THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF ATOMIC ENERGY VOL. 7 NO. 1

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• Document Page Count: 83
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 21, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: December 1, 1960
• Content Type: REPORT

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Volume 7, No. 1
December, 1960
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
TRANSLATED FROM RUSSIAN
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
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? _
,
SOVIET
?
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
?
-,- , -
A' collection of ten- pipers from ,the Consultants Bureaii
, translaticins of- the Soviet journal ,of-A.nalYtical'Chemistry-
_
-,and the ,farnous ?"Doklady" of - the Academy .of Sciences
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(1949-58).? .. This, collection Will \ acquaint the analytical, _
-
chemist 'work:big in this field with 'SoViet 'techniques for
. _the determination of uranium in solutionssini?res and the
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roducts of their treatments, and in accessory mpierals, _ ?
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? Plus methods for the determination of impuritiesinuianium.
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? _ heavy paper covers' , , illustrated . $10.00
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UGYALTrilag
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CONTENTS
?
? Extraction- of Uranyl a--Nitroso-a -naphtholate and Sep-a-'
ration of Uranium from Vanaclinm an?d
_
?
? ?`Thp:Compo-sifion of Uranyl Selenite. A Volinnetiic Method
- ,
- of Determining Uranium. - ? -
? ??.
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? The Composition of the -Luminescence Center of-Sodium
Flioride Beads ActivatedbyUranium. '
. ? Rapid LUminesdent Determination of Uranium in So-liition?.
-
? .
f Preparation of_Slightly Soluble COmPounds of Quadrivalent _
Uranium Using' Rongalite".--
?----
, ? -Investigation of Complex ComPounds,)of, the,Uranyl Ion
? Which are. of Itnportance' in Analytical Chemistr-y.-
- ?
- ?
-? Uranyl-and,Thorium Selenites.
_
? The Evaporation Method and Its Use for the Determination
of Bpron and Other Inipurities in Uranium.- _
?
?
tSpectiographic Determination of Uraniuin:in Ores -'and-the
- Products Obtained by ?Treatment of These Ores':
? Determination of Uranitim-in Accessory Minerals.
t)_)
_
? .
CONSULTANTS BUREAU
227 WEST 17TH STREET NEW YORK 11 N Y
,
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,
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EDITORIAL BOARD OF
ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA
h. I. Alikhanov
A. A. Bochvar
N. A. Dollezhal
D. V. Efremov
V. S. Fursov
V. F. Kalinin
A. K. Krasin
A. V. Lebedinskii
A. I. Leipunskii
I. I. Novikov
(Editor-in-Chief)
B. V. Semenov
(Executive Secretary)
V. I. Veksler
A. P. Vinogradov
N. A. Vlasov
(Assistant Editor-in-Chief)
A. P. Zefirov
THE SOVIET JOURNAL OF
ATOMIC ENERGY
A translation of ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA,
a publication of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Russian original dated July, 1959)
Vol. 7, No. 1
December, 1960
CONTENTS
PAGE
RUSS.
PAGE
Five Years of Nuclear Power. N. A. Dollezhal' and A. K. Krasin
535
5
The Design and Operation of Some Pumps for Sodium and Sodium-Potassium Alloys.
P. L. Kirillov, V. A. Kuznetsov, N. M. Turchin, and Yu. M. Fedoseev
540
11
Effect of a Cylindrical Channel on Neutron Diffusion. N. I. Paletin
546
18
Determination of Critical Mass and Neutron Flux Distribution by Means of Physical Models.
V. A. Dmitrievskii and I. S. Grigorev
554
27
Heat of Formation of UBeis. M. I. Ivanov and V. A. Tumbakov
559
33
Radiolytic Reduction of Am (VI) and Am (V). A. A. Zaitsev, V. N. Kosyakov, A. G. Rykov,
562
37
Yu. P. Sobolev, and G. N. Yakolev
Characteristic Features of the Mineralogy of Uranium. V. I. Gerasimovskii
570
47
Cyclotron with a Magnetic Field Traveling in the Radial Direction. E. G. Komar
578
57
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Multigroup Analysis of an Atomic Power Plant Reactor on the "Strela" High-Speed Electronic
Computer. V. A. Chuyanov
584
64
Influence of Irradiation on.the Magnetic Properties of Ferrites. N. M. Otel'yanovs4ya
586
66
Thermal Expansion of a Plutonium. N. T. Chebotarev and A. V. Beznosikova
588
68
Disproportion'ation of Am (IV). A. A. Zaitsev, V. N. Kosyakov, A. G. Rykov, Yu. P. Sobolev,
589
69
and G. N. Yakovlev
Neutron Spectrum of a Po?a-0 Source. A. G. Khabakhpashev
591
71
Space Distribution of Ions in a Liquid. V. I. Ivanov
593
73
Radioactivity of Aerosols in the Building Housing the Synchrocyclotron of the Joint Institute
for Nuclear Studies. V. P. Afanas'ev
595
74
NEWS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
The Part to be Played by Scientists in Fulfilling the Decisions of the Twenty-First Congress
of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. V. Korovikov
597
76
Ninth All-Union Congress on Nuclear Spectroscopy. B. P. Rudakov
597
76
The Physics and Engineering Department at the Ural Polytechnic Institute
599
78
The Latvian Research Reactor
600
79
[Development of Nuclear Energy-in Canada
80]
Fatalities in Criticality Accidents
602
82
High-Energy Electron Synchrotrons
604
84
Tokyo School for Training Laboratory Technicians for Work with Radioactive Isotopes. V. Parldiieko
606
86
Brief Communications
606
87
Annual subscription $ 75.00
Single issue 20.00
Single article 12.50
Copyright 1960 Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc., 227 West 17th St., New York 11, N. Y.
Note: The sale of photostatic copies of any portion of this copyright translation is expressly
prohibited by the copyright owners.
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CONTENTS (continued)
RUSS.
PAGE PAGE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
New Literature 608 91
NOTE
The Table of Contents lists all material that appears in Atomnaya fnergiya. Those items
that originated in the English language are not included in the translation and are, shown en-
closed in brackets. Whenever possible, the English-language source containing the omitted
reports will be given.
Consultants Bureau Enterprises, Inc.
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FIVE YEARS OF NUCLEAR POWER
N. A. Dollezhal' and A. K. Krasin
Original article submitted April 27, 1959
A tremendous event in science and engineering trans-
pired on June 27, 1954: the world's first atomic electric-
power generating station, built near Moscow (in the town
of Obninsk), delivered current into the electric power
grid. Although the power produced by the station's only
turbine was not large (5000 kw), the First Atomic-Power
Station exhibited all of the features of the full-scale
large electric-power station. This made it possible to
acquire operating experience with relatively Moderate
expenditures on capital outlays and, in the case of suc-
cessful performance, to extend the example to more
powerful scaled-up power stations of a similar type.
Nuclear power engineering, the basis of which was
laid by the starting-up of the First Atomic-Power Station
in the USSR, is characterized by a very swift growth in
atomic power levels (see Fig. 1). This intense rate of
growth will continue, since quite a few large-scale atomic
power generating stations are nearing completion. The
successes achieved in nuclear power engineering are ob-
vious and imposing.
However, at the time the First Atomic-Power Station
was commissioned, and even more so while it was still in
the beginning of the design stage, there was not only no
definite opinion on the technical pathways for developing
nuclear power, but even skeptical views as to the feasibil-
400
300
- 200
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c.) 100
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G-2 , 30Mw (France)
Calder Hall-4 42Mw (UK
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t 42 Mw (UK)
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Shippingport PW,
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---1954 1955 -1956--l957-.L--f,958
Dates on which power stations went on line
Fig. 1. The increase in power ratings of the large-
scale atomic.power generating stations during
the past five years.
ity of developing nuclear power as a branch of the econ-
omy were occasionally voiced.
The start-up and the five-year history of performance
of the atomic power station have radically altered those
views. In the first instance, the start-up of the power sta-
tion was fraught with great social significance (a fact
acknowledged by all) in that it became clear that atomic
energy might serve the aims of progress, rather than mili-
tary objectives. And in the second instance, the five-
year operation of the station is of great engineering sig-
nificance in that, as a result of that history, one of the
variants of power-reactor design has been confirmed with
respect to its viability, a point which met with doubt even
after the station was first put on the line.
In the past five years, a great variants of power re-
actors, differing in design and materials, have been pro-
posed and partially tried out. This has,to an appreciable
degree,made it possible to feel out the areas of scientific
and engineering research which will be decisive in the
further development of nuclear power.
The operation of the station not only has enabled us
to evaluate the station as one of the variants to be con-
sidered in resolving the problem of utilization,of atomic
energy for power generation, but also has enabled us to
derive reliable conclusions bases on the operating experience.
Several papers devoted to a description of the design
and performance of the atomic electric-power station [1-
6] have been published, and show that the tasks posed when
the station was being built have been fulfilled, and that
the accumulated experience is proving highly valuable in
the resolution of problems associated with the design of
scaled-up atomic electric-power stations employing re-
actors of similar design.
Let us now consider some of the more important con-
clusions which may be arrived at on the basis of the ex-
perience accumulated over the five-year period of opera-
tion of the reactor.
In atomic electric-power stations, as in conventional
heat-power stations, raising the plant efficiency is a prime
concern. The effort exerted to raise the steam parameters
in graphite-moderated reactors inevitably leads to high
graphite temperatures. The experience gained in the pro-
tracted reliable operation of the reactor at graphite tem-
peratures of 700-750?C attests to the possibility of attain-
ing high coolant temperatures in graphite-moderated re-
actors. This has found its expression in the subsequent
design project of the reactor for the Ural atomic-power
station [4], and in recent plans for graphite-moderated re-
535
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actors, e.g., the British "ZENITH" [7] and AGR [8] reac-
tors, and the American GCR-2 reactor [9].
The continuous rise in coolant temperature at exit
from the reactor is a distinctive trend noted in modern re-
actor design. The increased plant efficiency, due to efforts
aimed at raising the steam temperature and pressure to
values used in modern steam turbines, leads to a reduction
in rated power costs, i.e. to improvement in the economic
performance of the stations. The reliable performance of
graphite under the temperature conditions indicated in the
First Atomic-Power Station has opened the way for plan-
ning the production of steam suitable to drive modern tur-
bines in the Ural power-station reactor design. The use of
nuclear superheating of steam in the Ural station reactor
is a distinguishing feature of this reactor: its efficiency is
much higher than in other known reactor types.
The possibility of boiling water and superheating steam
in a reactor has been confirmed by special experiments
carried out on the reactor of the First Atomic-Power Sta-
tion [4]. Important experiments relating to the study and
control of transients in the Ural atomic station now being
built were also carried out. The production of superheated
steam in the reactor is bound up with the need to alter the
cooling of the channels (designed for superheating of the
steam), i.e. to switch from water-heat transfer to steam-
heat transfer, in starting-up the reactor from cold. A sim-
ilar problem is encountered in shutting down the reactor,
when heat transfer by steam is replaced by water cooling.
The experiments have demonstrated that the transients are
fully realizable in practice, and do not impose any diffi-
culties on the operating performance of such systems. This
yields the possibility of using several different design ap-
proaches to atomic electric-power stations incorporating
steam superheat in the reactor.
This leads to the following conclusion based on the
results of operating of the First Power Station: the reactor
design proved to be technically extremely flexible; it per-
mitted large-scale experiments on introducing the reactor
to a progressive operating regime of boiling and superheat-
ing of the coolant in the core, without necessitating any
far-reaching redesigning work.
The technical flexibility of the reactor is contained in
the very concept underlying its design: in the use of channels
with individual coolant leads. The absence of a pressurized
containment vessel made it possible to use the reactor for
a broad range of experiments, which would be difficult, if
not simply impossible, to carry out in a reactor enclosed in
a pressure vessel. The testing of samples of different struc-
tural materials, the design of test loops for fuel elements
and operating conditions research, is accomplished with re-
lative ease in a reactor of this type. The choice of reactor
type for the First Atomic-Power Station proved to be a for-
tunate one in this respect as well.
Iris still difficult to determine at this stage in what
area the optimized economical performance of the station,
dependent on steam pressure and temperature,is to be found,
but the perspectives for direct enhancement of station per-
536
formance by means of the heat of the fission reaction are
highly promising.
The use of nuclear superheating of steam in nuclear
power stations not only makes it possible to lower the cost
per 1 kwh of the electric power generated, but also (no less
important) to reduce rated power costs.
Another important factor determining the economics
of nuclear power is the use of both charged and regener-
ated fuel, as well as the use of neutrons.
The percent burnup of the nuclear fuel, i.e., the
ratio of the amount of U235 consumed during a reactor
period to the original amount present, has a significant ef-
fect on the cost of generated electric power. The percent
fuel burnup (especially in reactors working on enriched
uranium) is characterized to a certain extent by the amount
of heat which may be successfully extracted from a unit
weight of loaded uranium fuel. The greater the burnupathe
less frequently fuel elements have to be replaced in the re-
actor and the lower fraction of unit cost of electric power
generated attributable to expenditures in the perparation
of operating channels (with fuel elements), chemical re-
processing of spent fuel discharged from the reactor, etc.
High burnup may be attained by using fuel elements
stable to corrosion attack, radiation effects, temperature,
stress, and other factors. The reactor of the First Atomic-
Power Station contains channels which have been operat-
ing without letup since the first charging of fuel, i.e.,
for five years. The original design of the reactor was
carried out in order to obtain a fuel burnup corresponding
to a fuel heat rating of ?10,000 Mwd/ ton. However, op-
erating experience has shown that the fuel elements re-
tained their operating efficiency even at much higher heat
ratings; e.g., in some fuel elements subjected to special
tests, a specific energy yield reaching 30,000 Mwditon
was reported, which gave promise of achieving very effi-
cient use of the fuel in reactors of their design. The operat-
ing experience of the station thus allows one further con-
clusion to be drawn, namely that the elaboration of pro-
jects involving full-scale nuclear power stations incorporat-
ing similar reactors may proceed with assurance of
achieving high economic performance, on account of the
excellent reliability of the fuel elements used.
Burnup is dependent largely on when and how recharg-
ing of the operating channels takes place. It is common
knowledge that fuel burnup does not proceed at a uniform
pace at all points in the pile. By dividing the core of the
reactor in the First Atomic-Power Station arbitrarily into
7 annular regions [3] shown in Fig. 2, for examsple, we see
that, following the first run, fuel burnup proceeds in the
different annuli according to the curve in Fig. 3. Inspec-
tion of the curve shows that U235 burnup is much less in the
peripheral channels, which are the majority, than in the
centrally placed channels, i.e., the uranium is not com-
pletely burned, and the channels fail to produce the rated
amount of heat. In order to achieve uniform and increased
fuel burnup at the First Atomic-Power Station, recourse was
had with success to a method of partial recharging of the
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Fig. 2. Annular regions for partial (staggered) recharging of reactor fuel channels.
537
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o)
po it
;3
4 10
-01 9
8
ts=
o
c,,,tg 6
cv
0 5
tal ?-? /6 /6
Annulus No.
fly
5(8 /20 X4
%0
and number of channels in annulus
Fig. 3. Amount of spent U235 along radius of reac-
tor (in percentage of original fuel charged) after the
first run.
channels (61 involving the shifting of peripheral channels
to the center of the core and the loading of fresh channels
into the peripheral region. This approach made is possi-
ble to achieve high fuel burnup and to increase the eco-
nomic efficiency of the power station at the same time.
This manner of utilizing the fuel has already been con-
sidered in several nuclear electric-power stations being
planned abroad [13], and will undoubtedly meet with great
favor in the future.
High burnup of lin by means of the partial recharging
method, in order to be economically feasible, requires a
reactor design allowing convenient recharging of fuel with-
out lengthy downtime. This is facilitated in the reactor of
the First Atomic-Power Station by designing each operating
channel to allow easy extraction and replacement of the
channels independently of each other. In principle, the
operation may be carried out even while the reactor is in
operation.
This prominent posiive feature of the reactor, with its
Individual channels, confers a high plant duty factor on the
operating economics of the station, which in turn has a
favorable effect on the cost of electric power generated.
The principle of individual coolant ducting serving the
fuel channels has been adopted outside the USSR, e.g., in
the Swiss heavy-water organic-coolant reactor [14]. in the
sophisticated USA sodium-cooled reactor (15). and in the
Canadian heavy-water reactor (1.61. A variant of the de-
sign of heterogeneous reactors with individual distribution
of coolant flow to the channels, together with a variant of
the reactor enclosed in a pressure vessel, has thus won its
right to existence.
It is common knowledge that the economic perform-
ance of a nuclear electric-power generating station is sig-
nificantly affected by the unit power rating of the generat-
ing unit: the higher the thermal power of the reactor, the
cheaper electric power will be, other conditions being
equal. The observed tendency of the unit thermal power
of reactors now being built to increase is evident and easily
understood. The increase in the thermal power of the re-
actors is due not only to more intense heat removal, but
fundamentally to increased core dimensions. The possi-
bilities of expanding the dimensions of the core, and con-
538
sequently of increasing the thermal power of the reactors
by individual handling of the channels, are virtually un-
limited, whereas these possibilities are restricted in reac-
tors enclosed in pressure vessels by virtue of the highly
complicated engineering problems involved in the con-
struction of the enclosure.
In spite of the use of stainless steel in fuel assemblies,
a rather favorable neutron balance is successfully achieved.
The breeding ratio of the fuel is from 0.50-0.65 in such re-
actors, i.e., it is not inferior to the value found in water-
moderated, water-cooled reactors.
Whatever the parameters of a nuclear power installa-
tion may be, the prime requirements are reliability in op-
eration and safety factors for the operating personnel and
the population of the surrounding area.
Safety and health standards require that special meas-
ures be taken to ensure safe operation of the facility, when
designing and building a reactor installation. It is also
essential that the costs of safety provisions not entail an
exorbitant increase in the electric power costs.
In particular, a substantial fraction of the capital out-
lay goes into the protective shielding of the nuclear power
station, if such shielding is planned as part of the installa-
tion. No protective shielding is used in the First Atomic-
Power Station or in the Ural power-station project. This
is not accidental, for the principle of individual coolant
flow along the reactor fuel channels provides for an ex-
plosion-proof reactor. While the potential energy in re-
actors of the pressure-vessel type is concentrated within
the large unit volume of the pressure enclosure and may
be suddenly liberated in large quantity in the event of an
accident, this type of accident is excluded in reactors
with discrete channels. The five-year experience in re-
liable operation of the First Atomic-Power Station brings
a powerful argument to support the concept of the safety
inherent in that type of reactor, and attests to the infeasi-
bility of using protective shields. The experience acquired
in experimental research wherein meltdown or breakup of
fuel assemblies took place demonstrated that no danger of
radioactive contamination of the station grounds and facil-
ities or of the surrounding locality resulted.
On the whole, operation of the First Atomic-Power
Station has shown that favorable radiation-biological
circumstances both for the servicing personnel and the
population of the surrounding area in reactors of that type
do not involve expenditures or unusual engineering difficulties.
Operation of the First Atomic-Power Station has pro-
vided opportunity for the training of cadres of reactor op-
erating personnel. The successful performance of the power
station was contributed to in large degree by the guidance
and supervision of A. N. Grigoeyants, G. N. Ushakov, L. A.
Kochekov, V. T. Lytkin, and others.
In taking note of the Fifth Anniversary of the start-up
of the world's First Atomic-Power Station, one cannot help
but acknowledge that it has played an important social
and technical role in the development of nuclear power,
and has become the prototype of a broad class of reactors.
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COMMENTS ON THE FIRST ATOMIC
POWER STATION
Recorded in the Visitors' Book:
The late G. M. Krzhizhanovskii, Academician of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1956):
"The practical use of each new energy form signifies
grandiose stages on the road of mankind's forward motion.
The ability to harness the colossal energy contained in the
atomic energy is an outstanding even in science and tech-
nology. In our country, setting the example for all nations
in the harnessing of atomic energy, the world's first atomic
electric power generating station, producing 5000 kw, has
been built. The day is not far off when atomic electric
power generating stations delivering fifty and even a hun-
dred thousand kilowatts will be going into operation . . .".
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India (1955):
"I am glad that I visited this power station, and am
thrilled by it. This has made it possible to glimpse into
the future, opening up before my eyes. . .".
President Sukarno of the Republic of Indonesia (1956):
"There is no limit to the human intellect. Evolution
is still going on. The visit to this power station reinforces
our faith that mankind must develop his knowledge, in
order to reach a higher living standard. . . ".
Ambassadors of the USA, Britain, Sweden (1955):
"The scientists and engineers of the USSR, in being the
first in the world to harness atomic energy for peaceful pur-
poses, have earned themselves unforgettable honors before
all of humanity. This atomic electric-power station is a
tremendous achievement of Soviet science and a symbol of
the profoundly human character of Soviet society. We wish
the Soviet scientists new successful firsts on the road to the
practical utilization of atomic energy. . ".
Professor Chou Pei-Wang, Hu Chung-Ming, Tsiang Nan-
Hsiang, People's Republic of China (1955):
"We are very happy that we have had the opportunity
to visit the atomic electric-power station. The building of
the first atomic electric-power station in the world is a
victory for Soviet science and victory for the Socialist
system.
"This combination of science and engineering put to
the service of Socialist construction is 'a shining example
for the Chinese people. We hope that with the noble inter-
national aid rendered by great Soviet people, we shall,
relying on our own labor, be able to contribute our share to
the cause of the peaceful utilization of atomic energy for
Socialist construction in the interest of peace."
Former member of the British atomic energy planning com-
mission, S. G. Reason (1955):
"I am very grateful at having had the opportunity to
witness the great progress made by Soviet scientists in the
peaceful utilization of atomic energy. As a former mem-
ber of the British atomic-energy planning commission, I
am aware of the broad scope of the problems to be solved
in order to harness this new source of energy, and the
manner in which these problems have been resolved in the
USSR has made a great impression on me .. . ".
Professor Gustav Hertz of Leipzig University, German
Democratic Republic (1956):
"I have already heard much and read much about
atomic electric-power stations, but what I saw here sur-
passed all of my expectations . . . ".
Dean Hewlett Johnson of Cantebury Cathedral (1956):
"Mote than 40 years have passed since I first became
interested in science and technology. I have dreamed of
the creation of such a power station as this one. I was con-
vinced that a Socialist country would be the first in the
world to harness atomic energy, and I knew that this power
would be used for peaceful purposes. I am happy that I
have lived to see the day when I could view this station
with my own eyes, and greet all of those who made it pos-
sible, and all of those who worked on it . "
LITERATURE CITED
1, D. I. Blokhintsev and N. A. Nikolaev, "Reactor de-
sign and theory," Geneva, 1955, p.615.
2. D. I. Blokhintsev, N. A. Dollezhal: and A. K. Krasin,
Atomnaya fnergiya No. 1, 10 (1956)."
3. N. A. Dollezhal', A. K. Krasin, N. A. Nikolaev, A.
N. Grigoeyants, and G. N. Ushakov, Geneva, 1958,
p. 2183; Russian edition: Nuclear Reactors and Nu-
clear Energy. 2 (Atomizdat, 1959) p. 15.
4, N. A. Dollezhal' et al.,.Geneva, 1958 p. 2183;
Russian edition: Nuclear Reactors and Nuclear Energy.
2 (Atomizdat, 1959) p. 36.
5. N. A. Dollezhal', Atomnaya inergiya 3, 391(1957).:
6. A. N. Grigortyants, Atomnaya gnergiya 2, 109 (1951).
7. K. Mitchell and R. Geary, "The high-temperature
energy reactor 'Zenith'," Geneva 1958, p. 1463.
8. R. Moore, H. Kronberger, and L. Grainger, "Advance
in the design of gas-cooled graphite-moderated
power reactors," Geneva, 1958, p. 312.
9. R. Charpie, M. Bender et AL, "Design study for a
graphite-moderated gas-cooled reactor using par-
tially enriched uranium," Geneva, 1958, p. 950.
10. Atomnaya tekhnika za rubezhom No. 3, 85 (1959).
11. Nuclear Reactor Plant Data. ASME, 1958.
12. Nucleonics 17, 63 (1959).
13. W. Zinn, J. West, and G. Tavernier, "A 125 Mw in-
direct-cycle boiling-water reactor," Geneva, 1958,
p. 1801.
14. W. H51g and T. Schaub, "Diphenyl cooled, heavy-
water moderated, natural uranium reactor prototype,"
Geneva, 1959, p. 259.
15. S. Levy, B. Voorhees, P. Aline, and K. Cohen,
"Advance design of a thermal sodium-cooled reac-
tor for power production," Geneva, 1958, p. 604.
16. H. Smith, W. Walker, N. Williams, and E. Critoph,
"A study of a full-scale uranium and heavy-water
nuclear power plant," Geneva, 1958, p. 208.
* Original Russian pagination. See C.B. translation.
539
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THE DESIGN AND OPERATION OF SOME PUMPS FOR SODIUM AND
SODIUM-POTASSIUM ALLOYS
P. L. Kirillov, V. A. Kuznetsov, N. M. Turchin, and Yu. M. Fedoseev
Original article submitted February 10, 1959
This article gives a description of some designs, testing results, and operational experience of centrifugal and
electromagnetic pumps for sodium and sodium-potassium alloys. During the past two years these pumps have
been used in experimental and semiindustrial plant.
In developing reactors cooled with liquid metals (sod-
ium or sodium-potassium alloys), the problem of pumping
liquid metals arose. Pumps designed for water, petroleum
products, etc. could not be employed for this purpose be-
cause they failed to provide a complete seal and reliable
operation at metal temperatures of 300-500 ?C.
In centrifugal pumps the seal can be obtained by the
following four methods: 1) by means of sealing rings pressed
against the shaft; 2) by sealing all rotating parts (shaft,
rotor, etc.); 3) by placing the entire machine under a cas-
ing; and 4) by sealing the shaft by means of a ring of frozen
sodium.
The first problem is complicated and no reliable solu-
tion exists for it as yet. The second problem is in essence,
reduced to the development of a special machine. We have
therefore selected the two last-mentioned methods, which
are easy to achieve in laboratory conditions.
No difficulties are encountered at present in the op-
eration of centrifugal pumps at temperatures below 400?C
[1-4]. Pumps have also been designed which are capable
of operating at a temperature of 550-600 ?C.
The high electrical conductance of liquid metals made
possible the development of new types of pumps in which
the hydrodynamic head is produced by electromagnetic
forces. The use of electromagnetic pumps makes the prob-
lem of sealing the circuit easier. The main shortcoming
of these pumps is their low efficiency, which is only about
half that of centrifugal pumps designed for the same op-
erating conditions. However, for the experimental plants
this fact is of little importance. Therefore, electromag-
netic pumps are being increasingly used in laboratory
practice, their main advantages being that they have no
moving parts and are simpler to make and operate than the
centrifugal pumps.
The problem of selection of a suitable type of pump
(centrifugal or magnetic) for full-scale plants is as yet not
solved. Only the experience obtained in the operation of a
large number of pumps of various types can lead to cor-
rect conclusions on the advantages of one design or the
other.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The schematic diagram of a centrifugal pump is
shown in Fig. 1. At 990 rpm this pump produces a head of
540
23 m of the liquid being handled, and at 1450 rpm a head
of 55m. The delivery of the pump at 990 rpm is more than
10 ms/hr. The built-in asynchronous motor 2 has a power
of 10 kw. The 415 mm diameter impeller 1 has 14 blades.
In order to reduce the axial force, the working-wheel disk
has 7 holes of 8 mm diameter. The electric motor and the
impeller are mounted on the same shaft. The shaft has
three supports, the upper support consisting of two thrust
journal-ball bearings 3, the central support consisting of
one Journal-ball bearing 4, and the lower support which is
the sliding bearing 5. In order to prevent the lubricant
from escaping into the liquid metal,the shaft was made
with a stepped contour and provided with the protective
collar 7 below the central bearing. The sleeve of this bear-
ing is made of RF-1 high-speed steel and the bush 6 from
Br. B2 beryllium bronze, which contains 250 beryllium.
The sealing rings 8 are made of the same bronze. When
the bearing is cold the clearance between the sleeve and
the bush is 0.2-0.25 mm. All other parts of the pump are
make of 1Kh18N9T steel.
The metal leaking through the upper sealing ring rises
along the shaft and is led through the special hole 9 into,
the tank of the pump. Above and outside this hole are
mounted removable cooling chambers 10. The electric
motor is cooled by an inert gas contained inside it. The
coil 11 through which water can be circulated is also
mounted inside the motor. It was found that when the
pump was in operation there was no need to use this coil
for cooling since water circulating in the outer jacket proved
adequate. The pump is connected into the circuit by
means of removable "ball-cone" -type connecting fittings.
A nickel packing is used for sealing the motor housing.
The pump was first tested, and its characteristics de-
termined, on water. At 990 rpm and a volume flow of
liquid of 6.5 ms/hr, the efficiency of the machine was 4010.
After this test the machine worked for 2000 hr on a sodium-
potassium alloy at temperatures ranging from 200 to 400?C.
After 1500 hr the bush of the lower bearing had to be replaced
because its wear reached 2 mm on one side.
The greatest shortcomings of these pumps' design are
their complicated dismantling (replacement of bearings,
removal of the housing, etc.) and heavy weight. Figure 2
shows another centrifugal pump which is more compact
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Fig. 1. Centrifugal pump with bearing of beryllium
bronze and a built-in electric motor: 1) impeller;
2) asynchronous motor; 3) journal-thrust ball bearing;
6) bush; 7) protective collar; 8) sealing rings;
9) hole for the removal of leakage; 10) cooling
chambers; 11) coil.
andsimpler in design. In order to make the machine more
compact while retaining its characteristics, motor 2 with
2900 rpm was chosen. The electric motor was sealed by
covering it with a water-cooled casing 3. An inert gas
was circulated in the casing by means of the fan of the
electric motor. The bed plate was cooled with water. The
impeller 1 with a diameter of 164 mm is fixed on the shaft
which is supported at two points?at the top (4) and at the
bottom (5). Metal which flows in an axial direction lub-
ricates the lower bearing and then flows into the tank of
the pump. According to the resistance of the main circuit,
the amount of metal which flows along the shaft can vary
from 50 to 200 liter/hr.
The pump was tested at temperatures reaching 450?C.
It was found that the service life of bearings was reduced
to less than hundreds of hours by a sudden drop in the strength
of the beryllium bronze at such temperatures. Attempts to
use other pairs of metals for this bearing, which Is immersed
into sodium (RF-1 steel-cast iron, RF-1 steel? I-220 steel)
produced no satisfactory results. The best results were ob-
tained with a bearing having the sleeve made of RF-1 steel
and a bush of Br.B2 bronze. The clearance between the
sleeve and bush of the bearing, which was determined by
experiment, was 0.12-0.15 mm. With a smaller clearance
the bearings seized, while larger clearanced reduced their
service life. All failed bearings had a considerable wear on
one side (up to 5 mm).
The pump was run for 2000 hr in plants operating on
sodium-potassium alloys, and for 7000 hr in a plant operat-
ing on sodium, at metal temperatures of about 200 ?C.
During the operation of these pumps a penetration of
sodium vapors inside the electric motor and their con-
densation on its internal surfaces were observed. After oxi-
dation,the sodium vapors produced a thin film of sodium
oxide on the winding. After combining with this film,
moisture produced hydroxide on the winding which attacked
the wire and led to its failure.
With the increasing operating temperature, the bearing
functioning in the liquid metal becomes the weak point of
all the pumps described. Several designs of pumps for vari-
ous capacities and working conditions were developed which
have a bearing of frozen sodium. The schematic diagram
of a pump of this type is given in Fig. 3. The pump pro-
duces a head of 100 m of the liquid being handled and its
capacity reaches 25 ms/hr. The motor operates at 2960
rpm. The power of the electric motor 1 is 14 kw. Its shaft'
is supported at two points: in two journal-thrut bearings 4
and in two radial bearings 5. The bearing 6, which is made
of frozen sodium, is in effect the third support. Thus, two
metal partitions are placed between the cooling agent and
the frozen sodium, which arrangement makes possible the
use of water as the cooling agent. The sodium bearing suf-
fers no wear and resists practically any temperature which
is of particular importance. At the same time the frozen
sodium serves as a reliable seal of the shaft.
The calculation of heat transfer in the cooling chamber
is very difficult since it is not easy to calculate the heat
541
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Fig. 2. Centrifugal pump with a beryllium-bronze
bearing and a standard electrical motor: 1) impeller;
2) electric motor; 3) casing; 4) journal-thrust bear-
ing; 5) sliding bearing.
542
flow directed upward from the housing and to take into ac-
count the complex shape of the chambers. The main short-
comings of this pump are the leakage through the seal of
the housing and frequent changes of the temperature. Since
at a rapid heating of the punip body the pins 8 become
heated more rapidly than the nickel packing 7, the seal be-
comes less effective and a leakage occurs. The metal which
has leaked changes in air to hydroxide which rapidly de-
stroys the pump casing. For this reason the split seal was
replaced by a welded design. The pump is started only
after a prior heating of the frozen seal. When starting, first
the cooling system and then the motor are switched on. A
delay in starting the motor leads to a "seizure" of the shaft
in the frozen seal, which makes a repeated heating neces-
sary. If the cooling system is switched on after the pump,
the liquid sodium leaks through the clearance. At the start-
ing moment the load on the motor is usually higher than
during its operating. This is explained, apparently, by the
contamination of the liquid by the metal in the frozen seal
during the starting period. The amount of sodium which
flows out is about 1-2 g in 24 hr.
Three pumps with the frozen seal were tested. Two
pumps, similar to those described above,haveworked for-
2000 hr at temperatures of 400-500 ?C and are still in op-
eration. The seals of these two pumps are shown in Fig.
4. The third pump was tested before the other two. Its
design was less satisfactory. It was dangerous to use water
for cooling in this pump and, therefore, a sodium-potassium
alloy was used to cool the machine. The allow was pumped
through the cooling chambers by means of the electromag-
netic pump and before admission was cooled in a heat ex-
changer. This pump was put in operation for more than
5000 hr at moderately high temperatures (400-500 ?C).
We shall omit therhead-delivery"characteristic of these
pumps obtained for sodium and its alloys, since they are
identical with the characteristics obtained for water. On the
basis of the experience obtained in the operation of the pumps
described,it can be said that a pump with a frozen-sodium
bearing is one of the simplest and most reliable machines
as far as the pumping of sodium is concerned.
ELECTROMAGNETIC PUMPS
Among the many electromagnetic pumps known at
present [1, 5-7] the most convenient for experimental op-
eration is the ac conductive pump. These pumps require
no special supply units which are, for example, needed for
dc conductive pumps. In addition, they relatively easily
resist temperatures of 400-600 ?C, at which the use of in-
duction pumps is practically impossible because of the ab-
sence of isolation.
The single-phase ac conductive pump (Fig. 5) takes
a current of 30 amp at 220 v, and delivers up to 4 m3/hr
at a pressure of 2 kg/cm2 . The magnetic circuit of f-2
electrical steel is common to the supply transformer and
the pump. PSD square wire with 4.55 mm2 cross section
was used for the primary winding, which consists of two
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Fig. 3. Centrifugal pump with a bearing of frozen so-
dium: 1) electric motor; 2) impeller; 3) shaft;
4) journal-thrust bearing; 5) journal bearing; 6) bear-
ing of frozen sodium; 7) packing; 8) pin.
coils. Each coil has 130 turns. The winding of the pump
and the secondary winding of the transformer are made as
a single unit from 20 x 5 mm diameter copper tubing.
The tube is water cooled ,which enables a greater current
density and a more compact winding to be achieved. The
terminals of the secondary winding are led to the electrodes
of the working section, which consists of two flattened
thin-walled tubes placed close to one another and con-?
nected in series. Such design of the working section makes
it possible to nearly double the head produced by the pump
and to compensate the reaction of the armature. The wall
thickness of the tube is 0.5 mm while the material for the
tubes of the working section is 1Kh18N9T steel.
The use of a common magnetic circuit, the doubling
of the working section, the increased current density in the
winding,etc.,make possible the construction of a very com-
pact pump. Several pumps of this type have been in op-
eration at various plants. One pump worked for 250 hr with
sodium at a temperature of 450?C, the other was in opera-
tion for more than 2500 hr on a sodium-potassium alloy at
an average temperature of about 250 ?C, the third pump
worked for more than 3500 hr on a sodium-potassium alloy
at a temperature of 40-50 ?C, and the fourth for 1000 hr
with sodium at a temperature of 300-400 C. The experi-
ence obtained in the working of these pumps showed that
they are simple to operate and are reliable.
The ac conductive pumps are suitable for use only at
low deliveries (up to 10 m3/hr). At higher deliveries,the
use of inductive pumps with travelling magnetic fields is
more advantageous. One of the pumps of this type which
worked on sodium-potassium alloy is shown in Fig. 6. It
consists of two flat inductors arranged above and below a
channel, through which the liquid metal is pumped. The
three-phase eight-pole winding of PSD wire is placed into
the grooves of the inductors. Copper tubes through which
water is circulated for cooling the winding are also placed
into the grooves. The width of the channel is 150 mm and
its height 6.1 mm in one pump, and 8.7 in the case of
another. Walls are made of 1Kh18N9T steel and their
thickness is 0.8 mm. Copper bars are installed in the chan-
nel on the sides of the pumps; these act as the close- cir-
culating rings on the rotor of an asynchronous electric
motor. The characteristics of the pump are given in Fig.
7 in p = f1(S) and n = f2(S) coordinates, where S = 1 - QrQs
is the slip; Q is the discharge of liquid through the pump
_ _
(ms/hr); Qs is the discharge at the metal velocity in the
channel which is equal to the velocil of the field (ms/hr);
p is the pressure of the liquid (kg/cm ); and ri is the effi-
ciency Ch. This pump was working on the sodium-potas-
sium alloy at a temperature of 150-200 ?C for 300 hr. The
cooling system proved unsatisfactory since it failed to pro-
vide an adequate thermal protection of the winding. In
addition, the wetting of the winding, caused by the conden-
sation of water vapors from the air, twice caused the break-
down of isolation. After some improvements this pump can
be used in laboratory plants at temperatures of 200-250 ?C,
where a capacity of up to 30 ms/hr is required.
543
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Fig. 4. Seats of frozen sodium.
Fig. 5. Single-phase conductive electromagnetic pump.
544 .
Fig. 6. Conductive eleetromagnetie pump.
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atmos
10
8
6
0
. 10 0.3 0.8 0.7 06 05 04 0.3 $
Fig. 7. Characteristics of the inductivepump.
Pr.
712
16
14
f2
f0
8
4
2
Finally, the authors would like to emphasize the im-
portance of the contribution of the team of designers headed
by G. V. Skladnev and V. D. Rostovtsev to the development
of centrifugal pumps for liquid metals. This team designed
the pump illustrated in Pig. 1. The design of the pump
shown in Fig. 2 is by a team headed by M. N. Ivanovskii.
The designs of centrifugal pumps with frozen seal were de-
veloped by a team headed by V. I. Orlov. The ac conduc-
tive pump was designed under the guidance of N. M.
Turchin. The inductive pump with the travelling magnetic
field was designed and constructed by the team headed by
I. A. Tyutin.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Liquid?Metal Heat Carriers [Russian translation] (ed.
by A. E. Sheindlin) (IL, 1958).
2. H. Savage, Chem Eng. Progr., Symp. Ser. 50, 171
(1954).
3. P. Fortescue, J. Nuclear Energy 1, 5 (1954).
4. Voprosy Yadernoi inergetiki No. 5, 42 (1957).
5. D. Watt, Engineering 1.81 , 264 (1956).
6. Voprosy Yadernoi fnergetiki No. 5, 42 (1957).
7. Trudy Inst. Piz. AN Latv SSR 8, 1956.
545
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/02/21 : CIA-RDP10-02196R000100040001-9
EFFECT OF A CYLINDRICAL CHANNEL ON NEUTRON DIFFUSION
N. I. Paletin
Original article submitted August 16, 1958
Voids in the core of a nuclear reactor have an important effect on neutron leakage from the reactor. It is im-
portant that this effect be taken into account in computing the critical mass of the reactor. It is also frequently
desirable to know the effect of empty channels on the neutron distribution outside the core.
In the present paper we consider the effect of a single hollow cylindrical channel on neutron diffusion. Ex-
pressions are obtained for neutron leakage through a channel located at the center of the reactor and for the addi-
tional neutron leakage (due to the existence of the channel) in the immediate vicinity of the channel. We also
consider the effect of the neutron flux distribution along a channel on the applicability of the diffusion formulas.
INTRODUC TI ON
The propagation of neutrons in a medium with voids
depends on the number of voids per unit volume, the di-
mensions of the voids, and their shape.
If the distribution of neutron flux in a porous medium
changes slowly in space, it may be assumed that the flux
passing through any area inside the medium depends only
on the gradient in the neutron distribution at a given point,
that is to say, neutron diffusion theory applies. However,
the coefficient of proportionality between the flux and the
gradient will not be the same as in the case of a continu-
ous medium; it will depend on the dimensions and shape of
the voids and the number of voids per unit volume. The
average value of this coefficient plays an important role in
the effective diffusion coefficient for a porous medium. It
is also obvious that any deviation from linearity in the neu-
tron distribution will have an effect which is different than
that which obtains in a continuous medium and that the
criteria for the applicability of the diffusion formulas de-
pends on the ratio between the dimensions of the void and
the curvature of the neutron distribution.
The effect of voids on neutron propagation has been
studied by a number of authors. For example, Behrens [11
had considered the change in neutron diffusion length in a
medium with voids of arbitrary dimensions and shape for
various void densities. In this work it was assumed that
the voids are distributed uniformly and'that the shape of
the voids in such that in in a time corresponding to one
mean free path the neutron does not cross the surface of the
void more than twiCe. Using the relation L2/4 = X2/4
L and Lo are the neutron diffusion lengths in the Medium
with voids and in the continuous medium,respectively,and
X and X0 are the corresponding mean free paths, this
author has found an increase in the mean free path because
of thepresence of voids;
2a
p 2 (
X2 L2 ap
? 2p +
? LS exp (-2a)1-1 Q ?17 (1)
PX
546
Here_ais the ratio of the void volume to the volume of
matter in the unit lattice; a is the hydraulic radius of the
2pv_
void,given by a= s , vis the volume of matter in the
unit cell; S is the surface area of the void; Q is the quan-
tity which depends only on the shape of the void.
In the case in which the void density is low, i.e.,
when sqv 4c1, eq. (1) assumes from the form
X2
= I + 2p ?---P-a Q.
X8
For some voids neutron diffusion in different direc-
tions is affected differently. For example, for a void of
cylindrical shape the diffusion in the direction parallel to
the cylinder axis is increased by a greater amount than in
the direction perpendicular to the axis. The following
expression is obtained for the direction parallel to the
cylinder axis when sX/v