KHUZESTAN: IRAN'S ACHILLES TENDON

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP09-00438R000100380001-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: T
• Document Page Count: 11
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 26, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Content Type: REPORT

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7?L
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
NATIONAL FOREIGN ASSESSMENT CENTER
Washington,- D. C . 20505
Khuzestan: Iran's Achilles Tendon
Summary
Khuzestan Province, in southwestern Iran, is economically and
strategically the most important region in the country. Almost 70
percent of Iran's crude oil is produced in the province, and it accounts
for nearly all of the country's natural gas production. Khuzestan's
four ports at the head of the Persian Gulf are primary transfer points
for Iran's imports as well as exports. Road and rail networks connect
Khuzestan's ports with the interior by funnelling through a series of
narrow chokepoints in the rugged Zagros Mountains.
Khuzestan's population, some 2.2 million Arabs and Persians, represents
only about 6.5 percent of the country's total population. The Arab
community may account for two-thirds of these residents, and many have
strong cultural ties with Arabs in neighboring Iraq and other Gulf states.
Almost all of the Persians and probably more than half of the Arabs in
Khuzestan are Shiites, but a substantial Arab minority is Sunni. The
socioeconomic gulf between these two groups is considerable. Arab
literacy levels have increased considerably in recent years, but Arabs
still occupy the lower economic and social rungs in the community. The
Arabs resent their lowly status in Khuzestan, and a strong undercurrent
of hectility and anti-Persian sentiment rrvades the previnm
Khuzestan is hot and dry, and only an average of 150 to 200 milli-
meters of rain falls annually. Most of the province is a flat-to-rolling
plain, but the northeast contains a range of low, rugged hills. Khuzestan
is fairly well suited for conventional military operations, and cross-
country movement could be accomplished with relative ease. Major hard-
surfaced roads can accommodate military traffic but would require considerable
maintenance if subjected to heavy volumes. Khuzestan's coastline is
unsuitable for large-scale amphibious operations, as nearshore approaches
are encumbered by bars, reefs, and extensive mudflats. Neighboring
Bushehr Province, with several sandy beaches and nearby coastal roads,
offers somewhat better prospects.
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Khuzestan: Iran's Achilles Tendon
The Khuzestan plain, situated in southwestern Iran at the head of
the Persian Gulf, is strategically and economically the most important
region in Iran. Located in Khuzestan are:
O Most of Iran's oil and gas fields, the chief source of
its income.
O The Rud-e Karun (river) System, the largest volume of
freshwater in this water-deficient country.
O The ports (and land routes to them) through which pass
most of Iran's imports and exports.
Vital as this region is to Iran, it is neither physically nor
culturally part of the Persian heartland. Instead, Khuzestan is an
eastern extension of the Mesopotamian floodplain, the remainder of which
is in Iraq. The bulk of Khuzestan's inhabitants are Arab tribesmen with
strong cultural kinship ties to Arabs in neighboring Iraq and the Gulf
states. Historically, the hot, enervating climate of Khuzestan did not
appeal to the highland-dwelling Persians and even today, the typical
Persian technocrat working in Khuzestan does not plan to settle there
permanently. He is viewed by the Arabs as a carpetbagger.
The Land
Khuzestan, considered by the natives as part of "Arabistan," is a
large expanse of lowland on the southwestern flank of the Zagros Mountains
(map 1, Map Supplement). Part of the plain formed from the sedimentary
deposits of the Rud-e Karkheh Kur and the Rud-e Karun, Khuzestan is
shaped roughly like a triangle; its apex is at Dezful, where begins the
tortuous route through the mountains to Tehran and the interior plateau,
and its base extends eastward from the Iraqi border about 200 kilometers
along the shoreline of the Persian Gulf.
The city of Ahvaz in central Khuzestan is situated on the Rud-e
Karun at the point where a break in the slope of the plain causes rapids
that bar further navigation upstream. Ahvaz is a useful geographic
reference point in Khuzestan:
o North of Ahvaz the land is rolling and fertile and--given
water--suitable for agricultural development.
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East of Ahvaz a region of low but rugged hills rarely
more than 500 meters high extends from the northwest
to the southeast along the base of the Zagros Range.
In this corduroy territory are located most of the
major Iranian-olifields-.
0 South of Ahvaz a flat expanse of terrain stretches
about 125 kilometers to the Gulf. Poorly drained and
subject to flooding, it contains large areas of marshland,
mangrove swamps, and salt desert. Agriculture in this
region is limited to the groves of date palms that line
the banks of the larger streams.
North and east of Khuzestan, the Zagros Mountains form a formidable
natural boundary. To the west the Iran-Iraq border runs through sparsely
inhabited marshland and along the Shatt al-Arab (river). To the south
lies the shore of the Persian Gulf.
The suitability of Khuzestan for military operations is discussed
in appendix A.
Weather and Climate
Khuzestan is hot and dry most of the year, although its winters are
relatively mild. Mean daily minimum temperatures -range from 8?C to 12?C
in the winter. In the summer, mean daily maximums range from 42?C to
46?C. (The highest temperature ever recorded was a scorching 53?C at
Abadan.) The region averages only 150 to 200 millimeters of rain
annually, with about half of it falling from December through March.
See appendix B for detailed climatic data.
During the period December through March, li:ean daily i!aximdm
temperatures range between 19?C and 26?C. Mean daily minimums, during
the same period, range between 8?C and 12?C. Rains occur about four
times a month, with monthly precipitation averaging about 25 millimeters.
About 15 days of each month the skies are cloudless. Periods of heavy
cloudiness (ceilings below 300 meters, visibility, below 4 kilometers)
and high winds (above 16 knots) occur about 5 percent of the time, most
often in the late afternoons. The weather is usually best--skies clearest,
winds lowest--in the early mornings.
History
Ruins of former civilizations indicate that man has inhabited
Khuzestan for at least 4,000 years. In ancient times there were thriving
settlements at the sites of such present-day cities as Abadan, Khorramshahr,
Ahvaz, and Dezful. Those along the coast were trading centers, while
those on the upper plain between modern Ahvaz and Dezful were centers of
civilizations based on agriculture. Notable among the latter was the
ancient kingdom of Elam (1200-640 B.C.) whose capital.Susa, was located -
about 25 kilometers south of Dezful. In 640 B.C. the Assyrians absorbed.
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Under Cyrus the Great (550-529 B.C.) the region became part of the
Persian Empire that eventually stretched from the Indus to the Mediterranean.
Cyrus rebuilt Susa and made it his Persian capital.
In those days the region--then called Susiana--was famous for its
production of large amounts of wheat and barley. Traces of old canals
indicate that agriculture then, as now, was dependent on irrigation.
The evidence suggests that increasing soil salinity probably, caused by
waterlogging led to a gradual decline in soil fertility and a consequent
withering of the ancient agricultural civilizations of the region.
During the thousand years after Cyrus the area changed hands several
times, eventually becoming part of the Neo-Persian Empire of the Sassanidae
(A.D. 226-641). Between 633 and 651, Arabs espousing the militant new
Islamic faith invaded and conquered all of Iran. The seminomadic Arab
tribesmen who settled in Khuzestan (apparently by then rather depopulated)
established a settlement pattern and economy based partly on agriculture
and partly on herding that endured there until the 20th century.
Aside from a period of Mongol domination (1260-1353), the Arabs
maintained control of Khuzestan (then called Arabistan) until it was
incorporated into a new Persian state by the rulers of the Safavid
Dynasty (1502-1736). Although Persia subsequently fell under foreign
domination (Russia and Britain), the status of Khuzestan as part of
Persia was not challenged; in the 1920s, when Persia was again recognized
by the international community as an independent state, Khuzestan was
understood to be a part of Persia, albeit a part largely inhabited by
Arabs.
Khuzestan's southern boundary with Iraq--formed partially by the
waters of the Shatt al-Arab--has been a longstanding point of contention
between Iran and Iraq. While the question was ostensibly resolved in
1975, through an Algerian sponsored mediation effort, this border issue
remains a sensitive one and could revive since relations between the two
countries have once again become strained.
The People
There are an estimated 2.2 million people in Khuzestan, roughly
6.5 percent of the total Iranian population. They are a mix of persons
with Arab and Persian cultural backgrounds. Although official Iranian
Government figures tend to minimize the size of the Arab community,
probably two-thirds of the citizens of Khuzestan consider themselves
Arabs. Many have cultural ties with Arabs in neighboring countries,
especially Iraq and Bahrain. Almost all of the Persians and more than
half of the Arabs are Shiites; a substantial minority of the Arabs are
Sunnis.
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More than half of the Khuzestanis, including almost all of the
Persians, live in urban areas, more than 40 percent of them in four
major cities: Ahvaz (329,000), Abadan (297,000), Khorramshahr (147,000),
and Dezful (110,000) (Photo Supplement). In general, the Arabs are
concentrated in the eastern and coastal parts of Khuzestan, in the Rud-.e.
Karkheh Kur valley, and around the Gulf port cities. Khorramshahr is
the center of Arab influence, and there are large numbers of Arabs in
Abadan and Ahvaz. Persians (including Luri tribesmen) predominate in
the northern cities of Dezful and Andimeshk.
Arabs occupy the lowest socioeconomic stratum in Khuzestan society:
they are poorly paid, poorly represented in technical and managerial
positions, and all but excluded from the provincial administration.
This present gulf between Arab and Persian developed largely after World
War II as a consequence of rapid economic and industrial development in
the province. When this development began, the native Arabs were poorly
prepared to participate. Tribally organized, largely illiterate, experienced
at little besides herding animals, few had marketable skills. Many were
unhealthy, making them poor and apathetic workers. Moreover, as the
British developers of the oilfields had done early in the century,
Persian managers tended to contract with local Arab sheiks for unskilled
labor and to import skilled workers from other parts of the country as
well as from foreign lands. Conditioned by decades of stereotyping,
Persians tend to be patronizing toward Khuzestani Arabs; many do not
hide their contempt. The Arabs, understandably, resent both the Persian
attitude and their own lowly station. A strong undercurrent of Arab
hostility now threatens the stability of this key region.
Part of the problem arises from the success of efforts made by the
Shah's government to improve the status of the Arabs in Khuzestan (as
well as in neighboring Bushehr Province, where there is also a sizable
Arab community). The Arabs especially benefited from programs in the
fields of health and education. Literacy rates are much higher among
Arabs (especially males) aged 26 or 34)1.1119er than among those older than
25. According to the 1976 census, three-quarters of Khuzestan's total
population between ages 6 and 14 of both sexes were able to read and
write Farsil at levels appropriate to their ages. Given the present
Arab/Persian population mix in Khuzestan, many of these children had to
be Arabs.
1 Most Arabs in Khuzestan, it is believed, continue to speak Arabic
even though, beginning under the Shah, use of Farsi has been mandatory
in schools and public media, the object being to "Persianize" all ethnic
groups in the country and thereby promote unity. Consequently, most
Arabic cultural influences on the Khuzestani population emanate from
media sources in neighboring Iraq and the Gulf states.
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The rising levels of education, improved health standards, and
emergence of politically conscious groups have made the Khuzestani Arabs
increasingly aware of their second-class status. They are now demanding
more representation in local government, the use of Arabic in schools
and in the public media, and more opportunities for local Arabs in the
higher echelons of industry, the police, and the military services.
They want a "say" in Khuzestan.
There is little evidence that either the local Persian community or
the present national regime is prepared to make more than token responses
to the Arab demands. Consequently, the Khuzestani Arabs, who were
militantly anti-Shah, are becoming just as militantly anti-Ayatollah
Khomeini. The present turmoil in Tehran has obscured the battle lines
that were beginning to form; as a result, it is not at all clear how far
the Khuzestani Arabs are prepared to go in pressing their demands.
Probably, they do not know themselves.
The Economy'
Oil
The presence in Khuzestan of deposits of oozing material that
burned readily was known in ancient times. Zoroastrian priests reputedly
made use of such material in their temples. The first oil well in
Khuzestan, however, was drilled by British geologists in 1902, near
Masjed Soleyman. The first British production well came onstream in
1908. After World War II, the increasing worldwide demand for oil
coupled with the accessibility of the Khuzestan oilfields to the Persian
Gulf led to their rapid development. Subsequently, a support infra-
structure was added: pipelines, port facilities, refineries, and,
most recently, associated petrochemical industries. The province now
acconts fJr almst 7C percent of Iran's crude oil ps-Gduction (map 2,
Map Supplement). Another 20 percent comes from neighboring provinces to
the north and southeast of Khuzestan.
Natural Gas
\ray' 7
Outside of the USSR, Khuzestan contains the world's largest proven
reserves of natural gas. Given the relative ease of producing natural
gas there, as opposed to northern Siberia where most of the Soviet gas
lies, Khuzestan is expected to eventually become the world's leading
source of natural gas. At first considered a near-worthless byproduct
2
The refinery at Abadan, the largest in the Middle East, accounts for
more than 60 percent of Iran's current refining capacity.
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to be flared off, natural gas prior to.the_aaLsjoarture, ccounted
20-percent of Ira As (01...aad_gliEl.As the quantity
of economically pumpable oil gradually diminishes, the major extraction
effort could conceivably shift to natural gas. A gas pipeline from the
Khuzestan fields serves Isfahan and a number of other Iranian cities en-
route northward to the Soviet Union.
Agriculture
Of the many economic development projects made possible by Iran's
oil revenues in the 1960s and 1970s, among the most ambitious was the
effort to reestablish the ancient role of the northern Khuzestan plain
as a major breadbasket. One of the few underdeveloped areas in Iran
where both fertile soil and adequate supplies of freshwater were available,
the northern Khuzestan plain was selected to be the site of a huge agro-
industrial complex. An international consortium of private companies,
including several American firms, was involved in the project, which is
still far from completion after some 20 years.
The first stage involved the construction of the Muhammad Reza Shah
Dam on the Rud-e Dez, which was completed in 1963. Six years later,
about 27,000 hectares of land south of Dezful had been brought under
irrigation and were producing crops of wheat, sugarcane, and sugar
beets. A second dam, the Reza Shah Kabir on the Rud-e Karun near Masjed
Soleyman, was completed in 1977; water from this reservoir was to be
used to irrigate a large area south of Shushtar. While both dams incorporate
hydroelectric plants which feed into the national grid, it is not likely
that much progress has been made on the Reza Shah Kabirts irrigation
scheme since the Shah departed. Furthermore, it is not likely that any
real progress will be made until such time as Iran recovers from its
domestic troubles and international preoccupations, and reestablishes
ties with the foreign firms instrumental in completing what has ben
done so far.
The establishment of the large irrigated agricultural area south of
Dezful displaced many Arabs from their traditional homes, plots, and way
of life. They were expected to relocate nearby, take jobs at the project,
and thereby share in the new prosperity of the region. Many could not
or would not adapt to the new system, however, and refused to work on
the project. As a consequence, farm workers had to be brought in from
other regions. To the disgruntled Arabs this was but one more instance
of Persian perfidy.
Transportation
Ports
The four ports of Khuzestan have long been the primary transfer
points for Iran's imports and exports. Their location at the head of
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the Persian Gulf gives them an advantage of proximity to the principal
economic and transportation centers in the country not shared by other
ports. The Khuzestan shoreline is mainly mud and offers neither harbor
nor deepwater anchorage; consequently all four ports are riverine:
Abadan and Khorramshahr lie more than 40 nautical miles upriver from the
mouth of the Shatt al-Arab, while Bandar-e Shahpur (recently renamed
Bandar-e Khomeini) and Bandar-e Ma'shur are situated on the Khowr-e Musa
tidal bay. See Photo Supplement for enlargements of port areas.
IRAN: PORTS IN PERSIAN GULF REGION
Military Port Capacity'
Name Location (Metric Tons)
Khuzestan Ports
Abadan Shatt al Arab 5,300
47 n.m. upriver
from Persian Gulf
Bandar-e Ma'shur 6 n.m. NE of Bandar-e Shahpur 327
on tidal inlet
Bandar-e Shahpur Khowr-e Musa tidal bay on 11,800
Persian Gulf
(Bandar-e Khomeini)
Khorramshahr Shatt al Arab 59 n.m. upriver- 12,800
from Persian Gulf, at confluence
with Rud-e Karun
Other Ports
Bandar Abbas
Bushehr
Jazireh-ye Khark
(Khark Island)
Strait of Hormuz
Well-sheltered harbor in
Khowr-e Soltani, on Persian
Gulf.
In Persian Gulf 28 n.m. NW
of Bushehr
. Remarks
Former POL port. Limited significance as -
general cargo port. Contains largest refinery
In Middle East.
Iran's major oil products port.
Second ranking general cargo port. Container
facility includes two 40-ton container cranes.
Grain unloanding facilities. Recently under
expansion.
Handles 65 percent of Iran's imported dry
cargo. Has new roll-on, roll-off pier.. Naval
headquarters, Western Fleet.
5,000 Export port, shipping crude oil and chromite.
Persian Gulf Fleet Headquarters. Handles
containers, one 25-ton container crane.
2,270 Distribution center for refined petroleum
products, commercial and trading center for
the area. Considerable lightering of cargo. .
Naval repair yard. .
1,189 One of world's largest crude oil terminals. -
Can handle largest tankers. Pest oil delivered
to terminal via pipeline.
?
An estimate of the maximum amount of general cargo that can be unloaded onto the wharves and
wharf aprons during a period of one 24-hour day (20 effective cargo-working hours). .
Arab Terms: Shatt = river; Ilud = stream; Khowr. = bay.
cleared from the
Rails
Rail lines lead from the ports to Ahvaz, the main transport hub in
the center of the province, and from Ahvaz northeastward across the
rimed Zagros Range to Tehran and the interior plateau. All are single-
tracked, which limits their capacity and will eventually constrain
further development of the ports and of the region.
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IRAN: RAILROAD CHARACTERISTICS AND CAPACITIES IN PERSIAN GULF REGION
Terminals and Distance
?
Gage
Type of
Traction
Capacity
Routes
Direction
Metric
Tons
per
Day
in Each
Metric
Cars Trains Tons
Per per per
Day Day Train
Bandar-e Shahpur -
4'8.5"
Diesel
665
11
816
8,901
Ahvaz
120 kilomters
Khorramshahr -
4'8.5"
Diesel
530
11
658
7,165
Ahvaz
122 kilometers
Ahvaz - Tehran (via
4'8.5"
Diesel
185
. 9
290
2,540
Andimeshk, Arak, Qom)
816 kilometers
Yards.
Remarks
21 bridges, longest 1,057 m. at Kilometer .
Post (KmP) 120. -
25 m. bridge at KmP 46.35.
134 bridges, longest 316 in. at KmP 240;
41 tunnels, longest 2,500 m. at KmP 240.
Location
Car per
Day
Capacity Capacity to sort and separate cars by
Metric Tons destination.
per Day
Bandar-e Shapur
235
1,056
Ahvaz
875
11,839
Khorramshahr
475
6,396
Andimeshk
155
2,087
Arab
145
1,996
Ron
leo
2,177
Tehran
360
o,171
* Transshipment facilities at all yards listed
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*
Roads
A highway network supplements the rail system, permitting the
transport of much short-haul cargo by road. Some of the roads are hard-
surfaced and of good quality, such as those leading from Abadan and
Khorramshahr to Ahvaz, and from Ahvaz across the mountains to the
northeast; on the whole, however, the road network is inadequate both in
extent and in capacity.
Origin and Destination
Bandar Abbas to Qom via
Baghin, Yazd, and Kashan
Kilometer 0 to 451 (Baghin)
Kilometer 451 to 764 (Yazd)
Kilometer 764 to 1,304 (Qom)
Bushehr to Ahvaz via
Dow Gonbadan and Agha Jani
Kgomater 0 to 249
Kilometer 249 to 492 (Ahvaz)
Ganaveh to Dow Gonbadan
Bandar-e Shahpur to
Bushehr-Ahvaz Road northwest
to Agha Jani
Abadan to Malavi via
Ahvaz
1RAn: HIGHWAY CHARACTERISTICS AND CAPACITIES In PERSIAn GULF REGION
? Distance
(Kilometers
1,304
Characteristics
451 Bituminous, 7.0 is. wide,
good condition, 1.2 in.
shoulders, mountainous
alignment.
314 Bituminous, 6.4 is. to 9.1 n.
wide, good condition, 0.6 m.
shoulders, undulating
alignment.
539 Bituminous, 7.0 is. wide,
poor condition, 1.2 in.
shoulders, flat to
mountainous alignment.
492
249
Capacity Forward
Petric
tens
Vehicles per
per day day
Remarks
1,740 5,534 Sharp curves and steep grades. Capable of
1,570 4,990 heavy truck traffic. 164.7 is. tunnel, 55 km. ,
Cry M. of Bandar Abbas. 4.0 in. horiz. and 6.1 is. ,
subsoil vert. clearance (clnc.) 3 bridges, longest '
81.9 is. Mm. clnc: horiz. 7.0 m., vert.
unlimited.
2,100
6,663
Dry
subsoil
1.400 4,445
Dry
Subsoil
Bituminous, 3.7 rt. to 5.5 is. 142
.wide, poor to good condition, 71
0.6 is. to 1.2 is. shoulders, flat
to mountainous alignment
_
243 Bituminous, 3.7 in. to 6.1 in.
wide, good condition, 0.6 m.
to 1.2 is. shoulders, flat to
mountainous alignment.
105 Gravel, 3.7 is. to 5.5 m. wide,
poor condition, 0.6 is. shoulders,
flat to mountainous alignment.
72 Bituminous, 6.1 is. wide,
good condition, 1.2 m.
shoulders, flat alignment.
389 Cituminous, 6.1 m. to 7.3 m.
wide, good condition, 0.9 in.
shoulders, general flat to
undulating alignment.
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454
2"e/
Dry
Subsoil
Can flood (Cec.-Apr) new construction',
elevated, no obstacles.
6.1 is. wide parallel and elevated road u/c.
Some sharp curves and fords. Rail/highway
transshipment capability at Kashan (1127 kn.)
Sharp curves and steep grades; subject to
loading and snow blockage. b major bridges,
longest 278 m. Min. Ono: horiz. 6.1 is.
vert. unlimited.
928 2,948 Subject to flooding (Dec.-Apr.) numerous
828 2,631 ? culverts. 2 bridges, longer 316.7 m. Min.
Dry .clnc: horiz. 3.7 m.. vert. unlimited.
subsoil Rail/highway transshipment capability at
Ahvaz. Some portions elevated 1.5 m. to
6.1 is. through tidewater and marshland.
Steep grades and sharp curves. Subject to
flooding (Dec.-Apr.)
171 544
86 272
Dry
subsoil
2,583 8,210 Elevated at 1.5 In. to 6.1 is. on southern
2,328 7,394 portion. Rail/highway transshipment
capability at Bandar-e Shahpur. .
2,100 6,868 Can flood Dec.-Apr. 9 bridges, longest
Dry 699 m. at Khorramshahr. Min_ nine.:
subsoil horiz. 5.5 is. vert. unlimited.
Rail/highway transshipment capability at
Khorramshahr. Ahvaz, and Andimeshk.
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Waterways
The Shatt al-Arab is navigable up to Khorramshahr, at the Iraqi
border. It is an extremely important part of the transport system
because Khorramshahr is Iran's main general-cargo port. A canal leads
from Khorramshahr to the Rud-e Karun, which is navigable for shallow-
draft vessels between Khorramshahr and Ahvaz. It is used chiefly for
the intraregional transport of light cam.
Airfields
? There are 13 major airfields in the Persian Gulf area, of which 6
are located in Khuzestan. There are civilian air terminals at Abadan
and Ahvaz. The capacities of the airfields vary, but several can
handle C-141- and C-5A-size aircraft.
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