zr 15 g/ li
Zr
0,5 1.0 1,
Molar ratio of F : Zr
Fig. 5. Relation of distribution coefficients
of zirconium and hafnium to the fluorine ion
concentration for a solution containing 0.65 M
sulfuric acid.
zirconium and hafnium have been described in the li-
terature. In [6] and Cl] hafnium was separated from
zirconium on anion-exchange resins in mixtures of the
acids HF and HC1. In [81 zirconium and hafnium were
separated by eluting mixtures of these elements from
sulfonate cationite with hydrochloric acid. There are a
number of other papers which are of less interest. In
[9] there is a review of separation methods and their
throughput is evaluated. The authors evaluated the
throughput of an ion-exchange method based on data
given in [10] as 0.5 kg/ hr per m2 of column cross section.
The throughputs of distillation and extraction methods
were 30 and 100 kg/ hr per m2 of apparatus cross sec-
tion,respectively.
As a result of investigating. the separation of zirco.
nium and hafnium on cation-exchange resins with a
mixture of sulfuric and hydrofluoric acids, we developed
a scheme for separating zirconium and hafnium chroma-
tographically that would be applicable industrially.
We used KU-2 sulfonate cationite with a low per-
centage of cross-linking. The relation of the distribution
coefficients of zirconium and hafnium to the concentra-
tions of zirconium and hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids
was investigated (Figs. 5 and 6).
The separation coefficient for zirconium andhafnium~
in a suitable range of Kd values varied from 1-5. Quite
efficient chromatographic separation was possible at a
Ks value of 5. Further experiments were carried out
under dynamic conditions.
Chromatography on a stationary ionite layer gave
the following optimal conditions, which take into ac-
count kinetic factors: 20-30 g/liter of zirconium (cal-
culated on zirconium dioxide), 0.65-0.75 M of sulfuric
acid and a molar ratio of fluorine to zirconium of 0.7-
1.0, 10% by weight of the resin in the column spent,
KU-2 cationite with a grain size of 60-100 mesh, a sorbent
layer height of 2-2.5 m and a solution filtration rate of
1.5-2 cm/min.
--d
- tr g/li
ter
I
0,5 0,6 0,7. 0,8 09
HZSO4 concentration, g ? mole/ liter
Fig. 6. The effect of sulfuric acid concentra-
tion on the distribution coefficients of zircon-
ium and hafnium.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
The starting solution whose composition is given
above was filtered through a cationite layer. The haf-
nium was completely adsorbed by the cationite while
the zirconium remained in the solution.. When the co-
lumn had been saturated with hafnium, the column was
regenerated with 0.65 M sulfuric acid. Zirconium hy-
droxide was precipitated from the eluted fraction which
contained less than 0.01-0.0816 of hafnium in relation
to zirconium. The intermediate fraction which contained
some zirconium contaminated with hafnium was re-
covered and added to the starting solution. The hafnium
fraction was filtered through a layer of RF phosphate
cation-exchange resin. The hafnium was completely
adsorbed by the sorbent, while the solution was recovered
and used as a regenerating substance in the starting cycle.
Ammonium oxalate was used to remove the hafnium
from the phosphate resin. Hafnium hydroxide was pre-
cipitated from the regeneration solution with ammonia.
This operation made it possible to increase the hafnium
concentration by a factor of 30 in one operation and to
return part of the solutions to the process. Hafnium con-
centrates with 99% purity were obtained.
The scheme described above had a throughput of
15-20 kg/hr per m2 of the column cross section. To
separate one kg of hafnium-free zirconium using metal
hydroxides prepared from fluozirconates as starting ma-
terial required 5 kg of sulfuric acid, 5 kg of ammonia,
and 0.2 kg of 40% hydrofluoric acid. This method gave
100 kg of hafnium-free zirconium as well as pure.haf-
nium preparations.
Isolation of Gallium from. an Anode Melt
The main difficulty in the technical isolation of
gallium from an anode melt is the separation of gallium
from aluminum. Technical solutions contain hundreds
of times more aluminum than gallium. The known
methods of isolating gallium are quite complicated and
therefore, the development of a method for separating
it chromatographically seemed promising.
An efficient separation of small amounts of gallium
from large amounts of aluminum and a series of other
AN-2F anions a
,
TABLE 6. Purification of Gallium by Ion-Exchange
Separation
Conc. in
Conc. in re-
starting sol-
generation
Element
ution,
solution,
g/ liter
g/ liter
Aluminum........
23
0,00
Gallium..........
0,3
,64
Copper..........
0,025
0,00
Iron
.........
7,4
0,12
...
Manganese........
0,094
0,00
elements required conditions under which gallium would
be adsorbed by a sorbent, while the aluminum and other
impurities remained in the solution. Cation-exchange
resins do not fulfill this requirement, although aluminum
and gallium may be separated on cationites.
We investigated the sorption of gallium and alumi-
num by . anion-exchange resins in various media.' The
maximum distribution coefficients were obtained in hy-
drochloric acid solutions. Aluminum was hardly ad-
sorbed from hydrochloric acid solutions. Figure 7 shows
a graph of the relation of the. distribution coefficient of
gallium to hydrochloric acid concentration in the outer
solution. Due to the high value of the distribution co-
efficient gallium may be separated from aluminum by
filtration of the solution through an anionite at a defi-
nite acidity.
We developed a technological scheme for separat-
ing gallium from an anode melt on the basis of the ex-
perimental results described.
The starting material, which was an anode melt
pulverized to 0.3 mm, was dissolved in hydrochloric acid.
The copper in the solution obtained was cemented with
aluminum or iron filings; the iron was simultaneously
reduced to the divalent state. The solution was acidi-
fied to 3.7 M and filtered through a sorbent layer. The
anionite was washed with 5 M hydrochloric acid. Gal-
lium was desorbed with 0.5 M hydrochloric acid. The
solution was neutralized with alkali and the gallate
electrolyzed to obtain metallic gallium.
Table 6 gives the composition of a starting solu-
tion and regeneration solution after ion-exchange separ-
ation of impurities.
The throughput of the apparatus was 50 kg/hr of
aluminum per m2 of the column cross section.
2 4 6
HC1 concentration, g ? mole/ liter
1. E. Tompkins, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 70, 3520 (1948).
2. H. Gregor, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 73, 642 (1951).
3. E. Gluckauf, Proc. Roy. Soc. 214, 207 (1952).
4. B. Soldano, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 77, 1134 (1955).
5. S. Mayer and E. Tompkins, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69,
2866 (1947).
Fig. 7. Relation of the distribution coefficient
of gallium to hydrochloric acid concentration.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
6. K. Kraus and G. Moore, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 71,
3263 (1949).
7. E. Huffman and R. Lilly, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 73,
2902 (1951).
8. K Street and G. Seaborg, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 70,
4268 (1948).
9. F. Hudswell and J. Hutcheon, 'Chemistry of nuclear
fuel,' Reports of foreign scientists to the Interna-
tional Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic
Energy (Geneva, 1956).
10. B. Lister and R. McDonald, Atomic Energy Research
EStabl. (Gt. Brit.) C/ R-545 (1950).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
HYDROGEN CONDENSATION PUMP WITH BUILT-IN LIQUEFIER
E. S. Borovik, B.. G. Lazarev, and I. F. Mikhailov
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 117-121,
August, 1959
Original article submitted November 13, 1959
A hydrogen pump with a capacity of 3.7' 104 liters/ sec and a built-in liquefier is described. The pump produces
a limiting vacuum of the order of 10-.8-10-9 mm Hg. The total required power (including the power used in
obtaining the liquid hydrogen) is 17 kw, which is less than the power required for an oil-diffusion pump of the
same capacity.
At the temperature of boiling hydrogen (20.4?K) the
vapor pressure of most materials is extremely low, so that
a surface which is cooled to this temperature will, even
in a rough vacuum (p 0. (30)
It is obvious from (27) that for all
ATo>AT*=
2
+l)i
(
1-cx
1
p\.
G cpi/
aGcp2
+exp `
-C cpi \
(27) is valid.
Consequently, for any parameters of the
system, A> 0. It remains to be determined whether
the equation
AAT2+BA7'0+C=0 (31)
If B2-4AC > 0, the equation has two real . roots: ATs
and AT4, where AT3 < AT4. The inequality (27) holds
for ATo < AT$ and ATo > AT4. In this case. the limiting
system is stable if AT1 < ATo < AT3 or AT4 < ATo < AT2
(Fig. 4).
If B2 -4AC = 0, (31) has one real root:ATS. In this
case, the inequality (27) holds for all ATo AT5, and the
limiting system is stable for AT1 < AT4 < AT2 with the
exception of AT0 = AT5.
If B2 -4AC < 0, the equation has no real roots, (27)
is satisfied for any ATo, and the limiting system is stable
if ATl < ATo < AT2.
Let us consider the stability of the system by taking
into account the lagging elements. We shall write the
transfer function of the limiting system in the form
Wls (Iw) = W. i(o) exp [/0 (w)], (32)
where WO (w) is the modulus, 9 (w) is the argument, and
j = Jam. The transfer function of a system where the
lagging elements have been taken into account is of the
following form
W (jw) = WO (w) exp {j [0 (w) - (Cl '+'C2) w]}. (33)
In order that a system with delays be stable, it is
necessary and sufficient [3] that the point (1, j0) lies
outside the contour of the vector hodograph:
W (jw) = WO ((0) exp {j [0(w) -(tit +ti) w]}.
1 11 I 11 1
a) - ~F dT
b) ? d7o
d7, dls d7z
if
A7 A7;'
I
~.d7c
Fig. 4. Stability regions of the plant for 6 < 0.
B2 -4AC > 0; b) B2 -4AC = 0; c) B2 -4AC < 0;
instability region; Ill stability region. (At the points
AT1, AT2, AT3, AT4, and AT5, the system is unstable.)
'- Condition (24) is always satisfied.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
r
The moduli of vectors Wls (jw) and W (jw) for each frequency are identical and equal to WO (w). Let us
evaluate the value of Wo (w):
Wo (w) = Wro ((0) Rsgo (w),
where Wro (w) and Wsgo W are the moduli of transfer functions.of the reactor and the steam generator.
Wro (w) _
(Gicpi cuz +) r[~ p+l~Gic2?.] w2
2 a,0
l aAO)" i l aNa l z
C Gicpl 1. w2+ 2 + l G1~p1~(1-~) 21~ I w2
It is obvious from (35) that Wro (w) = 1 only for w = 0; for all w:0, Wro = (w) < I.
Thus,
Tsgo (w) _
lol-( +1 Gcp2
// X
2KLL
Glcpt
1YT1ji~ (w) G 1, l . .
i Gicp1 19-exp.(-G) cp- /-J+ o exp (-G Cpl i +G2c22exp
l ` / \I 1 t( a
~Glc 1 C.1-eXp K L I\ C-1 "I'l +G2c 2
pzw
From'(37), -it is obvious that -
Wgo (w) < 1. (38)
By taking .into account (34), (36), and (38), we obtain
Wo (w) < 1
Since the modulus of the transfer function is less than
1, the point (1, ,j0) will lie outside the contour of the vec-
tor hodograph for any lag time. Consequently, a system
with delays will be stable, if the limiting system is stable,
i.e., if (25)-(27) are satisfied.
. CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of investigations performed on the con-
sidered nuclear power plant, we can arrive at the following
conclusions: 1) 6 = di"/dt2EG2o-02/A~(io-icwP 0,
the system is stable for any intensity of water preheating
in the reactor,
2) If 6 < 0, then, for certain given preheating in-
tensities, instability regions appear (see Fig. 4), and the
number of such regions and their size are determined by
the following relations:
LL ,l -
2K P, Gcp2
1-ex' p KLL
G cp'
x _ AT
1 1,
1 {exp (- KLL
Gicpl
1-exp KLL
OT 2ND C Gl cpa. AT
0
27
S 1+exp KLL
C di cpi
AATo -{-BAT, + C > 0.
The roots of the quadratic trinomial are AT3 and AT4;
A > 0.
The indicated relations make it possible to deter-
mine the stability of a system for any values of the plant
parameters. However, in actual plants, the system para-
meters are such that AT1 < 0, ATs < 0, and AT4 < 0, and
the stability region lies in the 0 < ATo < AT2 interval,
where AT2 is equal to _103 ?C, i.e., it considerably ex-
ceeds the actual preheating of water in the reactor.
It should be noted that, if the reactor has a positive
temperature coefficient of reactivity, the system of in-
equalities defining the stability conditions is incompatible
and the plant is unstable.
Thus, actual plants of the considered type are stable
if the reactor has a negative temperature coefficient of
reactivity.
The author extends his thanks to S. M. Feinberg and
Ya. V. Shevelev for their discussion of a number of prob-
lems encountered in the work.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Material of the USA Atomic Energy Commission.
Nuclear Reactors, part I: Nuclear Reactor Physics.
2. A. A. Voronov, Elements of Automatic Control
Theory in Russian] (Voenizdat, 1954).
3. Ya. Z. Tsypkin, Avtomatika i Telemekhanika 7,_
107 (1946).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
THE NUCLEAR REAC-TOR CIRCULATION CIRCUIT
AS A RADIATION SOURCE
Yu. S. Ryabukhili and A. Kh. Breger
Translated from Atomnaya 6nergiya, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 129-137,
August, 1959
Original article submitted July 25, 1958
The solution of the problem of circulation circuits with a single radioisotope, which has been found earlier [1],
is applied to the general case where several radioisotopes having radioactive progeny are formed in the substance
to be activated. The problems of the absolute maximum circuit power and the consumption of neutrons per unit
power for a number of elements which can be used as substances to be activated in the circuit are considered.
From among them, the most promising are indium and its alloys.
Special attention is paid to a circulation circuit where the substance to be activated contains a fissionable isotope
("uranium" circuit). It is shown that the specific power of such a circuit, all other conditions being equal, is con-
siderably lower than the specific power of circuits with metallic indium or its alloys. As a particular case of a
"uranium" circuit, the circulation from the reactor into the radiation unit,and the reverse,of fuel elements which
have not burned up completely is considered. It is shown that, in this case, the power of the unit can be increased
two- to fourfold in comparison with the power of a unit, which makes a single use of completely burned-up fuel
elements.
A circuit where a single radioisotope without radio-
active progeny is formed in the substance to. be activa-
ted has been considered in [1].' However, more com-
plex cases are possible. In the first place, several radio-
isotopes can be formed as a result of activation; in the
second place, the daughter products of these primary
radioisotopes can be radioactive; in the third place, the
primary radioisotopes themselves as well as their radio-
active and stable decay products can be activated, thus
forming new radioisotopes. Finally, there is a special
case where a fissionable isotope is contained in the sub-
stance to be activated ('uranium" circuit).
Consequently, the formation of a very complex mix-
ture of isotopes, the components of which can be either
independent or genealogically related to each other, is
possible. The calculation of such a circuit with the val-
ues tr, ta, and tB, changing from one cycle to another is
difficult and hardly rational.t Therefore, in this case
it is natural to limit ourselves to the consideration of a
circuit where tr, ta, and tB are constant.
Circuit with Constants tr, ta, and tB
The over-all power of such a circuit is obviously
equal to the sum of powers of isotopes emitting y radiation
If a radioactive family is available, the specific
power (i.e., the power per liter of substance to be acti-
vated) of an ideal circuit, which corresponds to the mth
isotope in the chain (designating the isotope to be acti-
vated by zero), is equal to*
nid - A iT 11 V [1-exp (-' q)] 11-exp (-vq))
q=1 q=1 ('sq?vq) Xq fi (Xj-Xq) [ 1-exP [-(tiq+?+q)]
7=~
where Am = 9 a N Pm, and the condition X j - Xq = 1 holds with respect to
L 1 1-exp [-n (tig+vg)] I
L n[exp(tiq+'q)-i]
R (as - aq) -
j=1
We also derived $ the equation for the energy of y radiation stored at the moment t of the period ta, which
S While [l] was in preparation, we had the opportunity of studying the report by R. Gordon ("Project of an Irra-
diation Loop"), which was presented at the Conference on Nuclear Science and Technology (Chicago, March,
1958). A certain number of problems considered in [l] are treated in this paper. The results obtained by Gordon
agree with the results obtained in the corresponding parts of our work [l].
For notation, see [1].
$ See Appendix.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
is equal to the number of atoms of a given isotope multiplied by the energy of y radiation emitted by these atoms:
id m = A H 1-exp[ _n(cg-+ -Yg))] I1-exP(-vg)Iexp(-kgt)
Um
Am 11 q Trisr
q=1 q=1 Xq.L.I (Xi-Xq) [1-exPI
,=1
This equation is simpler than the similar equation derived in [21
By using (1) and (2), the specific power can be calculated also in the case where any of the isotopes in the
family, for instance the pth, is activated. Such an isotope can be designated as the zero isotope in a new family,
and the specific power of the m' -th isotope can also be determined from (1), where, in the expression for Am' _
= cpor Nr Fm,, the magnitude of Nr is calculated from (2) .
For an actual circuit, the expressions for specific power and stored decay energy are of the following form:
P = Am H \t 11-exP (-tg)1 [1-exp (-'g)] exp(-1g) x
P.. - m q in
q1 ?-1 9
C `q-I vq I sq-1n J Xq 1-exP I-(tiq f vq I Eq)1
-1
X 1-expl-n(tig+"g+g)1l
[
1 - n IeXP (,cq+vq+ Eq)-11 J '
rnr-ri m [1-exp [-n (tiq+'q I- Eq)lI I1-exP (-iq)1exj [-xq (t+tra)]'-
Um-Am11 ?qI m
Xq IT (Xj-Xq) [1=exP I-(tq+'q+Eq)]
J
In order to determine the optimum power conditions,
it is necessary to find the maximum of the sum of spe-
cific powers with respect to each isotope. In its general
form this problem is.very complicated, and, inpractice,
it is more convenient to use an approximate and, there-
fore, simpler method of selecting operating conditions.
In this, one should be guided by the following considerations.
If a simple isotope mixture is available, only the
shortest-lived and the longest-lived isotopes, whose con-
tribution to the over-all specific power is the greatest,
are considered.
A decrease in specific power in comparison with
1/ 4 A due to the finiteness of tB and the fact that tr and
t a are not. at their optimum values is more strongly pro-
nounced in the case of short-lived isotopes (see (4) and
(5) in [1]); a decrease in specific power due to unsatur-
ation with respect to activity will be more strongly pro-
nounced in long-lived isotopes. The magnitudes of
functional parts in the expression for the specific power
of all other isotopes lie between the magnitudes of func-
tional parts in the expression for specific power corre-
sponding to these two isotopes.
In the case of an isotope chain, the specific power
corresponding to the mth isotope will be determined by
the accumulation and decay of atoms of the preceding
members of the chain. If the decay constants of individ-
ual chain members differ very much among themselves,
i.e., Xa >> Xb>> Xc X. .. >> Xj, the operating conditions
will be mainly determined by that term of the sum in
(3) where the decay constant is the smallest. If there are
two or more terms where X differ little from each other,
then, on the basis of the fact that the product of each
term of the sum in (3) and ),q J 1 (X - Xq) changes
little in relation to X (see (5) [1]), such products can
be considered as being equal; the corresponding com-
ponents of the sum in (3) can be added, and the consid-
erations mentioned before can be used.
Having chosen the operating conditions, it is possible
to calculate with accuracy the specific power corresponding
to each isotope and to prove that the conditions have
been correctly chosen.
Substances Which Can Be Used in the Circuit
Table 1 provides some data on elements which can-
be used as substances to be activated.
In this table, Ci is the share of the i th isotope in a
natural mixture of isotopes with the activation cross sec-
tion 0i act; oabsis the cross section of neutron absorption
by the natural mixture of isotopes of a given element.tt
The fourth column gives the absolute maximum power
per atom of the element in question, and the fifth column
provides the maximum power per one consumed neutron.
The table contains only those elements for which: 1) the
half life of y-emitting isotopes does not exceed 100 days;
Ciai act ri
2)j; CiaiactFi 2barn?Mev; 3) > 0,5Mev,
oabs
The data in the table show that the most suitable
elements with respect to the absolute maximum power
per atom are In, Ir, Sc, Mn, and La. The actually at-
tainable absolute maximum powers depend, of course,
on the physical and chemical properties of the substances.
With respect to the most efficient use of neutrons
consumed in activation, Na, which is the best element,
is followed by La, Sc, In, Mn, and Ga. The actual effi-
ciency of neutron utilization depends on the absorption
if The values for oact' oabs' and C are taken from [31
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
Element
Isotopes emit-
ting y rays
Half life
E Ci?i actri,
barn ? Mev
ECi?iactri' Mev
abs
Na
Na24
15,1 hr
2,1
4,1
Sc
Sc46
85 days
44
2,0
Mn
Mn68.
2,58 hr
21,5
1,6
Ga
Ga72
14,3 hr
3,7
1,4
Br
Br 8
I,5 drays
4
9
0
76
?
1
,
,
In
in116
53,9 min
344
1,8.
Sb
Sb122
2,8 days
6
3
66
0
Sb124
60 days
,
,
La
La190
1, 66 days
19
2,2
Jr
Ir1?2
744,3 days
220
0,5
cross section of a given substance and on the operating
conditions of a given circuit.
Table 2 lists the absolute maximum-powers for
some substances whose application seems to be most
promising. The calculations were performed for cp=1019
neutron ,cm.-2 ? sec 1.
In this table, indium and its alloys are the best sub-
stances with respect to specific power, and sodium has a
good neutron utilization efficiency. Thus, in developing
.actual systems, it is possible to select a circulating sub-
stance which is most suited to satisfy the necessary re-
quirements.
The following factors should be taken into account
in selecting a circulation circuit for an actual nuclear
reactor, In comparing specific,powers, it is assumed that
the introduction of the substance to.be activated in the
activation zone will not disturb the neutron flux to a
great extent. The same assumption has been made also
in [1 ] in the selection of an optimum circuit. Such an
assumption is connected not only with the fact that the
amount of the substance to be activated is considered to
be small in many cases, but also with the fact that it is
impossible to find a general expression for reducing the
flux in the activation zone when a certain volume of
the substance to be activated is introduced. The reduction
of the flux depends in every case on geometric factors.
However, if the flux reduction is significant we can con-
sider that, for a given average flux in volume Vr, the
volume Vr is also given, and we can find the relatively
optimum operating conditions (see [1]). ?A comparison
of substances with respect to the power per neutron ab-
sorbed in 1 sec is important in the case where neutrons
are used for other purposes, i.e., when they have a cer-
tain "value". The most efficient use of neutrons is se-
cured in a circuit where Va is infinitely large with respect
to Vr. In this case, the power per each neutron absorbed
in 1 sec will be twice that indicated in Table 2. It is
obvious that such a circuit will be extremely inefficient
with respect to the power liberated in the unit per liter,
i.e., with respect to volumes circulating in the circuit.
It.is of interest to compare the obtained results. with
the corresponding data characterizing the use of the Co 60
isotope as a source of y radiation. The quantities
ECia i act ri
EC o'? ri, and 1- for cobalt are equal to
i t fact aabs
90 barn ? Mev and 2.5 Mev, respectively; in the case of
a circuit containing pure cobalt, Pa max (for (P = 1013
neutron ? cm 2? sec-1) is equal to 3160 w/ liter. However,
the average specific power 'for a time acceptable in prac
Elements to
Power per neutron
Meltin
tem-
be activated
Pa-max,w/liter
absorbed in 1 sec,
w x 10-x'
g
perature, ?C
Na
Liquid metal
20
3,16
97
Mn, 13r
3 M solution of MnBr2
23
0,96
In, Ga
Liquid alloy: 24%-In alloy
1200
1,42
16*
In
Liquid metal
5100
1,44
156
In
Liquid alloy: 561, In; 341 Bi;
3300
1,44
. 73 [81
101 Pb
Liquid alloy: 521 In; 301 Bi; 181 Sn
2900
1,44
60 [8)
1 M solution of In2 (SO4)3-
1,44
* See, for example, [7],
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
tice is much lower. Actually, by using (4b) of [1], it is
easily found that for K = 1 year, tr = ta = 0.5 year , and
tB = 0; the average power of a Co6D specimen with a vol-
ume of 1 dins is Pid = 0.032A = 405w.
In this case the efficiency of neutron utilization
will be 0.25 w/neutron, i.e.; it will be 5.8 times lower
than that for the In-Ga alloy (see Table 2).
"Uranium" Circuit
The consideration of a circulation circuit where a
substance containing a fissionable isotope is used for the
"transfer" of y radiation to the radiation unit is un-
doubtedly of great interest [9]. The solution of the prob-
lem of selecting optimum operating conditions of a cir-
cuit with respect to the attainable specific power of the
radiation unit, can serve as a basis for the development
of such circuits for homogeneous as well as for hetero-
geneous nuclear reactors. Moreover, the "uranium"
circuit theorymust serve as a basis in calculating the
conditions for a complete or partial utilization of burn-
up elements in different radiation units, which is also
of great practical importance (see, for example, [10-13].
The main difficulty in solving this problem is con-
nected with the fact that the data on the y radiation of
fragments and, particularly, of fragments of short-lived
isotopes are incomplete and often inaccurate. Neverthe-
less, we attempted to calculate the maximum specific
power of a "uranium' circuit by borrowing data on iso-
S
43
Fig. 1. Graph of the S(n) function.
to to ro to
Number of cycles n
q
1,25
Fig. 2. Graph of the Q (l;) function for different
numbers of cycles n.
topes from [4-6] and data on UM fission-product yields
from 114].
By summing up the specific powers with. respect to
each isotope, we obtain -
id t 1,6
Pa?rnax- /4 E Am = 4 p uNu Mev/sec liter.
For the circulation of a 1.26 M aqueous solution of
the U02 (NO3)2 natural uranium salt for (p = 1013 neutron
cm 9? sec 1 , we have Pla max = 1.9 w/ liter.
This magnitude is apparently lower than the actual
one, since many short-lived isotopes have not been taken
into account.
Therefore, we thought it convenient to use a differ-
ent method in this case: the Way-Wigner equation for
the energy of y radiation emitted by fragments per unit
time at the time t sec after fission. This equation can
be used in the 10 s t_ 107 sec interval [15]:
dE t 2
~t = 1,26 t- Mev/sec fission.
Considering, as before, that tr and ta are constant, we obtain
PC _
n-t
7,88/ !J C 1 -
h=0
k
n)
1(9c ta)o,s.-9cs-(9 c+ta-I-tr)0,8+(Bc+tr)0,8}
tr+ta+to-tn
where f is the number of fissions per sec in 1 liter, and
gc = k (tr + to + tB) + tra.
It should be noted that (6) as well as the correspond-
ing equations in [1] are symmetrical with respect to tr
and ta, i.e., for the optimum condition tr= ta for a
given tB .
The problem of finding the sum in (6) in a form con-
venient for practical use and with a good approximation
at the same time remains unsolved. $$
However, the necessary equations can be obtained
for certain particular cases.
It t In principle, this cam be done by using Euler's equa-
tion, however, the resultant expression would be unwieldy.
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1. If n is so small, that a term-by-term summation
can be done in practice, this summation would provide
a general solution of the problem, i.e., a solution for
any tr , ta, tra, and tar.
2. Let tr = ta and tra tar.
Then, fort s 1, with an accuracy of t 2*, we have*
? ?
Pc.
c?'2 C 2(i+
ra
[2(E+1)0,8_~0,8-
-- (E + 2)0.8.+ S (n)
(I + Q1,2
where S (n) is found from Fig. 1.
Let us denote Pc tr?.a / f by Q (g, n). The Q (9, n)
curve is shown in Fig. 2. As can be seen from the' figure,
the value g a 0.08 corresponds to the optimum oper-
ating conditions for any n. Like (5), (6) and (7) are ap-
plicable in the time interval from 10 to 107sec.
Calculations according to (7), show that the specific
power of a circulation circuit where the substance to be
activated is, for instance, a 1.26 M solution of uranyl
nitrate (for W = 1013 neutron- cm t. sec-1, tr = ta
=
= 140 sec, tra = t4r= 10 sec, and K = 100 days) is equal
to 3.2 w/ liter, i.e., it is 1.7 times greater than the cor-
responding value obtained from (4) for the ideal optimum
circuit.
However, with respect to specific power, such a cir-
cuit is considerably inferior to those considered earlier
(Table 2).
For the sake of comparison, we shall mention that
even if metallic uranium circulates in the circuit, the
specific circuit power (for the same conditions) amounts
to only 190 w/ liter. T tt This is the limit for this type
of circuit (for the above-mentioned neutron flux).
It is easy to evaluate by how much the "uranium'
1 2 3 4 5 10 20 30 40 50 100
Number of cycles n
PforK
=66.6
days
tp fo
r K
= 80
o
r 66.6
days
00,
00,
P fo
r K
=8
0 day
tra fo
tra fo
r K
r K
=80
=66.
days
6 days
circuit power can be increased in approaching the ideal
optimum circuit with n = co. It is known that the total
y -radiation energy emitted by fragments amounts to
^? 6 Mev/ fission. At the same time, it can be easily
found from (5) that an energy of
107
1,26t -1,2 dt = 3,85 Mev/fission
10
is emitted in the interval from 10 to 107 sec.
Hence, it follows that even in the ideal case the
power can be increased approximately 1.5-fold.
However, it should be kept in mind that the num-
ber of delayed neutrons emitted in the radiation unitper
unit time will greatly increase in approaching the in-
dicated ideal circuit. For each isotope emitting neu-
trons, the number of such neutrons per 1 liter is deter-
mined from an equation which is similar to (4a) in [1]:
M _ D/ [1-exp(-ti)1(l-exp (-v)1 exp (-y)
(~-}-v) [1-exp [-(ti+v+E)]]
where D is the yield of delayed neutrons of a certain
group. per fission. For instance, for the. above data used
in the calculation of specific "uranium" circuit power,
the over-all specific number of neutrons in all groups
is 1.5 ? 1010 neutron/sec ? liter -1.
Utilization'of Fuel Elements in
Radiation Units
Equation (7) can be applied also for determining
the operating conditions and for calculating the specific
power of radiation units where completely (n = 1) or par-
tially ( n > 1) burned-up fuel elements are used as ra-
diation sources. :141:
In using completely burned-up fuel elements. it is
understood that the cooling must be done in a special
radiation unit. As an example, we calculated according
to (7), the specific power for completely burned-up fuel
elements for different burn-up times (tr = 10, 20, 30,'
and 45 days) and for different feed rates of fuel elements
from the reactor to the radiation unit (0.3 Pus+ > Pu02+ > Pu02 ,
i.e., in the order of decrease in the ionic potential rp.
LITERATURE CITED
1. A. D. Gelman, P. I. Artyukhin, and A. I.' Moskvin,
Zhur. Neorg. Khim. 4, 1332 (1959).
2. A. D. Gelman and M. P. Mefod'eva, Doklady Akad.
Nauk SSSR 124, 815 (1959).
3. J. Foreman and T. Smith, J. Chem. Soc. 1957, 1752.
4. ' A. L Moskvin and P. I. Artyukhin, Zhur. Neorg.
Khim. 4, 591 (1959).
5. C. Davies, J. Chem. Soc. 1938, 2093.
6. Atomnaya Energiya 4, 602 (1958).?
? Original Russian pagination. See C. B. translation.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE TRUE SPECIFIC
HEATS OF URANIUM, THORIUM, AND OTHER METALS
E. A, Mit'kina
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol, 7, No. 2, pp. 163-165,
August, 1959
Origirial article submitted April 1, 1959.
The true specific heats of uranium, thorium, beryl-
lium sodium, and a bismuth-lead alloy, were deter-
mined by a relative heating and cooling method [1]
and an absolute method involving the use of an elec-
tron-radiation calorimeter [2].
The cooling and heating method was modified
somewhat. Specimens (or control blanks) of cylindrical
form ( 0 = 15 x 15 mm) were. selected, since the cool-
ing conditions for'such specimens were characterized by
low values of the Biot modulus (below 0.05), so that the
variation of temperature with time for any point on the
cylinder might be assumed to be uniform.
Applying the appropriate mathematical reduction
of the cooling curves [3], the following formula was
obtained for determining the specific heat of a specimen:
(l) _ ~~ (t) C' til
where cl(t)'is the specific heat of the reference stand-
ard; Gl is the weight of the reference; T1 is the cool-
ing time of the reference; G is the weight of the spe-
cimen; T is the cooling time of the specimen.
In order to avert oxidation of the specimen and
reference standard, experiments were carried out in an
inert-gas atmosphere and in a vacuum.
The specific heat in the electron-radiation calori-
meter was determined on the basis of equation
Q
where Q is the amount of heat introduced into the sample
by electron flow, during a time T, equal to 0.239 IvT.
(where I is the amount of current; v is the voltage be-
tween the heating filament. and the specimen,, which
acts as the anode); G is the weight of the specimen;
At is the change in the temperature of the specimen.
The electron-radiation calorimeter was operated
in the following fashion: at a distance of 4-5 mm from
the test sample, i.e., the anode, is placed a tungsten
heater filament 0.05 mm in diameter, supplied by stor-
age batteries at a voltage of 4-5. A potential difference
of the order of 200 v is supplied for a time T. across the
heater filament and the specimen. Any temperature
increase in the specimen is sensed by a thermocouple.
The primary temperature of the specimen is determined
by balancing the heat produced by the electric furnace
4, the heater filament, and the cooling by water of
the quartz envelope of the calorimeter.
Electron-radiation
calorimeter.
The vacuum system assures a vacuum of the order
of 5 ? 10-5 mm Hg in the calorimeter. The design de-
tails of the calorimeter. may be seen in the accompany -
ing diagram. The calorimeter is assembled on a sup-
port consisting of a bellows covered by a flange using
lead packing. The support has a water cooling jacket,
and is-equipped with a duct connected to a diffusion
pump. A specimen holder 1 consisting of a glass tube
with a system of crossbars soldered to it. bearing on
picein lubricant is passed through the flange, thecross-
bars serving to hold the cathode filament 2 in tension,
to provide a lead-in for the anode conductor 3, the
thermoelectrodes 4, and for mounting of a thin dual-
channel tube for the thermocouple 5, while at ,the same
time, serving as a support for the test sample 6.. A
quartz frame 7, needed to fasten the winding of the
electric heating unit, supports a radiation screen 8, the
latter made of tantalum foil. The quartz frame is fas-
tened to the: flange by two long brass pins 9, which con-
duct current to.the heating unit 10. The entire appara-
tus is enclosed in a quartz envelope 11, mounted on the
.flange with picein lubricant.
The sample was weighed on analytical balances
mounted on a chromel-constantan thermocouple and
placed inside the calorimeter. In determining the spe-,
cific heat of the melt, the latter was placed inside a
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Material
Degree of purity, in % ?
Thermal conductivity,
Specific heat, cal/g?c
kcal/m - hr ? ?C
Uranium .............
99,72
19 at 20? C
0,03
at
20? C
Thorium .............
99
81
36 at 20? C
0,03
at
20? C
Beryllium ............
,
99,80
100 at 20? C
0,4
at
20? C
Alloy .............
Y
Technical grade
50 at 100? C
0,3
at
100? C
(Pb.43.5%, Be 56.5%)....
10 at 150? C
0,03
at
150? C
TABLE 2. Results of Measurements of the True Specific Heats of the Materials Tested
Specific heat, cal/g"C
oc
Alloy (Pb 43.5%,
Uranium
Thorium
Beryllium
Sodium
Bi 56.5%)
50
0,0268*
0,0250*
0,465*
-
0,0298*
100
0,0284*
0,0268*
0,490*.
0,320*
0,0332*,
150
-
-
0,320*
0,0350*
200
-
-
-
0,320*
0,0353*
250
-
0,0315,
-
0,320*
0,0355*1
300
0,0345?
0,0330,
-
0,320*
0,0355*1
350
0,0362*
0,0340?
0,615,
0,320,
0,0355**
400
0,0378,
0,0350,
0,635,
0,320,
0,0355**
450
0,0394,
0,0360,
0,655,
-
0,0355*1
500
0,0410,
0,0365,
0,672'.
-
0,0355**
550
0,0425,
0,0374,
-
--
-
600
0,0440,
0,0380,
-
-
-
650
-
0,0388,
-
-
-
700
-
0,0390,
-
-
Note. Asterisks d
enote specific h
eat data obtaine
d by the relative m
ethod, while crosse
s denote data
obtained in the e
lectron-radiatio
n calorimeter.
hermetically sealed thin-walled metal crucible of known
specific heat. The setup required a vacuum and con-
trolled heat conditions for satisfactory operation. The
anode voltage, the anode current, and the time during
which the current flowed were measured; changes in
the temperature of the specimen were recorded on a
PPTN-1 potentiometer.
Table I gives the characteristics of the materials
tested, based on data from several papers, while the
results of measurements of the specific heats. of those
materials are entered in Table 2.
The relative error in the determination of specific
heat by the cooling, and heating method may be repre-
sented as the sum of the relative errors incurred in find-
ing the values entering into (1), and were evaluated at
1.5-2%.
The fact that the cathode filament was positioned
in close proximity to the specimen inside the electron-
radiation calorimeter brought about radiation heating,
which restricted the lower temperature limit of the
measurements to 200-250?C.
The experimental error associated with electronic
heating of the specimen (work function of the electrons,
thermal energy introduced by electrons in the sample)
amounted to approximately ? 216. The relative error
incurred in the specific heat determinations was ? 1.5-
1. G. M. Bartenev and Ya. L. Turovskii, Zhur. Tekh.
Fiz. 10,' 514 (1940) ; 10, 1074 (1950) ; 17, No. 11
(1957).
2. H. Klinkhardt, Ann. phys. 84, 167 (1927).
3. E. V. Kudryavtsev, The Use of Thermal Transients
in Studies of Heat Release in Aviation Engines [in-
Russian] (Oborongiz, 1948).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF
PILE -IRRADIATED BOILING NITROGEN
Yu. K. Gus'kov and A. V. Zvonarev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol.7, No. 2, pp. 165-166,
August, 1959
Original article submitted April 18, 1959
In studying radiation- induced dislocations in solids,
experiments on the irradiation of such solids over a broad
range of temperatures, starting with the lowest tempera-
tures, are called for. Low-temperature conditions may
be attained by cooling the samples to be irradiated using
liquefied gases. Liquid nitrogen (boiling point -196?C)
is the most readily available of these. In addition, nitro-
gen has a low activation cross section, which facilitates
handling of the liquefied gas.
We carried out measurements of the electrical re-
sistivity of liquid nitrogen after irradiating it in a reac-
tor. The diagram shows the Dewar vessel in which the
measurements were carried out.
The electrodes used were two copper plates each
2.4 cm 2 in area, which were soldered to the cores of a
0.75 mm diam BPTE cable, which was fixed in place
inside copper leads. The metal braiding of the cable
Dewar vessel:
1) aluminum bottom;
2) rubber spacer disk;
3) aluminum tubing,
0= 40 x 1 mm; 4)
glass Dewar, 5) cop-
per tubing, 0 = 3 x
x 0.5 mm; 6) cable;
7) rubber packing; 8)
copper plate; 9) copper
electrode.
was stripped from a length 10 mm around the spot where
the electrodes were soldered on. The spacing between
elelctrodes was 5 mm. The Dewar vessel had a capacity
of 118 g liquid nitrogen. The resistivity was measured
by a TO-1 instrument (over a range of measurements of
106 - 1012 ohm).
The electrical resistivity of liquid nitrogen subjec-
ted to an in-pile bombardment in a nuetron and gamma
flux of 1011 particles per cm 2 per sec was reduced to 1012
ohm/ cm 3, and dropped to 4 ? 109 ohm/ cm3 in a flux of
1.5 - 1019 particles per cm2 per sec.
This resistivity was retained until the liquid nitro-
gen was evaporated down to the level of the electrodes.
The resistivity in the interval between the electrodes.
began to fall afterwards. When the liquid nitrogen had
been completely driven off, the resistivity of the inter-
electrode spacing dropped to 7 ? 10? ohm/ cm3.
When irradiated in a reactor, liquid nitrogen boiled
vigorously and the time required for its evaporation was
reduced by the order of one magnitude. The values cit-
ed for the electrical resistivity (1012 and 4 ? 109 ohm/
/ cmg) are therefore ? with reference to what actually
takes place within an environment of liquid nitrogen.
The relation between the changes in the resistivity
of boiling nitrogen and the level of the irradiation flux
is close to a linear function. The nonlinearity may be
explained by an increase in the vapor content in the
boiling nitrogen owing to increased evolution of energy
within the walls of the Dewar flask, in the electrodes, and
in the nitrogen itself, as the flux is increased.
It is to be noted that not only the average vapor
content in the medium in question, but also the distribu-
tion of vapor content relative to the test sample, which
is a factor dependent on the concrete experimental con-
ditions, must be taken into account in evaluating in-pile
experiments involving irradiation of materials in a li-
quid-nitrogen atmosphere.
In conclusion, the authors would like to take this
opportunity to express their gratitude to A. K. Krasin,
Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, for his
kind interest in the work, and to A. G. Vishnyak, for his
kind assistance in the execution of the experiment.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
USE OF THE REACTION Oi8 (a, n). Ne21 TO DETERMINE
THE CONCENTRATION OF ALPHA-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES.
IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
V. V. Ivanova, A. I. Nazarov, E. V. Polunskaya,
A. G. Khabakhpashev, and E. M. Tsenter
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 7, No.2, pp. 166-168,
August, 1959
Original article submitted January 24, 1959
The amount of alpha-active substances present in
aqueous solutions is usually determined either by sample
analysis or else by using an alpha counter place above
the surface of the solution. Neither method is suitable
for highly alpha-active solutions, since sample analysis
contaminates the working area and use' of an alpha
counter placed above the solution complicates the situ-
ation greatly, because the background rises rapidly dur-
ing rinsing or replacement of the counter.
In certain cases,' the amount of alpha-active sub-
stances present in an aqueous solution can be determined
by measuring the neutron yield ? of the reaction 68
(a, n)Ne21. Notwithstanding the fact that a natural
mixture of oxygen isotopes containly only 0.204% of the
isotope 018, the neutron yield is sufficient for the deter-
mination of the amount of alpha-active substances, ow-
ing to the large cross section of the, (m n) reaction for
the isotope O 8 [1]. Such a method permits standard
measurements to be carried out remotely and without
disturbing the airtightness of the system.
In the present work, we determined the sensitivity
of the method, dependence of sensitivity on the volume
of active solution, effect of composition of the solution
on neutron yield, and the permissible limit of gamma
background.
For the case where the neutron counter was placed
in a special sleeve in the center of a cylindrical tank
of the active solution, the sensitivity of the method was
approximately determined (number of counts recorded
by the counter for an alpha-active substance concentra-
tion of 1 C/ liter) :
N=AY, Ni,
(1)
i=t
where A is the number of neutrons per second per cubic
centimeter of solution for an alpha-active-substance
concentration of 1 C/liter; N i is the number of counts
recorded by the counter from the ith region of the tank
(Fig. 1) for a neutron-source density of. 1 neutron/cc-sec.
For a nitric acid solution of polonium, the quantity
A was experimentally found to be equal to 1.6.. The
quantity Ni was measured with a Po-a-Be neutron source
in a tank of 84 liters volume (43 cm high, 50 cm in dia-
meter). An SNM-9t counter served as a neutron detector.
Fig. 1. Experimental 'arrangement for measure,
ment of the concentration of alpha-active sub-
stances in solution by means of neutron yield.
The sensitivity in this case was found to be equal to 330
counts/ min.
Taking a summation in (1) up to the kth region
h
(k < n) gives the sensitivity for the volume E Vt,
surrounded by a layer of water of volume Vi
t=k
(where Vi is the volume of the kith region of the tank).
The dependence of the sensitivity on volume was deter-
mined in this manner (Fig. 2).
The effect of composition of the solution on neutron
yield can be found by the following method. If the com-
position of the solution is determined by using element
weight concentrations ao, al, a2, ? ? ?,(ao is the concen-
tration of the element on which the (a, n) reaction oper-
ates), then the atomic concentration of the ith. element
(number of atoms per cubic centimeter)will be ai p No/ Ai
where pis the density of the solution, No is Avogadro's
number, and A i is the atomic weight. If the relative
- Determination of the concentration of a-active sub-
stances by neutron yield was proposed by E. V. Polunskaya
and A. I. Nazarov.
t The counter operates in the corona discharge cycle.
The counter cathode is covered with amorphous natu-
ral boron [2].
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
0 to 20 30 40 58 50 70 80 90
Volume, liters
Fig. 2. Dependence of sensitivity on volume
of the alpha-active solution , for. a concentra-
tion of 1 C/liter.
stopping power is. denoted by S. , then the stopping pow-
er of the ith element on conversion to cubic centimeter
NoaipSi
Di = Ai
The range of alpha particles in the element on
which the (a, n) reaction operates is
f3o 1
aa m
YO+ 5i
+U ai!Si/Ai
~T a0So/Ao
which is numerically equal to the ratio of the neutron
yield from a solution composed of n + 1 elements to the
yield from a pure-element target, provided that the
identical alpha activity exists.
Knowing the stopping powers and weight concentra-
tions of the elements making up the solution, one can
determine the dependence of the relative neutron yield
on the composition of the solution. These determinations
showed that neutron yield is little affected by variation
of the solution acidity within wide limits or by the ad-
mixture content. Thus, for example, using a nitric acid
concentration change from IN to 8N, the neutron yield
decreases only by 216. This results was verified experi-
mentally.
If the solution contains uranium or plutonium, the
neutron yield will be increased. because of fission of
U235 and Pu239 nuclei, and will be decreased because of
the stopping power of alpha particles by the atoms of
these elements. Evaluation of these effects showed that
for a uranium concentration in the solution of 100 g/liter
(natural mixture of uranium isotopes), the neutron yield
increases 2.61o because of fission neutrons and decreases
316 because of alpha stopping. Thus, the addition
of uranium to the solution has practically no effect on
the neutron yield, provided one can neglect the alpha
activity of the uranium itself. For a plutonium concen-
tration of 1 g/ liter in the solution, the neutron yield in-
creases 1016 because of fission neutrons, and this change
in the neutron yield must be taken into account during
calibration.
The addition of several light elements having high
(a, n) reaction cross sections can increase the neutron
yield and introduce error into the measurements. The
permissible concentration of light elements can be de-
termined by simple computation. Thus, the neutron
yield increases by 116 for a concentration of 8mg/ liter
of beryllium, 1.4 gAiter of aluminum, or 0.42 g/ liter
of sodium.
The method described above was verified experi-
mentally with polonium solutions. A' KN-14 ionization
chamber was placed in the sleeve of the tank (see Fig.
1) containing the solution. The recording apparatus
was located 30 meters from the tank. The equipment
registered 720 counts/ min for a solution concentration
of.1 C/liter; hence, it was possible to determine polo-
nium content as low as 10-12 mC/ liter. Measurements
of the polonium concentration by means of the neutron
yield were checked by a calorimetric method. In all
cases the deviation did not exceed 41o. The first calor-
imetric measurement was used as a calibration.
The neutron yield from a solution of 0.5 liter vol-
ume was measured with a fast-neutron scintillation
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Volume, liters
Fig. 3. Dependence of limiting permissible concentra-
tions of gamma-active substances on volume of the
solution for various thicknesses of lead shielding.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
counter. The scintillator was made of paraffin and zinc
sulfide. For a polonium content of 1 C in the solution,
10 counts/min were recorded. These measurements
were also calibrated by the calorimetric method; the
deviations did not exceed 10%.
If it is absolutely necessary to determine the con-
centration of an alpha-active substance in a solution
which also contains a significant amount of gamma-emit-
ting elements, thenitis convenientto use SNM-9 counters,
which can operate in gamma fields of 1000 r/hr. The
sensitivity can be increased 20- to 30-fold by connect-
ing several enriched-boron counters in parallel. More-
over, it is possible to measure the plutonium concentra-
tion in the solution, beginning at 20-30 mg/liter with a
permissible. gamma-fictive substance concentration equal
to 0.6 g-equiv/liter. With the use of lead shielding, the
limiting permissible concentration of gamma-active
substances can be increased significantly. Figure 3 shows
the dependence of the limiting permissible concentration
of gamma-active substances on volume of the solution
for various thicknesses of lead shielding.
Thus, the method described above permits remote
determination of the. amount of alpha-active substances
in a solution without disruption of airtightness. By this
method, one can measure concentration beginning at
1-2 mC/liter, while various admixtures to the solution
have only a small effect on the measured results.
The use of lead shielding permits measurements
with gamma-active substance concentrations in the solu-
tion of approximately 150 g-equiv/liter.
LITERATURE CITED
1. I. A. Sordyukova, A. G. Khabakhpashev, and
E. M. Tsenter, Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Fiz.
21, 1017 (1957).
2. A. B. Dmitriev, Pribory i Tekh. fksp. No. 2,3 (1957).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
GAMMA-RADIATION OF THE FISSION FRAGMENTS
OF U 235 AND Pu23s
Yu. I. Petrov
Translated from Atomnaya fnergiya, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 168-171,
August, 1959
Original article submitted March 27, 1959
With the aid of air-equivalent ionization chambers
and a Geiger counter, the y radiation of fragments of
U23s and Pu239 was investigated over a wide range of
times (0.6 sec - 11 hr) after the targets were subjected
to pulsed irradiation in the thermal neutron flux of the
heavy-water nuclear reactor of the Academy of Sciences,
USSR [I]. The short-duration irradiation of the targets
( 1 sec) was accomplished by a pneumatic arrangement.
Ionization measurements were performed at various dis-
tances from the targets in air and in water. Flat thin-
walled (1-2 cm) hermetic plexiglas chambers with alu-
minum foil electrodes 13P thick were used. The ioniza-
tion currents, after having been amplified by a constant-
current balanced amplifier, were recorded by a loop
oscillograph. By the use of over-all negative feedback
[2, 3] in the amplifier, the real effective-input-time con-
stant of the amplifier RC = 1.5 sec was decreased to the
value (RC)eff = 0.01 sec. The number of fissions in the
targets was determined by the a activity of copper in-
dicators; irradiated together with the target,which were
calibrated with the aid of a fission chamber containing
known weights of U235 or Pu239 (the method was developed
in 1952 by O. I. Leipunskii, P. A. Yampol'skii, and
V. N. Sakharov). The weight of U235 and Pu239 in the
targets was determined by comparison with the y acti-
vities of the simultaneously irradiated targets and stand
and samples of natural uranium or Pu239. The comparison
was made under standard conditions with the aid of a
Geiger counter. It was shown that within the limits of
experimental error (.10%), the y radiations of the U235
and Pu239 fragments have the same decay kinetics, the
same mean energies of the y quanta, and the same
total y-ray energy-yield per fission. Because of this,
the results are for the most part given below for U235.
After corrections were introduced for the decay of
the fission products during the time of exposure of the
targets in the reactor, our results were extrapolated to
the time t = 0.05 sec after fission by the method of join-
ing with the data of I.I. Levintov'and V. N. Shamskev.
In 1952, these authors used a Geiger counter to measure
the kinetics of the y radiation of fragments of U235and
Pu239 in time intervals of 0.05-3 sec and 0.05-0.7 sec,
respectively, after irradiation (a 10-2 sec pulse) of the
samples by slow neutrons, and did not find any significant
difference between the data for U23s and Pu239. The re-
sults of the measurement of ionization currents in water
are well approximated by the formula
i(r, t)=1.16X
x 10-u [10.73 exp(-0.238 r) + exp(-0.0775 r)] [1.78 X
X exp (-3.14 t) +1.825 exp (-0.545 t) + exp (-0.091 t)]
amp/ cm3- fission, (1)
where 0.05 s t s 14 sec ; 8.2 < r . s 70 cm and the cur-
rents are referred to 1 cm3 of the volume of the chamber
and to one fission of the U235.
The data from several sources for the kinetics of the
short-lived y. radiation of the fragments are shown in
Fig. 1. The curves combine at t = 2 sec. It is interest-
ing to note the coincidence of the data for U235 fission
by thermal neutrons and the fission of natural uranium
by 14 Mev neutrons (the experiments by O. L Leipunskii
and co-workers in 1952).
Figure 2 shows the kinetics of y radiation of U235
fragments according to the data of ionization measure-
ments in air. The initial portion of the curve is described
by (1) to within the limits of accuracy of the measure-
ments (10o). A much sharper drop-off (t-0'8) in the y
activity of the fragments was obtained in measurements
made with a Geiger. counter [5] (for a time interval of
1.25-17 sec) than what follows from our data. Measure-
ments of the y activity of the fragments in the time
interval 24 sec-11 hr were carried out jointly by us and
G. G. Petrov in 1953, using a lead-walled Geiger counter
(wall thickness 1 mm) and an aluminum-walled Geiger
counter (wall thickness 4 mm). The decay curves for
both counters are described by a common formula in
overlapping sections (5-10 hr). The results of the meas-
urements taken with the aluminum-walled counter are
shown in Fig- 3.
The separate components of the total y radiation
of the fission products are differently attenuated in pass-
ing through the scattering medium; as a result, the de-
cay curves measured at various distances from the tar-
gets can be distinguished from each other. The correct-
ness of (1) for the distance interval 8.2-70 cm, and the
coincidence of the decay curves for measurements in
water and air indicate a rough similarity in the compo-
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H
N
2
b0
~
H
0,6
0,5
Z
Y
z
z
Y T Y~~~
l
2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
Time after fission, sec
Fig. 1. Kinetics of the short-lived y radiation of the U235 fission fragments: - - - - data of the present .
study; data of I. L Levintov and V. N. Shamskev; I data of [4]; 1- data of 0. L Leipunskii
and co-workers for the fission of natural uranium by 14 Mev neutrons.
N i
C !00
0 !0 20 30 40 50
Time after fission, sec -
.r
60
Fig. 2. Kinetics of the y radiation of the Uzs5 fragments according to data from ionization measure-
ments.in air.
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o Pu239
02is
1D 41 i 11111111 1.I 1111111 -1 I I- I.111. 1 I IIIJ
f0 10 10 10 10,
Time after fission, sec
Fig. 3. Kinetics.. of the y radiation of the fission frag-
ments of U235 and Pu 9 according.to data, from an alu-
minum - walled..Geiger .counter: .
-23
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 rob 110 120 130
r, can
Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of y radiation: - -data
from, [7] for y radiation-in water; -9- -data for y ra-
diation of the. fragments in water according to (1) for
t = 1 sec; -- - - data for y radiation of the fragments
in -air for t = 1 sec.
nents and an approximate constancy in, the average ener-
gies of the y quanta of the fragments during the first few
seconds of decay. The constancy of the average energy
of the y radiation of the fragments of UP5' during a 5
minute period after fission hasbeen'experimentall y estah-
lished [6].
4
\ `
6
16-
10-
102 !D l
1 10 !0` 103
Time after fission, sec.
Fig. 5. Energy yield of y radiation of fragments per
U235 or Pu239 fission:
1) data of the present study 2) total energy of 6
Y. radiation, and neutrino [8]; 3) data of Fermi and
King [8]; 4) data of Moon and Hoffman [8]; 5) data
of [6]; 6) data of [9].
Approximation of the curve Ey (t)
Figure 4 gives the spatial distribution of y radiation
in water for y quanta with energies of 0.41, 1.25, and
2.8 Mev [7]. Crosses and a dotted line are used to plot
the data for radiation of fragments according to meas-
urements in water (1) and air, for t = 1 sec. The dif-
ference A-In ir2 as a function of y-quantum energy for
r =- 70 cm is shown above. It is evident that the average
of the y radiation of the fragments by av=1.5 Mev. This
estimate of the energy of the y radiation of the frag-
ments is sufficiently accurate, since it automatically
takes into account the effect of multiple scattering of
y quanta in a dense medium. Experiments with the
absorption of a collimated beam by copper and aluminum
filters gave a value of hvav = 1.6 t 0.3 Mev for the first
few seconds of decay [5].
We determined the total energy yield of the y ra-
diation in 1 sec per fission E (t) by three independent
methods: 1) by integration of the spatial distribution of
the dosage in water; 2) by the data from the ionization
measurements in air, under the assumption thathvav ?
= 1.5 Mev; 3) by comparison of the y activities of targets
made of Uzi, Pu29. and standard Nats samples, all ex-
posed together to thertnal neutrons. The comparison was
made with the aid of a thin-alutttinum-walled Geiger
counter for which the dependence on the quantum ener-
gy of the recording efficiency in the energy range 0.2-3
Mev was nearly [10] linear, consequently making the
counting rate proportional to the energy flux of the y ra-
diation. The results of the measurements made by the
first and second methods are the same, to within an ac-
curacy of 51n. The results of measurements made by the
third method coincide with the data from the ionization
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Interval of time
yrq (t)~ Mev
after fission
session
.0.,05-14 sec
0, 18 [1,78 exp (-3,14 t) -{-1,825 exp (-0,545 t)-{-exp (-0,091 t)]
10-60 sec
6,26. f0 -s 12,18 exp (-=-0,159 t)+.exp (-0,0239 t)]
60-7200 sec
1,145 e-1.05
1,5-11' hr
2,97.10-4 t-1.45
measurements in water within the limits of experimental
error 10To), in the overlapping portions of the decay
curves (25-60 sec),
An approximation of the curve Er (t) for various in-
tervals of decay time is listed in the fable.
A summary of the results for E (t) is shown in Fig.
5. Curve 2 gives the theoretical values of the total
energy of the radiation (S y radiation, and neutrino)
obtained by considering the totality of the fission prod-
ucts as a single statistical collection [8]. Unpublished
results of Fermi and King,and also Moon and Hoffman,
were taken from [8].
The results of (6] are evidently lower by a factor of
more than 1.5 as a result of inaccurate calibration of the
apparatus. The reason for the discrepancy between our
data and those of [9] is unclear.
The author thanks Prof. O. L. Leipunskii for propos -
ing this subject and for his scientific assistance.
LITERATURE CITED
1.
Yu. I. Petrov, Dissertation an Russian] (Institute of
Chemical Physics, AN SSSR, 1953).
6.
N. Sugarman and S. Katcoff et al., Radiochemical
Studies: The Fission Products, N.Y., (McGraw-Hill,
2.
G. S. Tsykin, Negative Feedback and Its Application
N. Y., 1951) p. 371, Book L
[in Russian] (Svyaz'tekhizdat, 1940).
H. Thomas
Electronics 19, 130 (1946).
7.
B.
V. N. Sakharov, Atomnaya fnergiya 3, 334 (1957).0
K. Way and E. Wigner, Phys. Rev. 73, 1318 (1948).
,
9.
V. N. Sakharov and A. I. Malofeev, Atomnaya ~n-
4.
1. Brolley and D. Cooper et al., Phys. Rev. 83, 990
ergiya 3, 334 (957)
(1951).
10.
H. Bradt, P. Gugelot et al., Hely. phys. acts 19, 77
5.
O. L Leipunskii, V. N. Sakharov, and V. L Teresh-
chenko, Atomnaya Aterglya 2, 278 (1957).
(1946).
Original Russian pagination. See C. B. translation.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
A NEUTRON DETECTOR WITH CONSTANT SENSITIVITY
TO NEUTRONS WITH ENERGIES FROM 0.025 to 14 Mev
P. I. Vatset, S. G. Tonapetyan, and G. A. Dorofeev
Translated from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 172-174,
August, 1959
Original article submitted April 11, 1959
A neutron detector consisting of a boron counter and
a cylindrical paraffin block in which the counter was
placed is described in [1, 2]. This detector possesses a
constant sensitivity to neutrons in the energy interval
from a few hundred kev up to 5 Mev and a drop in sen-
sitivity outside this interval. It is impossible to measure
neutron flux sufficiently accurately using such a detector
even if the neutron energy is within the limits of the
range of constant sensitivity of the detector, since the
calibration of the detector is usually made using stand-
ard sources (Ra-'a-Be, Po-a-Be), which have a complex
neutron spectrum, which ranges to energies above 11 M@v.
The sensitivity of a similar detector depends not
only on the configuration and dimensions of the paraffin
block, the role of which was explained in [1], but also
on the dimensions of the boron counter and its position
in the paraffin block. We somewhat modified the con-
struction of the detector and investigated its sensitivity
to neutrons of various energies for different modes of
placement of the boron counter in the paraffin block..A
drawing of the neutron detector is shown in Fig. 1. The
configuration and dimensions of the paraffin block were
taken from [1]. The diameter of the boron counter was
increased to 30 cm.
The counter was filled to a pressure of 140 mm Hg
with enriched BF3 (70% B10), with a plateau 300 wide at
a working voltage of 1700v.
The increase in the diameter of the boron counter
led to a relative increase in its sensitivity to fast neutrons.
One can explain this qualitatively in the following man-
ner. On encountering the paraffin block, the neutrons
are slowed to thermal energies. At the front part of the
paraffin block, where the apertures are located, thermal
neutrons are formed mainly at the expense of slow neu-
trons, while at a greater depth, they are formed at the
expense of fast neutrons. The diffusion length of ther-
mal neutrons in paraffin is of the order of 2-3 cm. The
"effective diameter" of the paraffin cylinder, from which
the thermal neutrons are likely to strike the boron counter
because of the presence of the apertures, is greater at
Fig. 1. Diagram of the neutron detector.
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r1P'
En
UI
0)
Cr
ill
shun taa 't(2Tnli7sUas
1?un gl$uaais aoinos juuguou u u1. uiui aad s$uipsaa '&?nulisuas
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
the front part of the block than at the rear part.
The relative increase in the "effective diameter"
due to an increase in the diameter of the boron counter
is greater for that portion of the detector where this di-
ameter is smaller; i.e., for fast, neutrons, which also in-
creases the detector's relative sensitivity to fast neutrons.
The study of the sensitivity of the detector to neu-
trons of various energies, was carried out under conditions
of good geometry. The background from scattered neu-
trons was at most 6%. A 1 Curie Sb' gamma source
located at a distance of 20 cm along the axis of the de-
tector did not bring about any significant change in its
sensitivity to neutrons. The strength of the standard source
of neutrons was known to within an accuracy of ?3%
Relative measurements of the strength of Sb-Be, Ra-Be,
Na-D, Na-Be, Po-a-Be neutron sources, and of a source
whose spectrum approximated that of fission neutrons,
were made in accordance with a method described in
[3] with an error of at most ? 1.5%.
The flux of 14 Mev neutrons from the T(d,n) He4
reaction was determined by using the (x-particle yield.
The position of the boron counter relative to the
front face of the paraffin block was checked by the use
of.marks made every 10 mm on an aluminum tube 50
mm in diameter in which the boron counter was placed.
The space between the counter and the aluminum tube
(see Fig. 1) was filled with paraffin to the 0 mark, co-
inciding with the origin of the sensitive region of the
counter.
It is clear from Fig. 2 that the sensitivity of the
detector falls when the boron counter is shifted inside
the paraffin block. This is explained by the fact that
when the beginning of the counting volume of the counter
approaches the front face of the paraffin block, the por-
tion of the thermal neutrons escaping from the block
which are intercepted by the counter decreases; upon
further shifting, the start of the counting volume of the
counter is buried in the paraffin and moves away from
the neutron field, determined by the distribution of ther-
mal neutrons in the front layers of the paraffin block.
It is clear that the lower the energy of the incidentneu-
trons, the stronger this effect is manifested. The absolute
drop in detector sensitivity is 14 Mev neutrons is explained
by the small diameter of the working portion of the par-
affin block.
The dependence of neutron energy on the sensitivity
of the boron counter is depicted in Fig. 3 for vari-
ous positions in the paraffin block. The results of the
measurements show that in position 3 the detector pos-
sesses practically constant sensitivity for neutrons with
energies from 0.8 to 14 Mev. For the interval from
0.025 to 14 Mev the best approximation to a constant
sensitivity was obtained in position 1. In this case, the
sensitivity of the neutron detector in the 0.025-5 Mev
interval was constant within the experimental error of
the measurement (f 316) and drops by 11% for neutron
energies of 14 Mev.
In conclusion, the authors consider it their duty to
express their gratitude to K. D Sinel'nikov, A. K. Val'ter,
L V. Kurchatov, and L N. Golovin for their interest in
the present study and their assistance rendered during
the progress of the work. The authors also thank T. I.
Lyashenko and L. Ya. Kolesnikov for taking part in va-
rious phases of the work.
1. A. Hanson and J. McKibben, Phys. Rev. 72, 673 (1947).
2. R. Nobles, R. Day et al., Rev. Sci. Iristr. 25, 334(1954).
3. B. G. Erozolimskii and P. E. Spivak, Atomnaya fn-
ergiya 2, 327 (1927).?
? Original Russian pagination. See C. B. translation.
681
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
News of Science and Technology
ALL-UNION SYMPOSIUM ON RADIOCHEMISTRY
V. N. Shchebetovskii
A symposium devoted to the study of the state of
trace amounts of radioelements in solution met in Lenin-
grad, March 3-5, 1959. Over two hundred representatives
from various scientific research institutions of Moscow,
Leningrad, Kiev, Novosibirsk, Tbilisi, Gor'kii were in
attendance; 28 reports and papers, which elicited con-
siderable interest and a lively discussion, were heard.
The symposium reviewed the research carried out
by Soviet radiochemists on the state of radioelements in
solution, and outlined the pathways pointing to the ul-
timate solution of that problem. In a report by I. E.
Starik entitled, "Contribution to the problem of the
molecular state of trace quantities of radioelements in
solution," it was noted that most of the attention in stud-
ies on the state of radioelements in solution has been
centered on the ion-dispersed colloid and pseudocolloid
forms, while the molecular form has hardly been studied
at all. The method of adsorption on hydrophobic non-
ion-exchange surfaces (ftoroplast-4 [Kel-F], paraffin)in
combination with studies of the effect of different salts
on adsorption behavior, aided in the successful discovery
of the existence of a molecular form of zirconium, polo-
nium, americium, promethium found in trace concentra-
tions in solutions of different composition.
Several reports (I. E. Starik, N. L Ampelogova,
F. L. Ginzburg, L. I. Il'menkova, L A. Skul'skii, L. D.
Sheidina) dealt with the study of the state of ultralow
concentrations of radioelements in solutions. By employ-
ing a variety of techniques (adsorption and desorption,
ultra filtration, centrifugation, electrophoresis, deposition
on metals) the authors determined the pH regions in
which the radioelements are found in ionic, colloidal,
or pseudocolloidal forms. It was found that zirconium
exists in the ion-dispersed state up to pH = 1.5, americum
up to pH = 5, protactinum up to pH = 3. Zirconium passes
over into the form of a true colloid at pH = 4, americium
at pH = 9, protactinium at pH = 5. The state of polonium
Aver a wide range of pH values (1-14) was also determined.
M. N. Yakovleva and M. A. Shurshalina suggested
the use of the dialysis technique in studying the state of
the uranium carrier in natural waters. A positive feature
of this method is its simplicity, and the possibility and
feasibility of employing it under field conditions.
Several reports dealt with research into the state of
radioelements in solution, where ion exchange. techniques
were applied. The method of relative absorption curves
was used by V. L Paramonova and E. F. Latyshev in their
studies of complexing of tetravalent ruthenium with chlo-
rine ions. The existence of four forms of ruthenium:
was detected in the 1 N HCI-1 N HC104 system, depend-
ing on the concentration of hydrochloric acid. A report
delivered by K. B. Zaborenko, A. V. Zaval'skaya, and
V. V. Fomin, touched on the question of ion-exchange
determinations of the composition and of the instability
constants of complex cerium oxalates. The existence
of the [CeC2O41+ ion, whose formation constant is 1.1.104
at an ionic strength of 1, was detected. By using the ion-
exchange method combined with solubility determina-
tions, A. I. Moskvin discovered that complex formation
of plutonium and americium with anions of oxalic, phos-
phoric, and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acids proceeds
stepwise with the relationship between the discrete forms
of the complex ions behaving as a function of the con-
centration of the chelating ligand. It was found that
the complexing powet of several plutonium ions falls off
in the order of increase in their ionic potential.
A. M. Trofimov and L. N. Stepanova proposed a
new method for determining the amount of charge on
ions of radioelements in solution, using ion exchange
resins having different swelling properties. The method
was used for investigating the dependence of the amount
of charge of zirconium in nitric acid solution on the
acidity of the latter; it' was demonstrated that use of
the proposed method also aided in monitoring the progress
of the polymerization process of ions of the radioelement
in solution. N. V. Vysokoostrovskaya, A. M. Trofimov,
and B. N. Nikol'skii, with the aid of the ion-exchange
and potentiometric techniques, proved the absence of
any appreciable chelation between potassium and ethyl-
enediaminetetra acetic acid.
Determinations of the state of the compound to be
extracted, in the organic phase, had notable value in in-
vestigations of the extraction process. It was shown that
the degree of hydration of UOZ(NO2) in several ethers and
esters falls off in the transition from the first members of a
given homologic series to the later members ; addition
of benzene and chloroform involves lowering of the de-
gree of hydration W. M. Vdovenko, E. A. Smirnova).
The degree ofhydration of nitric acid in dibutyl diethylene
glycol ether proved to be 1.72 (V. M. Vdovenko, N. F.
Alekseeva,.and the degree of solvation, found by the
dilution technique, was 1 (V. M. Vdovenko, A. S.
Krivokhatskii).
A. K Lavrukhina reported that determinations of
the dependence of the partition coefficient between the
organic and aqueous phases on the concentration of the
elements made it possible to establish the state of a
substance in solution and to find the range of concen-
trations over which complexing, polymerization, or dis-
682
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sociation of the compounds to be extracted occurs. In
investigating the aniline extraction of sexavalent tung-
sten from hydrochloride media, V. I. Kuznetsov and
P. D. Titov discovered a sharp increase in the partition
coefficient when molybdenum or vanadium was added
to the solution. The observed coextraction phenomenon
is explained by the authors as the formation of mixed
isopolyanions and may serve usefully in studies of the
state of the substance in dilute solutions.
A separate panel session was devoted to the study
of the state of hot atoms, and to several related questions
in radiation chemistry. A. N. Nesmeyanov reported on
the displacement of hydrogen in benzene by recoil atoms
P32, AS16, Sb124, demonstrating the fact that the forma-
tion of phenyl -derivativesmay proceed along the line
of "epithermal" reactions. B. G. Dzantiev. reported on
reactions between recoil atoms, which were products of
the nuclear reactions Li6(n, a) T and N14 (n, p) C14, in a
medium of cyclanes. It was established in the experi-
ments that together with a trace of the original com-
pound, tagged reaction products originating in destruction
and condensation reactions were also obtained. The chem-
ical utilization factor of the hot atoms reached 30-40%
for tritium, 60-80% for carbon. P. I. Artyukhin, who
studied the effect of NOg and H+ ions on the rate of re-
duction of sexavalent plutonium in response to sponta-
neous a emission, voiced the proposition that the reduc-
tion occurs on account of the hydrogen peroxide and
nitrous acid forming as a result of the radiation effects.
The first-ranking importance of research on the state
of radioelements in solution for modern theory and prac-
tice was acknowledged in the course of a broad discussion.
All of the methods used at the present time in research
on this problem were subjected to critical evaluation.
The participants taking the floor addressed themselves to
the need for a more rigorously grounded thermodynamic ap-.
proach, and the simultaneous utilization of several meth-
ods for an unambiguous resolution of the problem of the
state in which each element exists. Note was taken of
the importance of further study on the molecular form
of radioelements in solutions, and on the need to search
out new techniques for detecting them. The desirability
of correlating the results obtained with trace quantities
and bulk quantities of a substance by the use of the same
method was underscored. The need for more intense de-
velopment of research work on the study of the forms in
which hot atoms are found in solution, was noted. Hopes
were also expressed for closer cooperation in research in
the fields of the chemistry of hot atoms and of radiation
chemistry.
SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE OF THE MOSCOW ENGINEERING
AND PHYSICS INSTITUTE (MIFI)
G. A. Tyagunov
The annual scientific conference of the Moscow
Engineering and Physics Institute (MIFI) was convened
from April 17 to May 15, 1959. In addition to the staff
and workers at MIFI, over 600 persons from more than
100 different institute and research institutions and bodies
were in attendance; 148 reports were heard at the two
plenary sessions and in the panels of the eighteenth section.
At the plenary sessions, primary attention was cen-
tered on the reports delivered by M. K. Romanovskii,
N. G. Basov, and A. I. Leipunskii. Romanovskii reported
on the development of thermonuclear research and gave
a general review of the methods and results obtained on
various thermonuclear-fusion experimental devices.
Basov told of the physical fundamentals of masers (mole-
cular oscillators) and maser amplifiers; of several engi-
neering principles and design details of these devices;
and of the feasibility of employing them under conditions
where the signal-to-noise ratio must be increased hundreds
of times during amplification, where frequencies must
be generated at constant values, and where narrow band-
width requirements are stringent. Leipunskii presented
a report on the development of fast reactors. Experiments
performed under his guidance showed the full technical
feasibility of building a fast neutron reactor using natural
uranium as fuel, and functioning as a breeder for nuclear
fuel. At the present time, a prototype nuclear reactor of
that type is being planned.
Of the eleven reports read out at panel sessions of
the section on theoretical physics, particular interest was
focused on three reports. I. Ya. Pomeranchuk reported
on the theory of peripheral collisions between mesons
and nucleons. Low-energy nucleon scattering (at ener-
gies down to 30-40 Mev) takes place by interactions as-
sociated with meson exchange. The reporter demonstra-
ted that by using Green's function it is possible to de-
scribe the interaction of the nucleons by the exchange of
a single meson and to study the dependence of the inter-
action cross sections on the energy of the nucleons and
their orbital moments. In a report entitled "Superfluid-
ity and the moments of inertia of nuclei," A. B. Migdal,
made an attempt to shed light on several nuclear effects
observed, in particular, the moments of inertia of nuclei,
for which purpose the basic tenets of the new theory of
superfluidity were applied to nuclear matter. A. S. Kom-
paneets, in a report bearing the title "A strong electro-
magnetic-gravitational wave," considered electromag-
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netic and gravitational fields in a vacuum jointly, and
demonstrated that the appearance of discontinuous solu-
tions" is possible.
At the panels of the section on experimental physics,
over 19 reports were delivered, among which there were,
worthy of special note, one by V. 1. Gol' danskii, ' On the
levels of intrashell excitation of nuclei and ways of
achieving it,' a paper by O. L. Rozental' and L. A. Pro-
khorova, "Analysis of possible experiments on measuring
the 'dimensions' of P mesons,' two papers by V. L
Dianov-?lokov, "The spectrum of liquid and crystalline
oxygen under pressure," and 'A facility for measuring
absorption curves' (the first of these deals with investi-
gations of the behavior of oxygen in the liquid and crys-
talline states at pressures of 8-10 thousand atmos), and a
report by V. K. Lyapidevskii and O. V. Glamazdina,
"On new applications for the diffusion chamber."
In the panel session on electrophysical facilities,
the interest of those attending was stimulated by reports
delivered by A. V. Shal'nov (on the variational charac-
teristics of the linear accelerator, the wide-bandwidth
properties of iris-loaded waveguide, parametric curves
for attenuation calculations) in which a method for the
design of traveling-wave linear electron accelerators,
conferring excellent engineering performance character-
istics on the associated planned equipment,is considered.
Two new theories on electron capture in the betatron
mode of acceleration were propounded in reports by
P. A. Ryzin and A. B. Minervin, and another by A. L
Zaboev.
A report by E. G. Pyatnov showed the possibility of
neglecting insignificant nonlinear dependencies of the
accelerator parameters on the wavelength of the rf
oscillator, when switching the accelerator to otherwave-
lengths (over the 9 to 11 cm wavelength region). The
output beam constants then vary by 3-416 over the band-
width in question. A report by S. P. Lomnev and G. A.
Tyagunov provided a detailed analysis of magnetic fo-
cusing conditions in a linear electron accelerator, and
proposed a beam focusing method where the beam is
directed along the axis of a scalloped magnetic field.
Other reports of interest were one on the 3 Mev
lineac in use at MIFI (O. A. Val'dner, P. A. Dmitrovskii,
D. M. Zorin, and Yu.. V. Mizin), and one on research
into electron flow in the magnetic system of the elutron,
a gamma spectroscope using recoil electrons with the
scattering fields taken into account (V. V. Kuznetskii,
O. A. Val'dner, V. V. Kotov, and V. N. Chesnokov).
Seven reports devoted to scintillation counters and
gamma dosimeters, as well as gamma spectrometers,
and a report on delayed-coincidence circuits for meas-
uring time intervals of the order of 10-8 - 10-9 sec, were
heard at the panel session of the section on the physics
of shielding.
Reports on studies made on liquid heat transfer agents
were given at the panel sessions of the power engineer
ing and physics section. A report delivered by O. A.
Kraev outlined a new pulse technique for measuring the
thermal conductivity of liquids. Experiments performed
by the author displayed good agreement with the theory
which the author proposed earlier as the basis for the
technique. In a report entitled "Heat rejection to the
Na-K eutectic flowing in an annular clearance," (authors:
E. M. Khabakhpashev, Yu. M. ll'in, and D. A. Chirov)
provided information on the development of a fuel ele-
ment made from a bundle of thin rods, with simultaneous
temperature sensing. The experiments conducted by the
authors provided confirmation for the theoretically pre-
dicted rules governing this case. A similar paper by
V. I. Petrovichev describing work with mercury provided
the same results over a wide range of Peclet numbers.
Reports heard at the panel session of the electronics
section were devoted to the study of transistorized cir-
cuitry and properties thereof. The greatest impact was
made by N. M. Roizin's paper: 'Features of the junction
transistor operation in pulsed circuits ("pulse dissipation"
"recombination effect" , parameter variation) in which
the author successfully provided a theoretical explana-
tion of all of the observed effects.
In the section on computers, papers on digital com-
puters excited particular interest in the audience. Among
the reports meriting special mention were "The methods
for design and calculation of pulse transformers in cir-
cuits with semiconductor components," by O. S. Poturaev,
and "A method for evaluating the characteristics of mag-
netic recording of pulses," by Ya. A. Khetagurov, and
"A system of components for a general-purpose digital
computer," by B. L Kal'nin.
In the section on automation and remote control,
attention was focused on a report by V. S. Malov,
"Multiple- channel'monitoring of process control data,"
another by P. I. Popov, "Analysis of several automatic
startup systems for power and power supply facilities,"
and one by Yu. I. Topchiev, "Methods of analysis of the
control parameters of nuclear reactors in stepwise and
linear patterns of variation in reactivity."
The remaining reports were devoted to a study of
automatic control components and subassemblies, while
one of the papers dealt with an investigation of the pos-
sibility of enhancing the sensitivity of the microwave
spectroscope.
At the panel sessions of the section on metallurgy
and metallography, a considerable portion of the papers
presented, dealt with questions of obtaining pure and
alloyed metals, and the study of their properties. In
addition, some of the reports considered the use of auto-
radiography techniques in the study of metals. Of par-
ticular note are the papers submitted by G. A. Leont'ev
and A. I. Evstyukhin, 'Study of the iodide method of
niobium refining, and the properties of the metal ob-
tained thereby;" one by P. L. Gruzin and G. G. Ryabova,
"Study of microdistribution of elements (carbon, tung-
sten, iron, etc .)in zirconium and its alloys, using the
autoradiography technique;" by G. B. Fedorov, "Deter-
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mination of the heats of sublimation of zirconium and of the diffusion coefficients of chromium, nickel, and
nickel, using the radioactive tracer technique;' and by iron in nickelchrome steels.'
The proceedings of the conference will be published
G. B. Fedorov and A. N. Semenikhin, ? Determination in symposia under the auspices of the.MIFL
ATOMS FOR PEACE
V. F. Kalinin
(From the Exposition of the Achievements of the Soviet Union
in the Fields of Science, Engineering, and Culture
The "Atoms For Peace" section of the Soviet ex-
position at New York occupied one of the most promi-
nent spots in the exhibit. The section showed (by means
of operating models, mock-ups, lighted panels )how the
Soviet Union is employing atomic energy to peaceful ends.
The exposition opens on a huge panel lettered
"ATOMS FOR PEACE." The first section is devoted to
the techniques used in accelerating elementary particles,
and to the work of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Studies.
From the very opening days of the exposition, a large
mock-up of the 10 Bev accelerator (Fig. 1) attracted
the attention of visitors. Many of them were curious as
to whether the machine was actually in operation, and
were very surprised to find out that it is one of the most
powerful accelerators in operation in the entire world,
and that it surpasses the American cosmotron accelerators.
The work of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Studies
is shown on the exhibit stand. A large variety of photo-
graphs are on display, and a newsreel is shown continu-
ously. Visitors display interest in the scale models of
the 680 Mev accelerator and the mass-produced cyclo-
trons and electrostatic generators, which have been de-
livered by the Soviet Union to other countries in keeping
with its policy of collaboration and aid enabling them
to set up their own atomic science research centers.
The following section of the exhibit is devoted to
thermonuclear-controlled fusion research in which, as
acknowledged by the Americans, Soviet scientists occupy
one of the leading places. There is a scale model (i
natural size) of the "Alpha" facility, a large toroidal
chamber. A text read off continuously by a mechanical
stand attendant assists visitors to the exhibit in orienting
themselves as `to the function of the devices whose mo-
dels are on display, including the "OGRA" facility, the
giant magnet trap.
In the section dealing with nuclear power, scale
models are on display and information is given (by the
mechanical speaker) of a large-scale industrial experi-
ment now being carried out in the USSR for selecting
the most economically competitive nuclear electric
power station type. This section has on view models of
several power stations and reactors (Figs. 2, 3). The
scale models are made in such a way that the operation
of the nuclear-power generating stations will become
clear to everyone, even the observer with little pertinent
knowledge: miniature master-slave manipulators sim-
ulating the charging and discharging of fuel elements
are operated by remote control, and water circulates
through the coolant pipes. A large display panel reminds
the visitor that the first line (100 Mw) of a large nuclear
electric power station of 600 Mw full rating was started
up, in September 1958, in the USSR.
The section on isotopes occupies a large area. Doz-
ens of instruments and arrangements, show how Soviet
engineers are using isotopes in industry.
The 'ATOMS FOR PEACE' section ends with an ex-
hibit of the atomic-powered icebreaker "Lenin," mod-
eled to scale (Fig. 4), and a mock-up in natural size of
the reactor installed in the vessel (see Fig. 3). The de-
tails of the icebreaker are explained by light bulb panels
and an automatic speaker.
On the whole, the exhibits on display in the
"ATOMS FOR PEACE" section, provide a striking and
convincing picture of the broad scope of applications
of nuclear power in the Soviet Union.
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Fig. 1. Installation of scale model of the
10 Bev proton synchrotron.
Fig. 2. Installation of a model of a nuclear
electric power generating station.
Fig. 3. At the scale models of the turbine
hall of the nuclear electric power station
(on the right), and the reactor of the a-
tomic icebreaker "Lenin" (background).
Fig. 4. The first visitors see the installed
scale model of the atomic icebreaker
"Lenin."
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MAGNETIC MOMENT OF THE ? MESON
Detection of the anisotropy in electron emission in tered is determined by the coincidences 1345, and when
the decay of p mesons made possible he exact meas- back-scattered, by the coincidence 2314 (the bar above
urement of the magnetic moment of P mesons. The the number of the counter denotes an anticoincidence).
simplest elementary particle, the P meson is the only
one of the unstable particles which does not experience
strong interactions with other particles. Dirac's equation
predicts a value of 2 for the g factor of a P meson of
spin z . When account is taken of corrections for radia-
Lion, we arrive at a value ?+-mesons Graphite 1
" absorber
g - 21 -I 2 4- 0.75 _"W + . J _ 2.1.00196,
where a is the fine-structure constant [1]. The devia-
tion of the experimental value of the spectroscopic
g factor of the P meson from the predicted value would
indicate the incorrect introduction of radiation correct
tives and, as a consequence, the inadequacy of quantum
electrodynamics when applied to the P meson. The
first measurements recorded [2-4] lacked the necessary
precision to support such a comparison.
The so-called "stroboscopic" method for determin-
ing the P meson [5] was developed recently. In this
method, a P meson polarized along its direction of
motion is brought to rest in a target to which is applied
a magnetic field H, perpendicular to the direction of
spin of the P meson. This magnetic field causes the
spin of the P meson to precess. The number of decay
electrons emitted in a given direction is determined
from the formula
exp (-t/'c) (I+a cos 0)H?),
where a is the asymmetry factor of the decay electrons,
it is the mean. life of a p meson; wH is the frequency
of precession of the spin of a P meson.
To determine the precessional frequency of the spin
of a p; meson, we use the formula
mH=gcH/2m?c,
where e is the charge of an electron; m? is the mass
of a P meson; c is the speed of light.
In an experiment completed recently at Columbia
University (USA) [6], the stroboscopic method was em-
ployed, yielding a value of the g factor of the P meson
which exceeded the predicted theoretical value. The
experimental arrangement may be seen in the diagram
above. A beam of P+ mesons is passed through a series
of counters, graphite and copper filters, and a fast counter,
and is stopped in a target placed inside the gap between
the magnet pieces. The entering ? meson is identified
by the coincidences 1234, which open the gate for 2. 10-7
sec for a P-meson pulse, and 6 ? 10-6 sec for a decay-
electron pulse. The decay electron when forward scat-
Diagram of experimental arrangement for determin-
ing the g-factor of a p-meson (numerical figures denote
scintillation counter units), with P as the specimen for
measuring nuclear magnetic resonance effects.
The precessional frequency w H is measured by
means of a reference oscillator having a frequency w
equal to 86.2 Mc, close to the frequency w H. To achieve
this, the phase difference 4) between the moment of ar-
rival of a ? meson and the moment of escape of a de-
cay electron is measured. When w H is equal to w, the
phase distribution n(4)) of the electrons is time-independ-
ent. When wH is not equal to w, on the other hand, tite
phase distribution of electrons acquires the form n(4) +a),
where a = (wn-w) T (T being the time elapsed since the
measurements were begun). Pulse generators operated at
85 Mc, and triggered by the fast counter, are used to
record the phases of the pulses of the? meson and decay
electron. The phase of the pulses is found. by observing
the beats of the pulse generators with the reference os-
cillator. The precision achieved in the time determin-
ations is ?5 - 10-10 sec. The phase difference is con-
verted into amplitude and recorded by a kicksorter. The
gate system yields pulses corresponding to a specified
direction for the decay electron (forward or back emis-
sion) and a specified time T.
Measurements were performed at different values
of w close tow H, using three targets of aluminum, cop-
per, and bromoform, respectively. The resonant frequency
of precession of protons in the water molecule was meas-
ured on this arrangement. The result was computed in
the form of the ratio of precessional frequencies of P
meson and protons. After introducing corrective terms
for diamagnetism in the case of copper and aluminum,
values of the ratios which showed agreement within the
limits of experimental error (?0.007%) were found for
all three targets.
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The value of the mass of the i1 meson, equal to
(206.86 ? 0.11) me [7], where me is the mass of an
electron, was used to compute the g factor for the P
meson. A value of 2 (1.0020 ? 0.0005), which is higher
than the theoretically predicted value, was thereby derived.
Even when using the lower limit for the mass of a
p meson, based on the energy of the y rays emitted
when a P meson jumps from one Bohr orbit to another
in a mesoatom (m p _: 206.78 ? 0.01), the value of the
g factor so obtained is equal to or larger than 2-
(1.00158? 0.000015); which is at variance with the the-
oretical value [8].
The difference may quite possibly be a reliable in-
dication of the fact that the P meson has somewhat
different properties from those of an electron with the
mass of a P meson. P. K
1 C. Sommerfield, Phys. Rev. 107, 328 (1957);
A. Petermann, Helv. phys. acta 30, 407 (1957);
H. Suura and E. Wichmann, Phys. Rev. 105, 1930
(1957).
2. R. Garwin et al., Phys. Rev. 105, 1415 (1957);
J. Friedman and V. Telegdi, Phys. Rev. 105, 1681
(1957).
3. J. Cassels et' al., Proc. Phys. Soc. 70A, 543 (1957).
4. T. Coffin et al,, Phys. Rev. 109, 973 (1958).
5. R. Lundy et al., Phys. Rev. Letters 1, 38 (1958).
6. R. Garwin et al., Phys. Rev. Letters 2,.213 (1959).
7. K. Crowe, Nuovo Cimento 5, 541 (1957).
8. A. Petermann and Y: Yamaguchi, Phys. Rev. Letter
2, 359 (1959).
THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ART IN PROTON SYNCHROTRONS
At the present conjuncture, the proton synchroton
is the only type of accelerator which is capable of ac-
celerating particles to the highest energies. Facilities
of this species are designed to accelerate heavy particles,
i.e., protons. The advantage of the proton synchroton
when compared to the synchroton is in the absence of the
difficulties associated with energy losses by radiation.
Radiation losses set the limit to the practically attainable
energies (around 10 Bev) of electrons accelerated in
electron synchrotrons. Radiation losses in protonsynchro-
trons would come to play a crucial role only at energies
of the order of 104 -105 Bev, which is far out in front of
the engineering and economical possibilities facing us
at the present time in accelerator design.
Proton synchrotrons were planned from the very be-
ginning as very-high energy facilities. It suffices to re-
member that, the first proton synchrotrons build included
the 1 Bev machine at Birmingham (England), commis-
sioned in 1953, the 3 Bev Cosmotron and the 6.2 Bev
Bevatron (USA), commissioned in 1952 and 1954, respec-
tively, and finally the most powerful accelerator of all
those presently in operation, the 10 Bev proton synchro-
tron [synchrophasotron] of the Joint Institute for Nuclear
Studies (USSR), put into service during 1957. The build-
ing of machines of this species was the fruit of the ur-
gent need for.an intense source of high-energy particles,
arising in connection with research in the domain of the
physics of elementary particles, which entered into a
particularly vigorous phase of development during the
mid-Forties, when the discovery of the charged it meson
(1947),which interacts strongly with nuclei ,was made in
cosmic rays.
The theoretical prerequisite underlying the feasibi-
lity of building a particle accelerator capable of bring-
ing particles to energies of the order of the mean energy
of cosmic rays (10 Bev) was the discovery, in 1944, of
the principal of phase stability, by the Soviet scientist
V. 1. Veksler Cl]. The use of this self-focusing principle,
which has undergone much further development at the
hands of Soviet and foreign scientists,, forms the basis of
the operation of proton synchrotrons, as well as, general-
ly speaking, all resonant cyclic accelerators, no matter
what the type of magnetic system used in them.
A powerful stimulus for the planning and designing
of large proton synchrotrons was also furnished by the
discovery in 1953, by E. Courant, M. Livingston, and
H. Snyder, of the strong-focusing principle [2], which
provided the possibility of reducing the cross section of
.the magnetic pole gap used. This made possible a
great reduction in the power supplies to the magnetic
system, a reduction in cross sectional dimensions and
weight, and, as a consequence a reduction in the relative
costs of the machines. There thus appeared the prac-
tical possibility of increasing the maximum attainable
energy of accelerated protons in proton synchrotrons by
a factor of about 5 to 10. This increase in the maximum
energy of protons accelerated was, it is true, attained at
the expense of much tighter tolerances on the configur-
ation of the guide field and on the geometry of the mag-
netic system. For example, the precision specified in
the mounting of the magnets in a 50-60 Bev proton syn-
chrotron amounts to - 1 mm at the perimeter of an orbit
of about 1.5 km.
At the present time, about 15 proton synchrotrons
using weak or strong focusing arrangements are being
designed or under construction in various countries
around the world. The pertinent data on the largest of
the proton synchrotrons in operation or under construction
are given in the accompanying table [3-6].
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
The largest of the projects in this group of acceler-
ators is the Soviet 50-60 Bev proton synchroton project.
A particular striking feature of the plan for this machine
is the absence of the so-called "critical" energy char-
acteristic of all conventional strong-focusing accelera-
tots. In accelerator practice, this term is taken tomean
that value of the energy of the accelerated particles at
which the self- focusing operation breaks downs the stable
phase becomes unstable, and conversely. The transition
through the critical energy is fraught with large losses in
particle energy, and imposes additional and prohibitive-
ly stringent specification on the rf system of the strong-
focusing proton synchrotron. This unpleasant bug was
circumvented in the 50-60 Bev accelerator project by
introducing 15 compensating magnets with fields of
reversed sign into the magnetic system.
A prof ect for a 7 Bev proton synchrotron, which will
serve as a model for the 50-60 Bev machine, also en-
visages compensation of the "critical" energy.
It should be noted that some weak-focusing proton
synchrotrons, such as the 12 Bev Argonne machine and
the 3 Bev Princeton machine, for example, were entered
well into the planning stage even after the appearance
and elaboration of the strong-focusing principle. The
reason for this "reversion" to weak-focusing practicewas
the existence of appreciable defects inherent in strong-
focusing accelerators. Those bugs included, primarily,
difficulties encountered in injecting protons into the
vacuum chamber of the strong-focusing accelerator,
since the injection must be completed in less than a
single revolution. This results in a reduction in the in-
tensity of the accelerated beam of particles, since it
imposes requirements, which are difficult to fulfill on
the proton beam to be injected, added to the require-
ments for rather high energies (from one to several tens
of mega-electron-volts) and requirements for monoen-
ergetic particles (ranging from several tenths to several
hundredths of a percent). In those cases where a high
order of intensity took priority in the specifications, the
weak-focusing proton synchrotron was therefore the pre-
ferred type. Several flaws remained, nevertheless, in
the magnetic system of weak- focusing machines.
Now, e.g., the Argonne proton synchrotron is an ac-
celerator with a zero-gradient guide magnetic field.
Particles are focused in this field by skewing the edges
of the eight sectors by approximately 11? with respect to
the orbit. The functioning of the sectors with edges
skewed is similar to the behavior of magnetic lenses
with fringe focusing, such as used in mass spectrometers.
The use of fringe focusing makes it possible to avert
the saturation effects which tend to narrow the effective
region of the magnetic pole gap. This provides those
responsible for carrying out the project with the possibi-
lity of employing very powerful magnetic fields (of the
order of 20 kilogauss) and of greatly reducing the weight
of the magnet assembly. The effective frequency of the
betatron oscillations (0.75-0.875 oscillations per revolu-
tion) in the Argonne 12.5 Bev proton synchrotron is
roughly the same as in conventional weak-focusing sys-
tems. Another peculiarity of this accelerator is the use
of extremely high injection energies (of the order of
50 Mev), which makes it possible to reduce the size of
the equipment, to reduce the power supplies to the mag-
netic system, and to narrow down the interval over
which the frequency of the accelerating field varies. All
of those improvements, in the opinion of the authors of
the project, provide an opportunity for obtaining an ac-
celerated beam intensity of - 1012 protons per pulse.
The same problem in increasing the intensity of the
proton beam (up to 0.1 ?a) was resolved in the Prince-
ton project for a weak-focusing 3 Bev proton synchrotron
by a choice of more rigid tolerances on various injection
parameters, by guiding magnetic- field parameters, and by
increasing the pulse repetition rate.
Projects for proton synchrotrons now in the planning
stage were iniated for the most part in the period from
1948 to 1955. New projects are not forthcoming, as best
as can be judged from a survey of the literature on the
subject. This allows us to infer that there will be a slow-
ing up in the tempo of development of proton synchro-
trons, apparently due to the large capital expenditures
involved in building them as well as to the beginnings
of research in the last two years on new types of accel-
erators incorporating fixed magnetic fields enabling
sharp increases in intensity, and the development of new
energy storage systems for performing experiments in-
volving colliding beams of particles. Owing to the fact,
that the energy of colliding beams coincides with the
energies of the beams in the center of mass system, the
use of such systems is equivalent to the use of a conven-
tional accelerator with a fixed target having particle
energies 2(E/ Eo)times larger than the energy of either
of the colliding beams (E0 here denotes the rest energy
of the particle). For example, the collision of two beams
at 10 Rev energy would make it possible to observe the
same reactions as would be obtained in using a conven-
tional accelerator capable of reaching 200 Bev.
Further progress in the field of the development of
proton synchrotrons, will,therefore, apparently proceed
along the line of improving the design and increasing
the mean intensity of the accelerated particles, with a
certain slowing down of the tempos of growth in peak
energies.
1. V. L Veksler, Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR 43, 346
(1944); 44, 393 (1944).
2. E. Courant, M. Livingston, and H. Snyder, Phys.
Rev. 88, 1190 (1952).
3. V. V. Vladimiskii, E. G. Komar et al., Atomnaya
Energiya No. 4, 31 (1956).'
4. Phys. Today 7, 23 (1954).
5. Proceedings of the CERN Symposium 1, 323, 529
(1956).
6. P. Bowler, Nuclear Eng. 4, 157 (1959).
? Original Russian pagination. See C. B. translation.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
BRIEF COMMUNICATIONS
USSR. A 24-liter propane bubble chamber with
55 x 28 x 14 cros of the volume accessible to photo-
graphic recording, designed for work in a fixed time-
invariant magnetic field, has been developed at the
Joint Institute for Nuclear Studies. Water, separated
from the propane by means of bellows, is used as pres-
sure transmission agent. The illumination used in the
bubble chamber is placed at right angles to the axis of
photographs. The bottom of the chamber is covered
with dark glass to secure a dark background.
USSR. In the Nuclear Physics Research Instate at-
tached to the Moscow State University, work has been
completed on devising a dual-crystal Compton-type
gamma spectrometer with no collimation of the bundle
of gammas, which makes it possible to sharply increase
the aperture (by 100-1000 times) without loss of resolu-
tion. Both of the crystals (the analyzing and the con-
trol crystals) in the arrangement are brought together as
close as possible, and the gamma source to be investi-
gated is positioned between them. To eliminate any
background due to cascading gamma quanta or annihil-
ation gammas, measurement of the spectrum is repeated
a second time (the repeat run using a lead plate posi-
tioned between the source and the control cyrstal).. The
resolution of the Compton peaks is slightly less sharp
(by 15-20%) than the resolution achieved for photopeaks
of the same energies.
The instrument was designed for the analysis of low-
intensity gamma-emitting preparations, and for search-
ing out and studying weak gamma lines in radioactive
isotopes at gamma -quanta energies in excess of 0.5 Mev.
USSR. A simple-design pulse-height integrator, ca-
pable of summing the amplitudes of a train of pulses
Arriving sequentially and of determining the mean value
of the amplitudes when the duty factor of the recording
channel is not too large, has been developed at the Nu-
clear Physics Research Institute of Moscow State Univer-
sity. The instrument is based on the transformation of
the signal to be recorded into a packet of pulses, such
that the number of pulses N in the train is uniquely and
completely specified by~the amplitude of the input sig-
nal Va. Summing over the number of pulses in the pulse
trains at the output of the pulse-height converter circuit
is executed by a scaling circuit having a scaling factor
of 103 and a resolving time of 5 ? 10-5 sec. With a
rather simple 10-channel time analyzer performing the
function of discriminating with respect to pulse train
duration (with the aid of delay lines in the form of 10
one-shot multivibrator flipflops excited in s?ries), and
parallel photorecording of each pulse of the neon scale
indicating lamps, the instrument is capable of simultan-
eously recording the pulse-height distribution and of
determining the mean amplitude of the pulses recorded.
The instrument was employed to make a record of the
mean magnitude of infrequent pulses (N 10 min-1) ar-
riving from an ionization chamber, in measurements of
the mean ionizing power of cosmic radiation.
USSR. V. G. Chaikov has studied the possibility of
devising thermostable halide counters. He demonstrated
that the variation in the characteristics of halide counters
in response to a temperature rise comes about as a result
of evaporation of products of the interaction of the ha-
lide with the structural materials of the counter, within
the working volume of the counter. Careful preliminary
removal of those reaction products, succeeds in increas-
ing the thermostability of the counters to the level of
170-200?C.
IAEA. The regularly scheduled session of the Coun-
cil of directors of the Agency met in Vienna, April 7-18,
1959. The Council approved plans for contracts with the
Soviet Union, the USA, and Great Britain on the delivery
of nuclear materials to the Agency. The contracts sti-
pulate the basic conditions, under which nuclear mate-
rials will be transferred to the Agency, or to member
nations of the Agency,when so indicated. It is stated in
the contracts with the Soviet Union, USA, and Great
Britain that nuclear materials turned over to the Agency
by the said nations will remain within the borders of the
nations contracted to deliver them until the delivery
order is received from the Agency.
The Soviet Union agreed, as a first step towards the
realization of the IAEA statutes in life, to place at the
disposal of the Agency 50 kg of U235 of any desired con-
centration (up to 20% U 235 content) in the form of me-
tallic uranium, chemical compounds, or in the form of
manufactured fuel elements. The price of the uranium,
will be set at the level of the minimum prices on the
world market effective at the time of delivery.' The
draft of the contract stipulates that the government of
the USSR expresses its readiness to produce, now or in
the future, fissile and other special materials needed by
the Agency for its activity on behalf of the peaceful
utilization of atomic energy.
The Council of directors of IAEA adopted a reso-
lution on other important questions relating to the acti-
vity of the Agency in rendering technical assistance to
underdeveloped countries in the area of the peaceful
uses of atomic energy. In particular, it was decided to
study the question of setting up one or several isotope
centers for the training of specialists, for the Arab coun-
tries, the other countries of Africa, and for countries in
the Middle East.
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The Council of directors adopted a decision to send
two missions to the Latin American countries for the pur-
pose of rendering technical assistance to several coun-
tries in that region in developing their national programs
on the utilization of atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
IAEA. A conference of experts from several nations,
devoted to the elaboration of a set of international rules
governing the transportation of radioactive isotopes, met
in April, 1959.The rules drawn up will besent out to mem-
ber nations of the Agency for discussion and corrections.
Hungary. The country's first research reactor, 2Mw
(th), was loaded to criticality on March 25, 1959, in
Budapest. The reactor is a water-cooled water-modera-
ted (VVR-S) type operating on oxide enriched to 101o
uranium.. The reactor was built with the aid of the
Soviet Union.
Rumania. The Institute of Nuclear Physics of the
Rumanian Academy of Sciences (Bucharest) now has at
its disposal an atomic reactor and a cyclotron. The In-
stitute is engaged in the training of specialist personnel
for work in the field of the utilization of atomic energy
for peaceful purposes. Radioactive isotopes produced by
the Institute. are meeting with, appl ica tion on a broad
scale in the petroleum industry (in radioactive logging
of oil wells), in medicine, biology? chemistry, metal-
lurgy, and other branches of the economy.
Yugoslavia. An agreement was signed between
Yugoslavia and Poland, covering 1959 and 1960, on
collaboration in the cause of the use of atomic energy
for peaceful purposes.
USSR. On July 21, 1959, the .BR-5 fast nuclear re-
actor was brought up to design power rating (5000 kw).
The successful startup of the reactor marked the
completion of a great stage in the work of Soviet scien-
tists and engineers aimed at the development of the
problem of nuclear power reactors based on fast neutrons.
While only the uranium isotope U2 , 1/140 being
natural uranium,. may be used as nuclear fuel in thermal
power reactors, fast power reactors are capable of also
using uranium-238, and thorium, to produce electric
power. This is of the most far reaching significance for
the national economy, since the raw materials base of
the nuclear power industry will then be expanded with-
out bound, and the basis will be laid for the economic-
ally competitive operation of nuclear-fueled electric
power generating stations.
The erection of the BR-5 was preceded by the
building of several physical fast-neutron reactors rang-
ing from 10 w to 200 kw power output, which provided
the opportunity for a broad variety of physics experiments.
The BR-S reactor, which is the most powerful fast
reactor in operation at the present time, is designed to
provide the solution to a number of engineering and
technological problems associated with the building of
industrial-scale nuclear electric-power stations.
The BR-5 reactor has a core of plutonium cooled
by fused sodium at, an exit temperature of 450?C. The
reactor is equipped with a large number of ancillary
experimental devices installed for the performance of
the necessary research experiments in chemical processes
and nuclear physics.
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
Bibliography
NEW LITERATURE
Books, Symposia, Periodicals Recently
Published
Proceedings of the Second International Conference
on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. Reports by
Soviet Scientists. Vol. 3. Nuclear Fuel and Reactor
Metals. Edit, by Academician A. A. Bochvar, Academi-
cian A. P. Vinogradov. Corresponding Member of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR, V: S. Emel'yanov,
Doctor in Engineering Sciences A. P. Zefirov. Moscow.
Atomizdat, 1959. 670 pages, 30 rubles, 30 kopeks.
The book comprises a collection of the reports deal-
ing with problems of the geology and mineralogy of
uranium deposits, methods of exploration of those occur-
rences, and some questions in the primary processing of
uranium ores and of the raw materials for reactor mate-
rials, and, finally, problems in the metallurgy of nuclear
fuel.
The results of the study of the geological structure
of uraniferous provinces, the patterns discernible in the
arrangement of ore-bearing beds within those provinces,
zones of oxidation of uranium occurrences, paragenetic
associations of uranium minerals, new data on uranium
minerals, structural conditions-of the formation of ura-
nium occurrences, and other related topics are reported
on in these papers.
A description is provided of the different methods
resorted to in the beneficiation of uranium ores, and ex-
amples of ore processing are given. Several papers de-
scribe the properties of uranium, plutonium, and the al-
loys they form with other elements. Problems in the
stability of uranium and relating to structural materials
subjected to irradiation are discussed.
Papers are presented on the technology and process-
ing of zirconium and beryllium, and on the manufacture
of chemically pure calcium, strontium, and other metals.
Proceedings of the Second International Conference
on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. Reports by
Soviet Scientists. Vol. 4. The Chemistry of Radioele-
ments and Radiative Transmutations. Edited by Acade-
mician A. P. Vinogradov. Moscow, Atomizdat, 1959.
336 pages, 15 rubles, 70 kopeks.
The reports, collected in a book, are devoted to va-
rious aspects of chemical problems and problems arising
in connection with the use of atomic energy for peace-
ful purposes.
Methods used in the purification and extraction of
plutonium and uranium from spent reactor fuel, the sep-
aration of fission-fragment and rare-earth elements; the
chemistry of complex compounds formed with thorium,
uranium, americium, and modern techniques in the study
of the state of radioactive substances in solution aredis-
cussed in the papers; the laws governing sorption of
radioelements by soils and minerals, which is of major
importance for the solution of problems concerning the
burial of radioactive wastes, are also discussed.
Problems involved in the effects of radiations on
matter are dealt with in reports on the radiation chem-
istry of aqueous solutions, on the effect of ionizing radi-
ations on raw rubber, vulcanized rubber, etc.
Proceedings of the Second International Conference
on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. Reports b Soviet
Scientists. Vol. 5. Radiation Biology and Radiation Med-
icine. Edited by Corresponding Member of the Academy
of Medical Sciences A. V. Lebedinskii. Moscow., Atomiz-
dat, 1959, 430 pages, 21 rubles, 80 kopeks.
This volume contains reports devoted to problems
concerning the effects of ionizing radiations on the hu-
man organism and on animal organisms, and questions
involving the use of radioactive isotopes in biological
research, medicine,and agriculture. A. V. Kozlova, in
her report, presents a review of the applications of radio-
active isotopes and ionizing radiations in the USSR in the
therapy and diagnostics of various diseases.
The volume presents a broad choice of original ma-
terials reflecting the latest research efforts, particularly
materials on the use of the tritium isotope in radiobio-
logical research, on the mechanism of the action of ra-
diations on the nervous system, on primary processes oc-
curring in tissues when bombarded by radiation emis-
sions; also materials on radiation genetics and on the
effect of small, local radiation doses.
Proceedings of the Second International Conference
on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. Reports by Soviet
Scientists. Vol. 6. The Production and Use of Isotopes.
Edited by Academician G. V. Kudryumov and Correspond-
ing Member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
L L Novikov. Moscow, Atomizdat, 1959, 388 pages,
18 rubles, 90 kopeks.
This volume presents a collection of reports illumin-
ating several up-to-date techniques employed in the sep-
aration of light isotopes and isotopes in the middle sec-
tion of the periodic table (the method of low-tempera-'
ture distillation in the separation of hydrogen isotopes,
the electromagnetic separation method, the thermal
diffusion method).
The bulk of the papers included in this volume
serve to illustrate the varied range of approaches in the
use of isotopes for the solution of concrete technical
problems and problems arising in the operation of the
national economy. In particular, a review article by
A. V. Topchiev and collaborators describes various meth-
ods of isotope applications (such as tagged atoms or ra-
diation sources) in chemistry, metallurgy, instrument de-
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
sign, agriculture, and in other branches of science and
technology.
The book also includes papers devoted to problems
of dosimetry, radiometry, and health physics in handl-
ing radioactive isotopes.
A. K. Lavrukhina, Successes in Nuclear Chemistry.
Moscow, published by Academy of Sciences of the USSR,
1959, 144 pages, 2 rubles, 20 kopeks.
This book, one of the popular science series put out
by the Academy of Sciences Press, sheds light on the
fundamental historic moments of nuclear chemistry; the
general characteristics of nuclear processes are, described
and an account is given of radiometric techniques, of
the methods of a 8 and y spectroscopy, scintillation
methods, the technique of thick- layered photoemulsions,
etc.; nuclear reactions taking place under the effects
of particles of various energies, as well as reactions oc-
curring in the interior of the sun, the stars, and interstel-
lar space are considered; a short description is provided
of the most important fields of application for the vari-
ous nuclear reactions, and a number of questions involv-
ing the systematics of radioactive and stable isotopes
are discussed.
A. A. Zhukhovitskii, Labeled Atoms. Moscow,
Voenizdat, 1959. 114 pages, 1 ruble, 75 kopeks.
This book, part of the "Popular Science Library"
series, describes succinctly some examples of the util-
ization of radioactive isotopes-" labeled atoms" -in
biology, medicine, chemistry, physics, military science,
metallurgy, geology, etc. The examples cited serve to
illustrate the exceptional variety and fertility of the
labeled- atom technique. The book is written fora broad
audience of readers acquainted with chemistry, physics,
and mathematics at the secondary-school level.
Max Planck-Festschrift-1958. (Max Planck 1958
Jubilee edition). Published (in German) by B. Kockel,
Leipzig, W. Macke, Dresden, and A. Papapetrou, Berlin.
413 pages.
This book, published on the hundredth anniversary
of the birth of the renowned German physicist Max Planck,
contains the following articles solicited from well -known
Soviet and foreign scientists: G. Falkenhagen: Max
Planck's works on electrolysis and the further develop-
ment of the topic; H. Honl and K Westphal: The fur-
ther. development of Kirchhoffs diffraction theory into
a rigorous theory; V. Rubinovich: A graphic conceptual
picture of electric quadrupole and magnetic dipole ra-
diations; H. Alfven: The pulse spectrum of cosmic ra-
diation; V. A. Ambartsumyan: On the stellar associa-
tion Perseis-1; S. Chandrasekhar: The thermodynamics
of thermal instability in fluids; L. Infeld: Variational
principles in relativistic dynamics; M. Sasaki: Relati-
vistic gases; S. Moller: On the energy of an open sys-
tem in the general theory of relativity; J. Weissenhoff:
The classical-relativistic treatment of the problem of
spin; N. Bohr : Philosophical problems in quantum
mechanics; V. Fok: On the interpretation of quantum
mechanics; L. Broil'*: Max Planck's great discovery,
the mysterious constant h; L. Rosenfeld: Max Planck and
the foundation of the statistical nature of entropy;
K. Nowobatcki: Statistics of gas and radiation; P. Cal-
dirola and A. Loinger: The development of the ergodic
approximation in statistical mechanics; P. Gombas:
On the theory of matter subjected to high pressures;
P. Zwicky: Destruction of matter of nuclear density and
nuclear "building blocks;" J. Supek: Differential equa-
tions of the electrical conductivity of metal at low temp-
eratures; H. Frohlich: Phenomenological theory of en-
ergy losses of fast particles in solids; O. Scherzer: In-
terference of incoherently scattered electrons; D. Blo-
khinstev: On the structure of elementary particles;
E. Caianiello: Some remarks on the ultraviolet ca-
tastrophe; A. Sokolov: The longitudinal polarization
of Dirac particles and the conservation of parity;
0. Heber: Some physical and mathematical properties
of nonlocalized fields; P. Dirac: Equation of electron
waves in a Riemann space; N. Schonberg: Quantum
theory and geometry; D. Ivanenko: A note on a non-
linear theory of matter; J. Destuches: On the quantiz-
ing concept; L. Pauling: Quantum theory and chem-
istry; L. Janosi: Planck's philosophical views on physics.
E. Funfer and H. Neuert, Zahlrohre and Szintilla-
tionszahler [Gas-discharge Tubes and Scintillation
Counters], Karlsruhe, Verlag C. Braun, 1959, 356 pages.
Second, fully-revised edition. The monograph deals
with an analysis of the mechanism involved in the oper-
ation of proportional counters, G-M counters, scintilla-
tion counters, crystal counters, and their applications in
measuring and detecting ionizing radiations.
Bulletin of the International Atomic Energy Aged,
Vol. 1, No. 1 (1959). The first issue of the Bulletin of
the International Atomic Energy Agency has appeared
in print. The bulletin is schedule for quarterly printing
in Russian, English, French, and Spanish. It will contain
materials treating of the activities of IAEA. The first
issue contains the following articles and correspondence:
"Aid rendered to Brazil, Pakistan, and Thailand;" "The
use of radioisotopes in medical diagnostics;" "The re-
actor construction schedule in Japan;" "Contracts for
scientific research work on radiation;" "Research work/
at the University of Vienna for the benefit of IAEA;"
"Distribution of fallout products and decay products in
the biosphere;" "Safe, handling of radioisotopes;"
"Production of heavy water at Aswan;" "Legal protection
against radiation hazards;" "Extraction of uranium from
phosphates in the United Arab Republic;" "Program of
the International Atomic Energy Agency on the exchange
and training of nuclear specialists;" "Centers for train-
ing specialists in Latin America;" a list of conferences,
exhibits, and courses on the training of specialists in
atomic energy applications.
* Transliteration of Russian - Publisher's note.
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Nukleonika (Poland) vol. IV, No. 2 (1959). This
issue contains the following articles: B. Buras and J.
O'Connor,"Interaction of neutrons and phonons in solids;"
T Adamski,"Chemical engineering problems in uranium
processing in the light of the Second Geneva. Conference;'
S. Minc,"Some chemical problems discussed at the Sec-
ond Geneva Conference;" E. Minczewski,"Problems in
analytical chemistry in the light of the Second Geneva
Conference;" S. Andrzej ewski, "Perspectives of the de-
velopment of nuclear power in the light of the Second
Geneva Conference;" W. Ostrowski,"The major problems
in the biological sciences and medicine as seen at the
Second Geneva Conference;" J. Hurwic,"Health physics
problems in personnel clothing in the light of the Sec-
ond Geneva Conference;" Z. Jaworowski,"Measurements
of radioactive fallout in the Hornsund fjord (Spitsbergen);"
A. Kazimirski,"Design, manufacturing technology, and
features of BF3 -loaded proportional counters."
Correspondence: A 144-channel neutron time-of-
flight analyzer, designed for operation with a mechan-
ical chopper. Reviews. Chronicle. Bibliography.
ARTICLES FROM THE JAPANESE PERIODICALS
GENSHIRYOKU HATSUDEN
(ATOMIC POWER ENGINEERING)
AND
GENSHIRYOKU KOGYO'
(ATOMIC INDUSTRY)
Genshiryoku Hatsuden, vol. 2 (1958)
Okada, Makoto: Thermonuclear fusion research.
Review article (6-13); Suzuki, Eiji: Control system of
a nuclear reactor and studies of the dynamic behavior
of the control system in a pilot plant.
Aochi, Tetsuo: Regeneration of nuclear fuel by
solvent extraction (9-16); Goto, Niki et al.: Fuel burnup
calculation in uranium-graphite reactors, using digital
computer facilities (39-54); Kanbara, Toyoji et al.:
Brief description of the Japanese research reactor (JRR-1)
and its performance characteristics (55-63); Aoki, Tomo:.
Maximum permissible radiation dosage for humans and
problems in shielding against radioactive radiations (66- 69).
No. 3.
Aochi, Tetsuo: Regeneration of nuclear fuel by
solvent extraction IL (5-12); Hasegawa, M.: Iron and
steel parts used in nuclear reactors (13-25). Homoto,
Shoji: Nuclear reactor calculations in fast power ex-
cursions (26-32).
.Genshiryoku Kogyo, vol. 4 (1958).
Sato, Kagasei: Large-size pressurized -water reac-
tor for ships displacing 80, 000 tons with 40, 000 hp pro-
pulsion engines (6-12); Makimura, Ryutaro: Small pres-
surized-water reactor for vessels displacing 40,000 tons
with 20,000 hp propulsion engines; Shigemitsu, Tomo-
michi: Radioactive radiations and plastics. IL (36-37);
Mada, Junpei: Experimental research on nuclear chain
reactors in Japan (41-44); Takeyoshi, In: A high-effi-
ciency reactor burning liquid-metal fuel. Its design
features, examples of reactor calculations, and opera-
tion. II. (51-55); Somiya, Naoyuki: Characteristics
and applications of isotopes. (62-65).
Taroyoshi, Seki: Uranium production by magnesium
reduction (9-13); Fukai, Yuzo: One-group calculations
of the neutron flux distribution in a boiling-water reac-
tor (22-27); Kozeki, Koji: Deposits of radioactive min-
erals in Japan, and perspectives of exploitation (28-32);
Sata. Toshi: Use of Radioisotopes in Studies of the
mechanism in metal wear (47-51),
Sugimoto, Asao: Construction of Japan's first ex-
perimental nuclear reactor, the JRR-3 (4-6); Asaoka,
Takumi: Core design in the nuclear reactor JRR-3 (7-13);
Sasakura, Hiroshi: Shielding design in the nuclear reac-
tor JRR- 3 (14- 20); Ishikawa, Hiroshi: Control-rod design
in the nuclear reactor JRR-3 (21-24); Shimai, Sumu:
The basic planning of the nuclear reactor JRR-3 (31-36);
Shimai, Sumu: Instrumentation and equipment planning
for the experimental nuclear reactor. Idemura, Hideo:
Design of the water and gas flow systems in the nuclear
reactor JRR-3 (39-42); Haraswa, Susumu: Control sys-
tem design in the nuclear reactor JRR-3 (43-49); Henmi
Fumihiko: Design of fuel charge-discharge equipment
in the nuclear reactor JRR-3 (54-58); Kawasaki, Masay-
uki: Nuclear fuel for the JRR-3 reactor, and pertinent
reactor data (65-71).
Uchida, Taijiro and Goto, Tetsuo: Structure of the
pinch effect in nuclear fusion reactions (18-21); Kitao,
Kazuo: Relaxation time and deceleration of charged
particles in ionized gases (22-26); Yamamoto, Taka-
mitsu: Facility for achieving a controlled fusion reac-
tion by means of annular currents, and its use. (27-31).
Sakai, Toshinouji: Economic performance of atom-
ic-powered ships, and perspectives in their use. L (8-13);
* Translator's note: genshiryoku = atomic energy;
hatsuden= electric power generation; kogyo =industry
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
Ono, Kazuro: Studies on special nuclear reactions at the
Institute of Physics of Tokyo University (21-25); Yama-
moto, K.: Safety practices in handling radioactive iso-
topes (26-32); Kaide, Takeshiro: Radioactivity and
crude rubber. L (36-37).
Shiga, Shiro: Means for atomic radiation shielding,
and their uses (23-29); Completion of the building pro-
ject of the nuclear reactor JRR-3 (38-40).
Yokota, Yoshisuke: Experimental production and
use of glass for gamma-ray shielding (14-19); Ishihara,
Toyohiko et al.: Automatic monitoring stations for the
detection of radioactivity (26-29); Shielding glasses(67).
No. 12.
Imai, Munemaru and Oshima Hironosuke: The
Hitachi Central Scientific Research Institute, named af-
ter the founder of nuclear technology in Japan (52-58).
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M. A. Baranovskii, "Use of superheated steam in
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N. A. Burgov et al., "Resonant scattering of gamma
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A. L Burnazyan et al., "Health and hygienic meas-
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Med. radiologiya 4, 70-72 (1959).
A. A. Vorob'ev et al., 'Choice of optimum trans-
mission band in an amplifier operating in unison with an
ionization chamber," Pribory i Tekh. Eksp. No. 2, 95-102
(1959).
N. N. Gratsianskii and N. A. Bogacheva, "Studies on
the corrosion behavior of solid solutions of metals, using
radioactive isotopes. The In- Pb system,' Zhur. Fiz.
Khim. 33, 677-682 (1959).
A. L Grimm and A. L. Kartuzhanskii, "Effects of
irradiation of potatoes and onions, using a radioactive
cobalt source [vegetables in storage]," Symp. of scienti-
fic papers of the Leningrad inst. of commerce No. 13,
14-29 (1959).
P. L. Gruzin et al., 'Investigation and monitoring of
the blast-furnace process, using radioactive isotopes and
radiations," Stal' No. 4, 291-297 (1959).
R. A. Demirkhanov et al., "Mass of the Pu239nuclide,"
Zhur. Eksp. i Teor. Fiz. 36, 1595-6 (1959).
A. A. Zaitsev et al., "On the possibility of deter-
mining the potential of a plasma space by the character-
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Zhur. Eksp. i Teor. Fiz. 36, 1590-1 (1959).
D. L Zakutinskii and 0. S. Andreeva, "Toxicology
of uranium compounds (survey article)," Med. radiolo-
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A. M. Ivanchenko, "Enchancing the stability of
operation of scintillation counters," Pribory i Tekh. Eksp.
No. 2, 150-1 (1959).
V. A. Kirillin and S. A. Ulybin, 'Experimental de-
termination of specific volumes of heavy water," Teplo-
energetika No. 4, 67-72 (1959).
Yu. I. Klimontovich, 'Energy losses of charged par-
ticles by excitation of plasma oscillations," Zhur. Eksp.
i Teor. Fiz. 36, 1405-18 (1959).
B. Ya. Kogan et al., "On the simulation of nuclear
power systems," Avtomatika i Telemekhanika 20,
349-54 (1959).
F. G. Krotkov, "Health problems at the Second
Geneva Conference on the peaceful uses of atomic en-
ergy (September 1958)," Vestnik Akad. Med. Nauk SSSR
No. 3, 55-64 (1959).
A. S. Kuz'minskii and E. V. Zhuravskaya, "Stabil-
ity of vulcanized rubbers to the action of ionizing ra-
diations," Khim. nauka i promyshlennost' 4169-73(1959).
G. Ya. Lyubarskii and R. V. Polovin, 'On the disin-
tegration of unstable shock waves in magnetohydrody-
namics," Zhur. Eksp. i Teor.Fiz. 36, 1272-78 (1959).
M. A. Mazingtand S. L. Mandel'shtam, "On the
broadening of spectral lines in a strongly ionized plas-
ma," Zhur. Eksp. i Teor. Fiz. 36, 1329-31 (1959).
0. M. Mdivani and T. G. Gachechiladze, "On the
angular distribution of neutrons in the Cis (a, n) Otsre-
action," Zhur. Cksp. i Teor. Fiz. 36, 1591-2 (1959).
V. E. Mitsuk and M. D. Koz'minykh, 'The elec-
tric field in a micorwave plasma as a function of time'
Zhur. Eksp. i Teor. Fiz. 36, 1603-4 (1959).
B. Moiseev, 'Automation of the processing of
charged-particle track photographs in bubble chambers,'
Priroda No. 5, 82-84 (1959).
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
A. N. Protopopov et al., "Angular anistropy and
energy data of the fission process," Zhur. Eksp. i Teor.
Fiz. 36, 1608-9 (1959).
A. N. Protopopov and V. P. Eismont, "On the de-
pendence of the degree of angular anisotropy of the
fission process on the structure of the nucleus," Zhur.
Eksp. i Teor. Fiz. 36, 1573-74 (1959).
D. I. Ryabchikov and E. K. Gol'braikh, "Thorium
and thorium compounds, Uspekhi Khim.28, 408-435
(1959).
B. N. Samoilov et al., "Polarization of cobalt and
iron nuclei in ferrites," Zhur. Eksp. i Teor. Fiz. 36,
1366-67 (1959).
1. K. Sokolova, "Investigation of chemical systems
for dosimetry (review article)," Med. radiologiya 4,
78-80 (1959).
K. N. Stepanov, "On the penetration of an electro-
magnetic field into a plasma," Zhur. Eksp. i Teor. Fiz.
36, 1457-60 (1959).
A. A. Titlyanova and N. A. Timofeeva, "On the
mobility of cobalt, strontium, and cesium compounds
in soil," Pochvovedenie No. 3, 86-91 (1959).
A. F. Fedomv, "Natural radioactivity of marine
organisms," Priroda No. 4, 86-88 (1959).
Yu. A. Tsirlin, "Disperse-phase fast-neutron de-
tectors," Zhur. Tekh. Fiz. 29, 530-538 (1959).
P. I. Chalov, "Isotope ratio of U / Ups in certain
secondary minerals," Geokhimiya No. 2, 165-170(1959).
L. I. Shmonin et al., "Neutron flux of the earth's
crust,' Geokhimiya No. 2, 105-109 (1959).
D. Aliaga-Kelly, Nuclear Power 4, 111-112 (1959).
W. Arnold, Nuclear Sci. and Eng. 5, 105-119(1959).
L. Barbieri et al., Nuclear Sci. and Eng. 5, 105-119
(1959).
R. Bartholomew et al., Canad. J. Chem.37, 660-663
(1959)
G. Bell, Nuclear Sci. and Eng. 4, 138-139 (1959).
E. Bernshon et al., Nucleonics 17, 112-115 (1959).
M. Bleiberg, Nuclear Sci. and Eng.5, 78-87 (1959).
F. Boeschoten and K. Groenewolt, Physica 25, 398
(1959).
K. Boyer et al., Phys. Rev. Letters 2, 279-280 (1959).
F. Brooks, Nuclear Instr. and Methods 4, 151-163
(1959).
R. Carter, "Compatibility problems in the use of
graphite in nuclear reactors,' Atompraxis 5, 142-47
(1959).
698
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C. Clayton, Research 12, 148-154 (1959).
C. Clayton, Reasearch 12. 172-178 (1959).
L. Cohen and W. Stephens, Phys. Rev. Letters 2,
263-264 (1959).
H. Corben, Nuclear Sci. and Eng.5, 127-131 (1959).
V. De Sabbata, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento 11, Ser. X,
225-314 (1959).
R.-Enstrom, "Manufacture of tubular type fuel ele-
ments for the CP-5 reactor.," Atompraxis 5, 147-54
(1959).
B. Fabre and F. Rossillon, "Melusine, the first re-
actor of the Grenoble nuclear research center, "Industries
Atomiques 3, 42-49 (1959).
R. Garvin et al., Phys. Rev. Letters 2, 213-215 (1959).
H. Gebauer, _" Dependence of optimal cathode thick-
ness of G-M counter on the atomic number of the ma-
terial and on the energies of the gammas intercepted,"
Atomkerneregie 4, 135-38 (1959).
C. Gerard, Nuclear Power 4, 86-91 (1959).
W. Gerlach and K. Stierstadt, "Investigations of
radioactive fallout and of radioactivity of the air,"
Atomkernenergie 4, 143-147 (1959).
E. Graul and H. Hundeshagen, "Methods and tech-
nology of analysis and synthesis of tritium-labeled sub-
stances," Atompraxis 5, 154-160 (1959).
A. L. Gray, Nuclear Power 4, 103-105 (1959).
G. Greenough, Nuclear Power 4, 92-96 (1959).
H. Griem et al., Phys. Rev. Letters 2, 281-282 (1959).
G. Keepin, Nuclear Sci. and Eng.S, 132-136 (1959).
M. Kostin, Nuclear Instr. and Methods 4, 99-102(1959).
W. Kuhn, "Use of elastic neutron scattering in hu-
midity determinations," Atompraxis 5, 133-7 (1959).
R. Le Page, Nuclear Power 4, 104-107 (1959).
M. Ledinegg, 'Unstable oscillations in boiling-
water reactors," Atomkernenergie 4, 132-5 (1959).
H. Loos, Phys. Rev. Letters 2, 282-283 (1959).
A. Mackinney and R. Ball, Nucleonics 17, 128, 130,
132 (1959).
E. Malamud and A. Silverman, Nuclear Instr. and
Methods 4, 67-78 (1959).
N. Moore and J. Huffadine, Nuclear Power 4, 86-89
(1959).
B. Moskowitz, "Experiments on the study of the
dynamic behavior of homogeneous reactors with aqueous
slurries," Industries Atomiques 3, 54-64 (1959).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
P. Murray, Nuclear Power 4, 89-94,(1959).
R. Nathans and A. Paoletti, Phys. Rev. Letters 2,
254-256 (1959).
L. Neel and B. Delepalme, "The Grenoble nuclear
research center,' Industries Atomiques 3, 34-41 (1959).
Nuclear Eng.4, 9-10 (1959).
Nuclear Power 4, 102-103 (1959).
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Nucleonics 17, 100-103 (1959).
H. Palevsky et al., Phys. Rev. Letters 2, 258-259
(1959).
A. Pfau and H. Heinrich, 'Combination of ring and
conventional scintillation counters for rapid determina-
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topes. Part III," Atompraxis 5, 160-9 (1959).
T. Pickavance, Nuclear Eng.4, 151-156 (1959).
F. Porreca, Nuovo Cimento 11, 283-286 (1959).
W. Rohsenow et al., Nucleonics 17, 150, 152, 154;
157, 158, 159, 161 (1959).
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M. Salesse, "Beryllium and zirconium," Industries
Atomiques 3, 65-76 (1959).
K Scharrer and Z. Heilenz, "Method for the quan-
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plants and soils,' Atompraxis 5, 170-2 (1959).
R. Schmidt and L. Fidrych, Nuclear Power. 4, 106-108
(1959).
J. Seetzen, "Present state of the art in nuclear re-
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D. Smidt, "Auxiliary back-up control of power
reactors, using enriched compensating elements,"
Atomkemenergie 4, 129-31 (1959).
K Stierstadt, "Radioactivity of the atmosphere and
wind direction," Atomkernenergie 4 147-50 (1959).
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B. Toppel, Nuclear Sci. and Eng. 5, 88-98 (1959).
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P. Vidal, "Increase of the yield and quantities of
crops by irradiation of the seeds," Industries Atomiques
3, 77-84 (1959).
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with the BF3 counter, "Atompraxis 5, 138-141(1959).
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W. Zinn, Nuclear Power 4, 109-111 (1959).
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 Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040002-8
2outstanciing' new Soviet -journals
KINETICS
AND
CATALYSIS
The first authoritative journal specifically designed for those
interested (directly or indirectly) in kinetics and catalysis.
This journal will carry original theoretical and experimental
papers on the kinetics of chemical transformations in gases;
solutions and solid phases; the study of intermediate active
particles (radicals, ions);_ combustion; the mechanism of
homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis; the scientific
grounds of catalyst selection; important practical catalytic
processes; the effect of substance - and heat-transfer proc-
esses on the kinetics of chemical transformations; methods
of calculating and modelling contact apparatus.
Reviews summarizing recent achievements in the.highly im-
portant fields of catalysis and kinetics-of chemical trans-
formations will be printed, as well'as reports on the proceed-
ings of congresses, conferences and conventions. In addition
to papers originating in the Soviet Union, KINETICS AND
CATALYSIS will contain research of leading scientists from
abroad.
Contents of the first issue include:
Molecular Structure and Reactivity in Catalysis. A. A. Balandin
The Role of the Electron Factor in Catalysis. S. Z. Roginskii
The Principles of the Electron Theory of Catalysis on Semiconductors.
F. F. Vol'kenshtein
The Use of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance in Chemistry.
V. V. Voevodskii
The. Study of Chain and. Molecular Reactions of Intermediate Sub-
stances in Oxidation of n-Decane. Z. K. Maizus, 1. P. Skibida,
N. M. Emanuel' and V. N. Yakovleva
The Mechanism of Oxidative Catalysis by Metal Oxides. V. A. Roller
The Mechanism of Hydrogen-Isotope Exchange on Platinum Films.
G. K. Boreskov and A. A. Vasilevich -
Nature of the Change of Heat and Activation Energy of Adsorption with
Increasing Filling Up of the Surface. N. P. Keier
Catalytic Function of Metal Ions in a Homogeneous Medium.
L. A. Nikolaev
Determination of Adsorption Coefficient by Kinetic Method. I. Adsorp-
tion Coefficient of Water, Ether and Ethylene on Alumina.
K. V. Topchieva and B. V. Romanovskii
The Chemical Activity of Intermediate Products in Form of Hydrocar-
bon Surface Radicals in Heterogeneous Catalysis with Carbon
Monoxide and Olefins. Ye. T. Eidus
Contact Catalytic Oxidation of Organic Compounds in the Liquid Phase
on Noble Metals. 1. Oxidation of the Monophenyl Ether of Ethyl-
eneglycol to Phenoxyacetic Acid. I. I. loffe, Yu. T. Nikolaev and
M. S. Brodskii
=JOURNAL OF
STR-UCTURAL
CHEMISTRY
This significant journal contains papers on all of.the most
important aspects of theoretical and practical structural
chemistry, with an emphasis given, to new physical methods,
and techniques. Review articles on special subjects in,the
field will cover published work not readily available in
'English. The development of new techniques for investigating the
structure of matter and the nature of the chemical,bond has
been no less rapid and.spectacular,in the USSR than in the
West; the Soviet approach to the many problems of structural
chemistry cannot fail to stimulate and enrich Western work
in this field. Of special value to all chemists, physicists, geo-
chemists, and biologists whose work is intimately linked with
problems of the molecular structure of matter.
Contents of the first issue include:
Electron-Diffraction Investigation of the Structure of Nitric Acid and
Anhydride Molecules in Vapors. P. A. Akishin, L. N. Vilkov and ,
V. Ya. Rosolovskii
Effects of Ions on the Structure of Water. 1. G. Mikhailov and Yu P.
Symikov
Proton Relaxation in Aqueous Solutions of Diamagnetic Salts. I. Solu-
tions of Nitrates of Group II Elements. V. M. Vdovenko and V.A.
Shcherbakov
Oscillation Frequencies of Water Molecules in the First Coordination
Layer of lon in Aqueous Solutions. O. Ya. Samilov
Second Chapter.of Silicate Crystallochemistry. N. V. Below
Structure of Epididymite NaBeSiO,OH. A New Form of Infinite Silicon
-Oxygen Chain (band) ISi4D1s]. E. A. Podedimskaya and N. V.
Belov .
Phases Formed in the System Chromium-Baran In the Boron-Rich
Region. V. A. Epel'baum, -N. G. Sevast'yanov, M. A. Gurevich
and G. S. Zhdanov
Crystal Structure of the Ternary Phase in the Systems Mo(W)-
Fe(CO,Ni)-Si. E. I. Gladyshevskii and Yu. B. Kyz'ma
Complex Compounds with Multiple Bonds in the Inner Sphere.
Quantitive Evaluation of the Maxima of Three-Dimensional -Paterson
Functions, V. V. Ilyukhin and S. V. Borisov
Application of Infrared Spectroscopy to Study of Structure of Silicates.
L Reflection Spectra of. Crystalline Sodium Silicates in Region of
7.5.151A. V. A..Florinskaya and R. S. Pechenkina
Use of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance for Investigating the Molec-
ular Structure of Coals. N. N. Tikhomirova, I. V: Nikolaeva and
V. V. Voevodskii
New Magnetic Properties of Macromolecular Compounds with Con-
jugated Double Bonds. L. A. Blyumenfel'd, A. A. Slinkin and
A. E. Kalmanson - -
Annual Subscription: $150.00 Annual Subscription: $80.00
Six issues per year - approx. 1050 pages per volume I / Six issues per year - approx. 750 pages per volume
Publication in the USSR began with the May-Jbne 1960 issues. Therefore, the 1960 volume
will contain four issues. The first. of these will be available in translation in April 1961.
CONSULTANTS BUREAU 227 W. 17 ST., NEW YORK 11, N. Y.
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EQUIPMENT FOR A MODERN LABORATORY... A NEW CONCEPT IN DESIGN
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2., Magnetic Field of a Circular Coil
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4. Resolution of-Forces Apparatus
5. Simple Mass Spectrometer
6. Bragg Diffraction Apparatus
7. Versatile Mass Spectrometer
8. Driven Linear Mechanical Oscillator
9. Simple Kinetic Theory'Demonstration
10. Air Suspended Pucks for Momentum
Experiments
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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