AN ASSESSMENT OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE STRUCTURAL CERAMICS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP05T00280R000300280001-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 36
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 26, 2012
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: May 1, 1986
• Content Type: REPORT

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Intelligence
Director of
An Assessment of
High-Performance
Structural Ceramics
Scientific and Technical
Intelligence Committee
STIC 86-001
May 1986
Cow 3 3 7
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Warning Notice Intelligence Sources
or Methods Involved
(WNINTEL)
National Security Unauthorized Disclosure
Information Subject to Criminal Sanctions
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An Assessment of
High-Performance
Structural Ceramics
(cret
STIC 86-001
May 1986
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The Scientific and Technical Intelligence Committee is the DCI Committee whose
mission in part is to advise and assist the DCI with respect to production of
intelligence on foreign science and technology, to advise the National Foreign
Intelligence Board, and to coordinate activity, information processing, and ana-
lyses in these areas. The Committee reports to the DCI through the DDCI and to
NFIB through the Board's Secretariat.
(Chairman)
Dr. Robert L. Bingham
Central Intelligence Agency
Department of Energy
National Security Agency
Department of the Air Force
Defense Intelligence Agency
Department of the Navy
Department of the Army
Department of State
Office of the Under Secretary of
Defense for Research and Engineering
Department of Commerce
Arms Control and Disarmament
Agency
Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency
Department of Energy
Department of the Air Force
Department of Commerce
Department of the Navy
Central Intelligence Agency
Department of State
Department of the Army
Central Intelligence Agency
Defense Intelligence Agency
Department of the Army
National Security Agency
Office of the Under Secretary of
Defense for Research and Engineering
Arms Control and Disarmament
Agency
Federal Bureau of Investigation
E Systems Consultant
STIC Consultant
Department of the Army
Central Intelligence Agency
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Dr. William Reese
Dr. Bertram B. Smith
Dr. John G. Dardis
Dr. John MacCallum
Dr. Howard E. Sorrows
Dr. Robert A. Summers
Mr. Harvey B. Jones
Maj. Thomas J. Dyble
Mr. Ceferino Epps
Mr. Clarence E. Field
Mr. Rodney Huff
Dr. Laurence A. Mounter
Mr. Roger W. Deihl
Dr. Samuel A. Musa
Mr. James Stekert
Mr. James W. Cosby
Mr. Raymond F. Siewert
Lt. Col. Terry W. Thornton
(Executive Secretary)
Capt. Daniel L. Goulette
(Assistant Executive Secretary)
Department of the Air Force
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Secret
STIC 86-001
May 1986
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This document was prepared by the Structural Materials Working Group
(SMWG) of the Scientific and Technical Intelligence Committee (STIC). The
assessment was made in response to STIC tasking that requested an evaluation of
worldwide technology on ceramic materials having structural applications.
We wish to emphasize that the area of structural ceramics is very broad; therefore,
the scope of this assessment is limited to those specific applications having the
greatest military significance. In particular, that portion of ceramics technology
dealing with electronics, optics, and nonstructural properties of these materials is
not covered. Initially, it was envisioned that a larger number of topics would be
covered, but insufficient data were available to make adequate assessments. Also,
it was desirable to limit the size of the document.
Mr. Joey Crider, principal author of this report, acknowledges the support of Dr.
Robert Gottschall (Department of Energy), Dr. Steven Wax (Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency), Mr. James Kelly (Office of Naval Technology), and
Mr. Marlin Kinna (Naval Sea Systems Command), who reviewed the assessment,
and the help of his colleagues on the working group. Grateful acknowledgment is
also made to Lt. Steven Tyree, US Air Force Foreign Technology Division, and R.
L. Gerrity, Naval Intelligence Support Center, for their contributions to the
assessment.
Questions concerning the content of this report should be directed to the chairman
of the SMWG, Mr. Roy Frontani, telephone [phone], or to the principal
author, Mr. Joey Crider, telephone [phone], extension 671. Members of the
working group are:
Mr. Roy Frontani (Chairman)
Mr. Mel Andrasco
Mr. Joey Crider
Dr. Loren Jacobson
Dr. Charles Lee
Mr. William Marley
Dr. Ronald Nelson
Mr. Jerome Persh
Lt. Daisy Schrock
US Air Force Foreign Technology
Division
National Security Agency
Naval Intelligence Support Center
US Army Foreign Science and Tech-
nology Center
Central Intelligence Agency
Department of Energy
Defense Intelligence Agency
Department of Energy
Central Intelligence Agency
US Army Foreign Science and Tech-
nology Center
Defense Intelligence Agency
Department of Energy
Office of the Under Secretary of De-
fense for Research and Engineering
US Air Force Foreign Technology
Division
Secret
STIC 86-001
May 1986
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An Assessment of
High-Performance
Structural Ceramics
Key Judgments The application of ceramics in heat engines is taking longer than claimed
by industry. Ceramics have been improved significantly, yet considerably
more improvement is needed before ceramics are practical in most
production applications for heat engines. Important developments are:
? Overall, the United States leads the world in ceramics research and
Japan in the commercial application of ceramics. Because of the
relatively free exchange of information on ceramics, however, industra-
lized countries, both Communist and non-Communist, have access to
roughly similar technologic bases.
? High-strength ceramics are of growing importance in the cutting tool
industry worldwide. Several Western countries are about to introduce
ceramic armor, which may already be fielded by the Soviet Union.
Ceramic heat engines may become commercially available within the
next five to 10 years, bringing improvements in fuel efficiency and
durability.
? The Soviet Union has preceded the West in the development of sound in-
novative techniques for powder production and consolidation. Quality
control of materials has been a weakness in Soviet ceramic technology.
The Soviets have been aggressive in moving ceramic technology into
application and have frequently been world leaders in applications.
Reverse Blank V Secret
STIC 86-001
May 1986
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Key Judgments
Heat Engines
3
Cutting Tools
10
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)
12
Technology Comparisons
14
Heat Engine Materials
14
Cutting-Tool Material
16
Heat Engine Materials
17
Cutting-Tool Material
18
Technology Transfer
19
Meetings and Conferences
19
Implications
21
Intelligence G
aps
21
Heat Engines
21
Implications
22
Heat Engines
22
Cutting Tools
23
vii Secret
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B.
Glossary
C.
Bibliography
2.
Turret Cross Section of Soviet SMT 1981/83 Tank
4.
Generalized Comparison of Structural Ceramics Activity for
Heat Engines
16
1.
Applications of High-Performance Structural Ceramics
2.
Projections for US Cutting Tool Market
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An Assessment of
High-Performance
Structural Ceramics (u)
A new family of ceramic materials has emerged
during the past 15 to 20 years that has affected
diverse areas of technology-microelectronics, heat
engines, sensors, cutting tools, power generation, bal-
listic protection, orthopedics, and missile nosecones.
The method of manufacture and the properties of
these materials differ greatly from those of so-called
traditional ceramics, which include refractory bricks
and whiteware. In modern terminology, these new
materials are called high-performance, high-technol-
ogy, or engineering ceramics. In Japan, a country
reportedly afflicted with ceramic fever, the term "fine
ceramics" is applied.
Ceramics is both the art and science of making solid
articles that have as their essential and major compo-
nent inorganic, nonmetallic materials and the objects
thus created. Ceramics are usually subjected to high
temperatures (above 800 to 900 degrees Celsius)
during manufacture and use. They are produced by
many different techniques that have in common the
consolidation and densification of fine powders at
high temperature. Some techniques also involve si-
multaneous application of pressure to assist the densi-
fication process
Ceramics, metals, and polymers are three classes of
materials; heterogeneous combinations of these mate-
rials are called composites (figure 1). (Some compos-
ites have special names; for example, cermets, which
are metals containing discrete ceramic particles.) Ce-
ramics are technologically attractive because they
possess a unique combination of properties that other
materials cannot offer. Their outstanding engineering
properties include resistance to heat, oxidation, corro-
sion, and abrasion; high elastic modulus; high hard-
ness; favorable strength-to-weight ratios with high
compressive strength; low-to-moderate density; di-
mensional stability and rigidity. Chemical compounds
such as oxides, nitrides, and carbides of widely avail-
able metallic elements such as silicon and aluminum
Figure 1
Division of Materials Classes
make up the majority of high-performance ceramic
materials. The natural abundance of these raw mate-
rials should permit the eventual availability of ceram-
ics at low costs, potentially allowing them to replace
limited sources of more expensive strategic materials
such as cobalt-based superalloys. Certain ceramics
also have outstanding electrical, magnetic, and optical
properties, but the technologies and applications that
utilize such properties are outside the scope of this
study
The mechanical properties of many of these new high-
performance ceramics are now sufficient to allow
their use in certain load-bearing applications that
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Table 1
Applications of High-Performance
Structural Ceramics
WC
Si,N4
*** = Already in use.
** = Major candidate.
* = Minor candidate.
Infrared Cutting Nozzles Heat RAM
Domes Tools Shields
previously were technologically impossible. (For ex-
ample, the tensile strength of silicon nitride has
increased from under 100 megapascals (MPa) in the
mid-1960s to about 550 MPa in 1985.) For purposes
of this assessment these materials shall be referred to
as high-performance structural ceramics. The ceramic
compounds that comprise high-performance structur-
al ceramics are not the silicates and clays used in
traditional ceramics. Several oxides such as aluminum
oxide and zirconium dioxide are included, but primar-
ily it is the family of carbides, nitrides, and borides
that are of engineering significance for these applica-
tions. In addition, ferrites are used as radar-absorbing
Heat Armor MHD Radomes
Engines
materials, and fluorides are useful as infrared (IR)
dome materials. Table 1 summarizes the ceramic
materials that are potential candidates for structural
applications. The applications of these ceramics that
have been identified as pertinent for discussion in this
assessment include:
? Heat engines (gas turbines and diesels).
? Armor (combat vehicles, aircraft, and personnel).
? Cutting tools.
? Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generators
(electrodes and insulators).
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Ceramic materials, however, have one fundamental
limitation. They are inherently brittle, which means
that they have a limited strain tolerance. If over-
stressed, they fracture more readily than metals and
most polymers because most ceramics cannot relieve
stresses by local yielding. Advances in materials
technology and system design techniques are helping
to overcome the brittleness deficiency. A key factor is
the minimization of critical flaws caused by voids and
impurities that can lead to failure in service. Excep-
tional care must be taken throughout all steps in the
processing of ceramic materials-from the production
of high-purity, ultrafine powders to the forming of
green bodies, to the densification of solid articles by
sintering or hot pressing, and to final machining.
Quality control and nondestructive evaluation are
essential to assure the production of high-quality
ceramics having uniform and reproducible properties.
There are other approaches to the brittleness problem.
One is to reinforce a ceramic matrix with another
phase or with fibers, which helps to improve tensile
strength and resist cracking. Another technique used
(especially with zirconium dioxide) is transformation
toughening, whereby a stress-induced phase transfor-
mation retards cracking.
Heat Engines
Introduction. All major industrialized countries have
ongoing programs to develop ceramic materials for
heat-engine applications. Both gas turbines and die-
sels stand to benefit from this development. Engines
with ceramic components can operate at temperatures
several hundred degrees Celsius higher than car en-
gines with metallic parts. High-temperature operation
in turn provides more efficient burning of fuel and
reduced emissions. The lower density of ceramics
compared with metals results in reduced inertia,
which is especially important for the rotors of turbo-
chargers and gas turbine engines. Replacing metal
parts with ceramics also lowers overall engine weight.
In the so-called adiabatic diesel engine, ceramics will
allow the cooling system to be completely eliminated.
This will further reduce weight and volume, improve
efficiency, and greatly reduce maintenance, which
will reduce life-cycle costs of ground force vehicles.
Ceramic bearings are also under development for
critical applications where high heat and wear resis-
tance is important. The first major structural applica-
tion of ceramics is expected in late 1986 with the
commercial adoption of a silicon nitride turbocharger
rotor by the Japanese.
USSR. In 1984 a Soviet newspaper stated that re-
searchers at the Institute of Problems in Materials
Science (IPROMAT), Kiev, were as successful as the
Japanese in developing a ceramic internal combustion
engine. ssessments, however, indi-
cate that the Soviet Union is several years behind the
United States, Japan, and West Germany; the exact
status of Soviet ceramic heat-engine technology is
uncertain.
The Soviet program began in the early-to-mid-1970s
and was prompted by a 1968 UK report that demon-
strated the outstanding potential of silicon nitride for
engine applications. Between 1972 and 1974 the
Soviets began to develop hot-pressed silicon nitride,
but properties were and remain inferior to US and
Japanese materials. One possible reason is that the
Soviets have been less successful in controlling the
quality of their materials throughout each processing
step. On the other hand, the Soviets have developed
several advanced powder production and/or consoli-
dation techniques, namely, self-propagating high-tem-
perature synthesis, plasma chemical synthesis, and
explosive compaction, and they have the lead in these
specific areas. These techniques, which are mature
technologies in the USSR, are low cost and yield
high-quality products, two factors having major sig-
nificance in the ceramics field.
One aspect of the Soviet approach that differs from
US and Japanese efforts is a greater emphasis on
various types of ceramic composites. In 1975 the
Soviets began to develop a composition of 40-percent
silicon carbide and 60-percent silicon nitride for auto-
motive gas turbine applications. Guide vanes of this
particulate composite were tested in the late 1970s at
the Institute of Strength Problems, also in Kiev. Even
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though the ceramic vanes failed rigorous thermal
cycling, this same material continues to be investigat-
ed. Because of this composite's porosity, its strength
properties, as reported in open literature, are not
impressive. Its impact strength values, however, ap-
pear adequate because the pores act to help arrest
cracks. Another composite material that the Soviets
may be considering as a candidate for heat-engine
applications is mullite fiber-reinforced aluminum
oxide.
Poland. In Poland, there are at least two research and
development (R&D) programs associated with zirconi-
um dioxide. One involves fundamental research on
aluminum oxide-zirconium dioxide compounds that
contain more than 35 percent zirconium dioxide. The
second program involves the characterization of phys-
ical properties of zirconium dioxide. Of particular
note is the fact that, although research results of this
latter program are being made available to the Sovi-
ets, the Poles have stated that they are receiving
practically no feedback.
Another significant program is concerned with devel-
oping ceramic seals for gas turbine engines. The seals
are actually a cermet comprised of boron nitride and
nickel, and are produced by a liquid-phase sintering
process. The program, which is assessed to have begun
in the early 1980s, has included fundamental compo-
sitional investigations, materials characterization, and
have engine applications. One weakness of the Chi-
nese program that must be overcome is the under-
standing and application of fracture mechanics. F-
United States. Ceramic materials R&D programs for
heat-engine applications began in the United States in
the early 1970s and have emphasized the use of silicon
nitride. Although diesel engine applications are also of
great importance, initial efforts were directed more
toward gas turbine engines. The objective was to
determine whether gas turbine engine components
could be designed successfully with brittle ceramic
materials. These efforts did demonstrate that such
materials are feasible and that they would survive
engine operating conditions. Parallel efforts to develop
improved ceramic materials and fabrication processes
for complex shapes were also conducted.
A truck turbine engine with ceramic stator compo-
nents has been successfully operated for a total of 92
hours under a realistic vehicle operating environment.
The objective of current Department of Energy efforts
is to design entirely new turbine engines using ceram-
ic components. One effort, being conducted by the
Ford Motor Company and Garrett/Air Research,
requires an engine operating speed of 100,000 rpm
and a turbine inlet temperature of 1375 degrees
Celsius. It is clear that progress is being made; a
ceramic rotor in an all-metal engine demonstrated 97
percent of design speed before it failed on the first
attempt to test this component. Such a result is
manufacturing process development.
China. The Chinese are very interested in developing
ceramic heat-engine components, with the best R&D
being conducted at the Shanghai Institute of Ceram-
ics and at Qinghua University, Beijing. They have
emphasized processing technologies, although they
have not pursued hot isostatic pressing. They have
developed both silicon carbide and silicon nitride, but
property values of these compounds are not yet equal
to those of US, Japanese, or West German ceramics.
In 1978 silicon nitride components (presumably
blades) for gas turbine engines were observed in
China. Hot-pressed silicon nitride has been investigat-
ed for apex seals in rotary piston engines. Fiber-
reinforced ceramics of lithium fluoride/silicon nitride
and zirconium dioxide/silicon nitride have been made
with good high-temperature properties, which could
considered to be quite encouraging.
Current developments in ceramic technology indicate
that it is likely the first applications of ceramic
components will be for diesel engines. One of the
primary objectives of such use is to eliminate the
cooling system, which is a leading cause of engine
failure, especially in combat vehicles. An uncooled
diesel has already been demonstrated in a program
involving the US Army Tank Automotive Command
and Cummins Engine, Incorporated. But this type of
engine utilizes ceramics in the form of coatings of
zirconium dioxide to insulate the engine and not as
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monolithic parts. The next step will be the so-called
adiabatic or low-heat-loss diesel, which will incorpo-
rate ceramic pistons, cylinder liners, and engine head
parts. This engine will be about 25 percent more fuel
efficient than conventional diesels. Predicted dates for
commercial production vary from the mid-1990s to
the turn of the century. Beyond this time frame is the
goal of a minimum-friction diesel that, because it uses
advanced ceramics technology, will have no lubricat-
ing system.
Japan. Japanese ceramic heat-engine technology be-
gan in 1978 when the Ministry of International Trade
and Industry (MITI) instituted the Moonlight Project
to develop gas turbine engine blades. In 1980 the
National Institute for Research of Inorganic Materi-
als began a four-year project to develop ultra-high-
temperature, heat-resistant ceramics. In 1981 MITI
helped establish the Engineering Research Associa-
tion for High-Performance Ceramics
The Japan Fine Ceramics Association, composed of
over 170 companies, was established in 1982.
The Japanese are developing both silicon carbide and
silicon nitride for engine applications but are concen-
trating most of their efforts on silicon nitride. Toshiba
is recognized as a leader in silicon nitride develop-
ment, and their products have the best room-tempera-
ture properties. But properties at high temperatures
are of greater significance. In December 1984 the
Engineering Research Association for High-
Performance Ceramics reported on silicon nitride
with a tensile strength of 548 MPa at 1,200 degrees
Celsius; silicon carbide had a tensile strength of 387
MPa.
Another ceramic that the Japanese are actively devel-
oping for adiabatic diesels and turbocharged engines
is zirconium dioxide; NGK Sparkplug has operated
an adiabatic diesel engine with yttria-stabilized zirco-
nium dioxide for 250 hours. US Naval Research
Laboratory tests show that the Japanese material is
significantly better than US material and slightly
better than that of Australia and West Germany.
Nissan Motors is planning to use this material for
piston heads in their diesel engine design. Toshiba is
using it in the laboratory for cylinder liners, piston
caps, and turbine blades. Kyocera (formerly Kyoto
Ceramic Company) also is considering zirconium di-
oxide to insulate pistons and cylinders in turbocom-
pounded engines.
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Since 1983 the use of silicon carbide as a reinforce-
ment in ceramics has become popular in Japan. In a 25X1
silicon nitride matrix, a 40-percent reinforcement of
silicon carbide whiskers has been shown to retain
strength even when 10-percent porosity is present.
Similarly, silicon carbide continuous fibers are also
being used; Nippon Carbon's Nicalon fiber is being
evaluated around the world and, although properties
are not as good as advertised, high potential and
interest remains. In 1984 Ube Industries announced a
new silicon-titanium-carbon fiber that supposedly can
be produced at half the cost of silicon carbide. Interest
in this new fiber is also very high.
Japanese successes in the application of ceramics for
heat engines have been well publicized. In 1981 NGK
Spark Plug Company, Limited, demonstrated the
feasibility of a silicon nitride engine when a 50-cc air-
cooled piston engine was successfully run for 50
hours. In 1982 Kyocera announced the successful
operation of an uncooled silicon nitride engine in an
Isuzu Gemini automobile. The production of high-
quality ceramic components accounts for much of this
success and for Japan's worldwide reputation in the
ceramics field. Since 1983 Kyocera has produced
30,000 glow plugs per month, 20,000 swirl chambers
per month, and several thousand turbocharger rotors
per month. In May 1984 NGK Insulators began
production of 500 ceramic rotors per month.
West Germany. From 1974 to 1983 the West German
Ministry for Research and Technology (BMFT) fund-
ed a ceramics group with the goal of
developing a vehicular gas turbine
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The program was
managed by the West German Research and Devel-
opment Laboratories for Air and Space Travel
(DFVLR). The most active firm in the development of
ceramic turbine engines has been Daimler Benz (DB),
although Motoren Turbinen Union (MTU) and Volks-
wagen (VW) are also involved
They believe, as do
many US researchers, that ceramic parts for turbine
engines will be introduced gradually.
The most active German firms now involved in ceram-
ic reciprocating engine development are Deutz and
VW, which are developing truck and car engines,
respectively.
This is the first
non-Japanese effort to make ceramic turbochargers
from designs intended for metal parts. Rosenthal, the
leading West German ceramic producer, is making a
limited number of reaction-bonded silicon nitride
turbochargers for about six European engine manu-
facturers. Working with Deutz, they are using alumi-
num titanate to achieve ceramic-to-metal bonding and
are developing exhaust port liners of this material.
Rosenthal is also involved in adiabatic diesel research
now being funded by BMFT. The greatest problem,
which is common to all countries, has been related to
The West Germans also possess excellent ceramic
powder technology. Silicon nitride powders are pro-
duced and categorized at the Hermann C. Starck
Institute in Berlin. Of particular significance are
efforts to improve the high-temperature strength of
silicon nitride. The primary emphasis has been to
explore nonoxide sintering aids that do not degrade
high-temperature strength properties. The high quali-
ty of Starck powders, which contain exceptionally low
amounts of oxygen, is evidenced by the use of these
powders by several Japanese firms, which can make
high-quality powders on their own.
Sweden. As of 1981 Sweden's ceramic engine pro-
gram was directed by a committee of influential
people drawn from engine companies and ceramic
comnaniesF-
In late 1982 a gas turbine engine with a silicon nitride
turbine wheel and rotor was successfully road tested
by Volvo. The ceramic parts were hot isostatically
pressed by ASEA, which has also produced various
other ceramic engine components including valve
seats and ball bearings. ASEA-produced parts are of
very high quality and not easily duplicated by other
manufacturers. They have produced the first "flaw-
less" silicon nitride turbine rotors for a US-designed
gasoline turbine rotor. The hot-isostatic-pressing unit
developed by ASEA, called the Quintus press, may be
the best in the world for ceramic production.
The United Kingdom. The UK ceramic engine pro-
gram is centered around Rolls-Royce (RR) and in-
cludes a "ceramic club," which has been established
to link material suppliers, manufacturers, government
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In early 1983 Fairey Holdings decided to establish a
special subsidiary to exploit its expertise to help close
the technology gap between the United Kingdom and
the United States and Japan. Emphasis will be placed
on injection molding of components such as turbine
blades. New ceramics will be researched
insulation and turbocharger applications.
for engine
France. In late 1979 the Ministry of Industry selected
Renault to play a leading role in France's develop-
ment of an advanced high-temperature diesel engine
(the government would provide 50 percent of the
funds). Renault engineers planned to use ceramics
wherever possible.
i icon nitride is not as popular
in France as it is in the United States and Japan. Like
the United Kingdom, France is leaning toward Sialon
materials. As of 1980 the French did not have a
silicon carbide production facility but planned to get
engine components from the United States. The
French are not eager, however, to establish close ties
to large US companies for the development of ceramic
heat engines. At the 1983 Paris Air Show, ONERA
displayed posters of ceramic turbine blades.
One area in which the French are in a position to
excel is the development of ceramic matrix compos-
ites. A primary candidate is silicon carbide/reinforced
silicon carbide. The firm SEP is a leader in developing
this material, which is similar to carbon/carbon but
possesses better high-temperature oxidation resis-
tance. This material, in the form of a bladed turbine
disk
conducted at the Korean Advanced Institute of Sci-
ence and Technology, Inha University, Hanyang Uni-
versity, Seoul National University, and Kyung Sang
University. Many programs are cooperative between
several laboratories and deal with the processing of
both reaction-bonded and sintered silicon nitride and
silicon carbide. The effects of surface finish as well as
the effects of particle size and sintering aids on
microstructure and mechanical properties have been
addressed specifically. Composites of aluminum oxide
with a dispersed phase of zirconium dioxide are also
being investigated for improved fracture toughness.
Italy. Little information is available on the status of
Italian ceramic heat engine technology. It is known,
however, that Fiat has successfully tested a ceramic
swirl prechamber for a spark ignition engine.
Armor
Introduction. Ceramic armors provide outstanding
ballistic protection against a variety of conventional
weapons threats, including small-arms projectiles,
fragmenting munitions, and kinetic energy penetra-
tors. Combinations of high hardness, high compres-
sive strength and modulus, high sonic velocity, and
moderately low density are important properties. Bo-
ron carbide, silicon carbide, titanium diboride, and
aluminum oxide are proven candidates. Cubic boron
nitride would be an excellent armor if techniques
could be developed to produce this material in sizes
larger than just a few millimeters. For armor applica-
tions, the brittleness of ceramics is a major disadvan-
tage because it degrades the multihit capability of the
armor. This problem must be addressed in the design
of the armor system. Ceramic armor is attractive for
aircraft, combat vehicles, and personnel. In the case
of personnel armor, ceramics are still too heavy for
the infantryman in battle, but aircrewmen can benefit
from the additional protection offered over that of
fabric armors
South Korea. Although the South Koreans do not
have a formal ceramic engine program, they have
been conducting materials R&D on heat engine ce-
ramics since the early 1980s. This work is being
USSR. The USSR is judged to possess the requisite
technical talent and scientific and industrial resources
to have established a comprehensive ceramic armor
development program any time after the mid-1960s.
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reported the existence of a Soviet
ceramic armor program using unspecified carbides as
early as 1966, but confirmation of such a program
remains elusive. The Soviets are believed to have first
developed glass-ceramic (called Sitall in the USSR)
armor that may have been investigated for use as
armor in tank turrets and/or the front glacis, even
though it is not a high-performance ceramic.This
development, which was mature by the early 1960s, is
estimated to have been succeeded by the adoption of
higher performance ceramics. The most likely Soviet
ceramic armor candidates would include silicon car-
bide and aluminum oxide. High-quality, hot-pressed
boron carbide was not available until 1983, and little
research has been uncovered on producing titanium
diboride (other than powder). The Soviets undoubted-
ly would be interested in boron-containing materials
that absorb thermal neutrons, however, because of the
emphasis they place on tank radiation protection.
At some unspecified time the Soviets apparently
initiated a ceramic ball-type armor development pro-
gram. In 1977 the Soviets began production of alumi-
num oxide balls that allegedly were to be used
specifically for an armor application. The balls were
to be placed in a steel matrix, which suggests possible
tank armor use. It was stated that this program was a
reaction to US development of ceramic ball armor. It
is conceivable that this ceramic ball armor program is
associated with the SMT 1981/3 and/or the T-80
tanks. Both tanks are assessed to employ ceramic
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Several leading ceramic materials
producers have submitted ceramic tiles for evaluation:
Kyocera; Asahi Glass Co., Ltd; and NGK. High-
quality, hot-pressed aluminum oxide, silicon carbide,
silicon nitride, and zirconium dioxide were ballistical-
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Other materials-related research that could have ar-
mor applications include the development of mullite
fiber-reinforced aluminum oxide and boron carbide,
investigations of shock-induced phase transformations
of boron nitride, and measurements of shock com-
pressibility of ceramics. Fiber-reinforced ceramics
have the potential for improving the multihit capabili-
ty of ceramic armor.
United States. The United States initiated the devel-
opment of ceramic armor in the early 1960s with
lightweight ceramic composite armor, which consists
of a hard ceramic tile backed with aluminum or glass-
reinforced plastic. The ballistic performance of alumi-
num oxide, silicon carbide, and boron carbide has
been established against numerous small-caliber ar-
mor piercing projectiles and fragment simulating
projectiles. Boron carbide has been used extensively in
the construction of armored crew seats for Army
helicopters. This ceramic offers the best ballistic
performance but is more expensive than other ceram-
ics, because hot-pressing must be used to obtain a
high-quality product. Although titanium diboride is
still in R&D, ceramic armor materials in general have
reached maturity and await adoption by system pro-
gram managers. Improved processing technologies
that would lower costs is one area for further advance-
ment. This is now being addressed through reverse
technology transfer; US researchers are investigating
explosive compaction and self-propagating high-tem-
perature synthesis, two processes highly developed in
the Soviet Union. Also, if silicon carbide is adopted
for heat engine use, high-volume production is expect-
ed to lower costs sufficiently to increase the use of this
ceramic for armor.
Japan. The Japanese Ground Self-Defense Force ini-
tiated a ceramic armor program in the late 1970s in
support of the Model 88 tank development.
ly evaluated,
aluminum oxide was most cost effective and therefore
chosen for further testing. Zirconium dioxide is being
considered for use near the front of the armor system
to defeat kinetic energy penetrators. Japanese experi-
ence in producing high-performance ceramics for
electronic and heat engine applications will aid them
in their armor-development efforts. It is unclear if
their armor program will be completed in time to be
incorporated in the Model 88 tank.
West Germany. Only recently have the West Germans
expressed interest in developing ceramic armors for
combat vehicles. A recent model of the Leopard tank
has ceramic applique armor on the turret in addition
to reactive armor for defeating Soviet 125-mm tank-
Sweden. As of 1982 Swedish officials were consider-
ing ceramic applique armor for Centurion tanks. The
impression was given that breakthroughs had been
made in this area. In 1983 Swedish defense officials
revealed preliminary testing of reactive armor con-
ramic armor systems.
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Israel. The Israeli Ministry of Defense has the capa-
bility to produce high- quality ceramic materials in
pilot plant quantities sufficient for armor applications.
Cutting Tools
Introduction. Cutting tools are used in machining
operations to turn, bore, drill, mill, or otherwise shape
materials into final dimensions. High-speed machin-
ing and/or machining of very hard materials often
necessitates the use of ceramic-containing cutting
tools, which have outstanding wear resistance and
hardness compared with other cutting tools, especially
at high temperatures. The use of ceramics allows
higher productivity, improved quality, and cost sav-
ings. The first ceramic material used industrially
(aluminum oxide) was in tungsten carbide cutting
tools, which were introduced about 1930. Called
nitride have been widely used.
cemented carbide or just carbide by the industry,
tungsten carbide is in widespread use throughout the
industrialized countries. Tungsten carbide is often
alloyed with other ceramics such as titanium carbide
or tantalum carbide, depending on the specific ma-
chining operation. In reality, tungsten carbide cutting
tools are cermets and not true ceramics, because they
consist of ceramic particles bonded with a metal such
as cobalt. Since the early 1970s, superhard materials
such as polycrystalline diamond and cubic boron
cutting tools.
Technological advances in cutting-tool materials have
permitted faster, better, and more economical manu-
facturing, thus increasing the productivity of military
hardware. The major disadvantage of ceramics is
their poor resistance to mechanical shocks encoun-
tered when making heavy, interrupted cuts. Recent
improvements in the toughness of ceramics are being
applied to the development of new cutting-tool materi-
als. The leading candidate for heat engine applica-
tions, silicon nitride, is also being developed for
USSR. The Soviets began a program in the early
1970s to develop advanced cutting tools. Their objec-
tive was to find substitutes for tungsten-containing
materials, which were in short supply because of
Chinese restrictions on exports of tungsten to the
USSR. In 1973 the USSR Council of Ministers
issued Special Directive No. 2212, which curtailed the
use of tungsten by the civilian sector. This incentive
initiated research for material substitutes that contin-
ues to this day. The two most successful materials,
TN-20 titanium carbide and KNT16 titanium car-
bonitride, were available by 1982 through joint efforts
of the Institute of Problems in Materials Science,
Kiev Polytechnic Institute, the All-Union Scientific
Research Institute of Hard Alloys, and the All-Union
Production Association Soyuztverdosplav of the
USSR Ministry of Nonferrous Metallurgy. These
materials use molybdenum and/or nickel as the bond-
ing agent rather than cobalt, which is a strategic
material in the USSR as elsewhere. Besides being
only one-fifth as expensive as cobalt, titanium carbide
and titanium carbonitride have been proved by the
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Soviets to be 60 to 100 percent more durable than
tungsten carbide in the machining of carbon and alloy
steels. This ceramic materials development was nomi-
nated for the USSR State Prize in science and
technology in 1982, 1983, and 1984.
Probably the most significant achievement by the
Soviets has been the development of advanced boron
nitride cutting tools with improved toughness. Explo-
sive shock compression is used to produce boron
nitride powders with a pronounced defect-type crystal
structure. When subsequently hot-pressed and sin-
tered into a cutting tool insert, the resulting micro-
structure is composed of the superhard cubic phase as
well as an intermediate wurtzitic phase that imparts a
high degree of toughness. Research on this material,
called Gesanit-R or Hexanite-P, was conducted
throughout the 1960s and was available for use by the
machine tool industry by the mid-to-late 1970s. Be-
sides increases in service life, this material reportedly
outperforms diamond durability during high-tempera-
ture machining operations.
Czechoslovakia. The majority of ceramic R&D in
Czechoslovakia is associated with machine tools, with
the preponderance of the work being conducted on
sintered carbides. Facilities credited with conducting
research in this area include the Machine Tools
Research Institute in Prague and the Research Insti-
tute for Powder Metallurgy in Shumperka. Various
carbide powders-boron, silicon, and titanium car-
bide-are being produced on an industrial scale.
Research continues on cubic boron nitride (CBN),
even though CBN grinding wheels are already in
production
Poland. Poland is actively developing ceramic tooling,
especially CBN. Silicon nitride is attracting some
research attention as are both silicon carbide and
titanium carbide. Abrasive tools of silicon carbide
single crystals have been found to offer substantial
advantages over polycrystalline material. The appar-
ent goal of one major program is to develop cost-
effective abrasive tools that contain about 40-percent
single-crystal silicon carbide. According to Polish
technical information, such tools offer 3.7 to 7.4 times
better wear resistance than conventional types.
China. Cutting tools represent a major application of
Chinese silicon nitride technology. Applied research
has been conducted at the Shanghai Institute of
Ceramics, and since 1980 a small production line has
been in operation at the Shanghai Factory of Ceram- 25X1
ics for Electrical Appliances. Shanghai Radio Factory
No. I has also been associated with the production of
silicon nitride cutting-tool materials.
Other facilities conducting R&D on hot-pressed sili-
con nitride cutting tools include Qinghua University,
in Beijing, where a new composition has been devel-
oped: titanium carbide particles and cobalt are intro-
duced in the silicon nitride powder along with a
magnesium oxide sintering aid. Tool bits made from
this material outperformed conventional tungsten car-
bide tools and existing silicon nitride compositions for
machining cast iron.
Chinese research on pressureless sintering of silicon
nitride has been reported at the Shanghai Institute of
Ceramics, Qinghua University, and Nanking Institute
of Chemical Technology. All three groups use yttria
and alumina additives to increase densification and
use "special" heat treatments to improve high-tem-
perature strength. Although the Chinese work is not
specifically related to cutting tools, such applications
have been successful in the West and Japan.
United States. Tungsten carbide cutting-tool materi-
als were introduced in the United States about 1930.
The next advance came 10 years later, when tungsten
carbide began to be alloyed with titanium carbide
and/or tantalum carbide. Aluminum oxide was intro-
duced in the mid-1950s, followed in 1957 by synthetic
diamonds. The next advance, in 1970, was to coat
tungsten carbide with another ceramic such as titani-
um nitride. In 1973 polycrystalline diamond that is
sintered into cutting-tool inserts was introduced. Cu-
bic boron nitride, which is second only to diamond in
hardness, was also developed in the early 1970s for
cutting ferrous alloys. This material is called Borazon
and is widely marketed by the General Electric
Company to other industrialized countries. Although
not widely advertised, silicon nitride cutting tools have
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been developed and are commercially available in the
United States through sales by Kennemetal, Green-
leaf, Iscar USA, and GTE. These firms are even
selling their products in Japan, an indication of a
high-quality product
Japan. Japan, like the United States, has not adver-
tised the use of ceramics for cutting-tool applications
to the same extent that they have for heat engines.
Silicon nitride materials are available from numerous
ceramic producers including Kyocera, Sumitomo
Electric Industries, Nippon Tokushu Togyo, Hitachi
Chemical, and Mitsubishi Metals. The Japanese can
be expected to pursue the silicon nitride cutting-tool
market aggressively as it develops more fully. This
market will complement the widespread adoption of
computer-integrated machine tools and the require-
ment for higher performance tool materials with
increased toughness.
West Germany. West Germany historically has been a
leader in the early development of ceramic cutting
tools. The use of aluminum oxide was first proposed in
Germany in 1905, with patents being issued in 1913.
Cemented carbides were introduced in 1926. West
Germany's reputation for manufacturing high-quality
goods is undoubtedly related to its excellent cutting-
tool industry
Between 1981 and early 1983, researchers at the Max
Planck Institute developed "superhard" compositions
of zirconium dioxide and subsequently worked on
other ceramics with equal success: aluminum oxide,
Sweden. The Swedish firm Sandvik Hard Materials
has developed several improved ceramic cutting-tool
composition
Austria. In the early 1980s ceramic research for
cutting-tool applications was reported at the Institute
for Chemical Technology of Inorganic Materials of
the Technical University of Vienna. Ceramic compo-
sitions were not specified, but it is known that the
cutting-tool material was hot isostatically pressed,
which implies a high-performance ceramic, and infor-
mation on this subject was presented in 1981 at an
international conference held in Minsk, USSR.
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)
Introduction. Commercial use of the MHD process
will depend in part upon the ability to develop materi-
als that can withstand the high temperatures and the
corrosive/erosive environment present in many parts
of the MHD power generator (figure 3). Ceramics
R&D will be especially important if coal is to be used
to fuel the MHD system, because the problems of
erosion and corrosion are greater when coal, rather
than cleaner fuels such as natural gas or oil, is used.
Specific work on materials for use in MHD applica-
tions is usually not a large part of the overall MHD
effort in any country, as the materials technology
currently exists to build operating pilot-scale plants.
However, long-term operation of these plants will
require significant progress in developing higher per-
formance ceramic materials.
USSR. MHD research in the Soviet Union remains
the largest program in the world, with work being
conducted in their small U-02 facility as well as the
U-25 pilot plant facility, both in Moscow. A commer-
cial scale U-500 facility is currently under construc-
tion in Ryazan, near Moscow. Materials R&D in
these facilities is varied, but typically focuses upon
materials for the upstream components, including the
channel, combustor, and diffuser. Channel electrode
materials that have been investigated include combi-
nations of zirconium dioxide with rare earth oxides
and SiC alloyed with several refractory metals. Mag-
nesium dioxide has been used as an interelectrode
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Figure 3
Cross Section of MHD Generator
+ Power
takeoff terminal
Diffuser ? Magnetic
30843 3-86
insulator, as a combustor lining, and as a lining for
various downstream components. The Soviet effort in
materials research should continue to grow with the
rest of their MHD program and will be supported by
work in other Warsaw Pact countries, as formal
agreements have been signed between the Soviet
Union and several of these countries.
Poland. MHD technology has been studied in Poland
since about 1961, with a shift in emphasis since 1972
from clean-fuel-fired combustors to coal-fired com-
bustors. An MHD flow train at the Institute of
Nuclear Research in Swierk is of a sophisticated
design with components composed of aluminum oxide,
silicon carbide, and magnesium oxide. Channel elec-
trode materials investigated by the Polish include
silicon carbide and several combinations of yttrium
Fuel
4
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chamber Name air
holder
Seed
chromate with various metal oxides. The focus of the
Polish work has been combustor technology, which is
vital to the success of any MHD pilot plant. Since the
Soviets are in the process of developing coal-fired
MHD technology, their interest will help to continue
the Polish program, as cooperative pro rams exist
between the Soviet Union and Poland.
China. China is actively involved in MHD research at
three major institutions. China's large coal resources
have been a significant factor in the recent decision to
develop coal-fired MHD plants, but existing facilities
use petroleum-based fuels. Materials research has
been centered on zirconium dioxide and lanthanum
chromate channel electrodes and magnesium oxide
- Power
takeoff terminal
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insulator materials, with additional significant work
on combustor materials. Most materials-related work
has been carried out at the Shanghai Institute of
Ceramics and in the Shanghai silicate industry. China
continues to follow MHD developments in other
countries and should be able to make use of existing
materials technology in its efforts to build a complete
MHD pilot plant.
United States. Since 1980 the US MHD program has
been characterized by a reduction in funding. The
focus of the US program has been on components for
use in an integrated MHD system, such as combustor
work by TRW, generator channel work by AVCO,
and downstream component work by the University of
Tennessee. Thus, the materials development program
has been an add-on to the development of MHD
carbide, and chromium oxide) and interelectrode insu-
lator materials (magnesium oxide, zirconium dioxide,
aluminum oxide, and Sialon).
India. Since 1980 India has been making steady
progress in the construction of a 5- to 15-megawatt
pilot plant, but to date it appears the plant has not
been put into operation. The plant is assumed to have
been designed for use with coal-derived liquids, and is
designed with a zirconia (ZrO2) combustor lining and
aluminum oxide interelectrode insulators. Other ma-
terials under study in the MHD program are MgO
doped LaCrO3 and LaCoO; SrZrO, compounds for
use as semihot electrodes. A significant portion of the
work on the Indian MHD program has been support-
ed through agreements with the Institute of High
Temperatures in Moscow, and as such they probably
have access to materials research conducted at the
Soviet institution. India appears to be committed to
continue MHD research in the near future and will
probably start to generate meaningful data from its
pilot plant in Tiruchirapalli, but materials-related
data take a long time to compile: no significant data is
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system components.
Work at the Montana Energy Research and Develop-
ment Institute has identified some promising materi-
als for use in high-temperature heat exchangers such
as magnesia-alumina spinels. AVCO has run an
MHD channel for 1,000 hours using platinum and
stainless steel electrodes on a fuel that simulated coal,
but little work is being done at present on ceramic
electrodes. Work at the University of Tennessee has
included the use of aluminum oxide/chromium oxide,
because this material is resistant to the corrosion of
molten potassium sulfate found in the downstream
part of the system.
Japan. The slow but continuing and well-planned
growth of the Japanese MHD development program
is evidenced by the construction of the Mark VII
power plant, which is part of the second phase of a
program initiated in 1976. The Japanese have shifted
their emphasis from oil to coal as a fuel, but some of
the work continues to study oil firing. Development of
materials for the MHD system is concentrated on
channel electrode materials (rare earth oxides, silicon
expected in the near term.
The Netherlands. MHD research in the Netherlands
has been primarily concerned with closed-cycle MHD
power generation, but many of the materials-related
problems are the same as those in open-cycle process-
es. The present design for the closed-cycle generator
uses silicon carbide electrodes and boron nitride inter-
electrode insulators with a coating of silicon nitride
protecting the boron nitride. Alumina is used as a
thermal insulator on the cold face of the electrodes.
This design has not yet been tested, according to
available information. The MHD effort in the Neth-
erlands has a long history and is expected to continue
in the future, with the level of effort dependent upon
available funding.
Technology Comparisons
Heat Engine Materials
The USSR lags the United States, Japan, and West-
ern Europe in the development of ceramics for heat
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engine applications. The Soviet materials approach
differs, however, in that they have placed a stronger
emphasis on ceramic matrix composites as opposed to
monolithic ceramics. The most effort has been devot-
ed to silicon carbide/silicon nitride particulate com-
posites. As a result, Soviet heat engine ceramics have
much lower strength than US and other non-Commu-
nist country materials. Fiber-reinforced ceramics are
also believed by the Soviets to have greater potential
than monolithic ceramics. The Soviets are apparently
having difficulty in processing silicon nitride to high
density and are deficient in injection-molding technol-
ogy and in techniques for maintaining high purity and
high quality throughout all steps in the fabrication
process
The Japanese are committed to developing high-
performance ceramics into a viable industry, with
ceramics for automotive engine applications being one
of their major markets. Currently, neither Japan nor
the United States can claim to be the overall leader in
ceramics technology. Japan leads in production of
ceramic parts; the United States leads in basic scien-
tific research on ceramics and in purity of powders.
There is a perception in the West that the Japanese
Government stimulates development activity, guides
development in certain directions, and promotes coop-
eration and technology sharing in ceramics research
being conducted by private industry. Although the
government is funding research in national laborato-
ries ($100-150 million per year), it provides only a
small portion of private industry funding. The Japa-
nese Government views its task as one of assessing
long-term economic trends and determining how the
nation might benefit the most from these trends.
Japanese companies are investing $150-200 million
per year of their own funds in ceramics R&D, which
amounts to 20 to 50 percent of their total ceramic
R&D budget even though sales from fine ceramics
account for less than 1 percent of total sales. This
combined effort is estimated to be three to six times
that of the US R&D effort.
West Germany leads Western Europe in the develop-
ment of structural ceramics but lags the United States
and Japan. The West Germans possess an outstanding
capability in most aspects of ceramics technology,
including materials R&D, production of high-quality
powders, and fabrication of ceramic components.
West Germany is assessed to have the same technol-
ogy level as the United States and Japan for design of
a ceramic engine but to lack specific plans to do so.
Because of uncertainties with reliability, the econom-
ics of high-volume production, and proof of improved
performance, European manufacturers are not yet
willing to commit ceramics to the engine production
line.
Sweden ranks next, and the firm ASEA excels in
component fabrication. The United Kingdom, which
in the late 1960s was the first to become interested in
the use of silicon nitride for structural applications,
has only recently renewed its research interests. UK
firms are now promoting the Sialon family of ceram-
ics. Other non-Communist countries, including
France, Italy, Ireland, and South Korea, have strong
interests. But most of the world is waiting to see how
successful the United States and Japan will be in
adapting ceramics in heat engines. These develop-
ments are expected to be incremental, with the all-
ceramic engine being a long-term goal
In summary, the three principal participants in the
competition in the West to develop ceramics for heat
engines are the United States, Japan, and West
Germany. The United States was the earliest to
undertake significant R&D in this area, with large
funding commitments beginning in 1971. However, it
should not be forgotten that a major contribution
toward demonstrating the feasibility of ceramics,
particularly silicon nitride, came from the work of
Godfrey in the United Kingdom in the 1960s. West
Germany initiated an effort in the mid-1970s, and
this program has had some successful demonstrations.
The last to enter the competition was Japan, the
country that poses the greatest challenge to the
United States in terms of early commercial applica-
tion of heat engine ceramics. Figure 4 provides a
comparison of this activity.
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Figure 4
Generalized Comparison of Structural
Ceramics Activity for Heat Engines, 1960-85
Armor Materials
The Soviets are assessed to have been the first to field
ceramic tank armor. They have possessed this techni-
cal ability since the mid-1960s, and the most likely
candidates for this armor are aluminum oxide or
silicon carbide. The United States is currently devel-
oping ceramics of higher ballistic performance for
armor applications, namely boron carbide and titani-
um diboride. These materials are costly to process and
have received much less research attention in the
USSR. Only since 1983 have the Soviets demonstrat-
ed a capability for hot pressing a high-quality boron
carbide. Still, either titanium diboride or boron car-
bide would be of high interest because of Soviet
requirements for providing tanks with radiation pro-
tection
West Germany, Japan, Israel, and France are all on
the verge of incorporating ceramics into the main
armor system of a tank. The United States technically
could have done so already but was not able to accept
the disadvantages associated with poor multihit capa
bility and increased cost.
Cutting-Tool Materials
With respect to cutting tools, both tungsten carbide
and aluminum oxide are widely available and repre-
sent very mature technologies. The Soviets have basi-
cally the same materials as all other industrialized
countries. Overall quality in terms of wear resistance
may be lower, but Soviet manufacturing capabilities
are not being limited by cutting-tool materials. One
technological aspect in which the Soviets hold a lead
is shock compression of boron nitride powders to
achieve a sintered cutting tool insert with improved
toughness. Japan is only examining the feasibility of
this technique, whereas the Soviets are in commercial
production.
The most significant aspect of ceramic cutting-tool
technology that relates to structural ceramics is the
development of silicon nitride. Techniques being de-
veloped for heat engine applications are equally appli-
cable to cutting tools. That is, improvements in
toughness will allow faster machining operations and
fuller utilization of numerical control. Japan and the
United States can be considered in the forefront of
this technology, followed by West Germany. Once
these materials are commercially available, they can
be expected to be in use by all the industrialized
countries.
Japan and the European countries appear to be larger
users of ceramic cutting tools than the United States.
This is because of the relative difficulty of obtaining
tungsten following World War II. For 1982 it is
estimated that the value of ceramic tool production in
Japan was $5.5 million, while by comparison, the
largest European supplier, Feldmuhle A.G. of Germa-
ny, alone had a $12 million sales volume. In the
United States it is estimated that total ceramic
cutting-tool sales amounted to about $20 million,
much of which represented imports and constituted
only about 1.5 percent of the total cutting-tool
market.
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MHD Materials
The USSR has a clear lead in the overall development
of MHD power systems, and is only slightly behind
the United States in the development of ceramic
materials for MHD applications. The slight US lead
is the result of the US commitment to the use of coal
fuels, which cause more severe erosion and corrosion
and therefore require higher performance materials.
Currently, Japan is clearly lagging the United States,
while both China and India are lagging by a more
substantial amount. The potential exists for the Japa-
nese to apply their expertise in heat engine and
electronic ceramics to MHD materials developments.
As the various countries switch from clean fuels like
natural gas to coal, they also will be faced with the
need to develop higher performance ceramics. Given
the current lack of emphasis in the United States on
materials R&D for MHD applications, the present
US lead may soon diminish.
Heat Engine Materials
The uncooled diesel engine is expected to be the first
new, commercial engine system to take advantage of
the properties of ceramics. The uncooled diesel may
become commercially available in the late 1980s or
early 1990s. It is anticipated that the uncooled diesel
will result in fuel consumption savings of 10 to 15
percent compared with fuel consumption when using
current diesel engine technology. The adiabatic diesel
and/or automotive gas turbine engines could be intro-
duced commercially as early as the mid-1990s. These
engines are expected to provide fuel consumption
savings of approximately 20 to 30 percent compared
with consumption rates with current diesel engine
technologies. Ceramics are unlikely to penetrate the
aerospace engine application area to a significant
degree until well into the next century. (This latter
projection probably does not take into consideration
the efforts to develop carbon/carbon engine hardware
which, if successful, could see significant application
in cruise missile engines within the next 10 years.
The Soviet Union is expected to remain behind the
United States, Japan, West Germany, and Sweden in
the application of ceramics for heat engines. The one
advantage the Soviets appear to have is in ceramic
composites, which may prove to be excellent candi-
date materials. In spite of the R&D that the Soviets
have devoted to composites, this class of materials is
still considered to be in only the early stages of
development
In the future, unless the United States makes a
concerted effort to increase its advanced ceramics
program, Japan will take the lead in this technology.
Japan already dominates both the supply of advanced
ceramic powders and the electronic components busi-
ness, of which Kyocera has 70 percent of the world
market. Japan has a larger, more organized R&D
program, and Japanese businesses are willing to ac-
cept short-term losses to gain a long-term product
market
Japanese companies are aggressively pursuing a posi-
tion of world leadership in ceramics. Kyocera is
committed to becoming the world leader in manufac-
turing of heat-resistant automotive and gas turbine
engine parts by 1990. Ube Industries, Limited, plans
to increase its production of silicon nitride powder
from 6 metric tons per year to 100 metric tons by late
announced that it would triple its production of fine
powders beginning in 1985
West Germany and Sweden are expected to maintain
a high degree of capability in fabricating heat-engine
components. Present methods of hot isostatic pressing
will probably have to be replaced with more cost-
effective techniques, assuming that sufficient property
values can be achieved. In Germany, the BMFT has
identified further ceramic engine research as one of
five major research areas through 1988. Because the
West Germans want their automotive industry to
remain competitive with the United States and Japan,
German automotive companies will probably contract
with US and Japanese companies for ceramic engine
parts. They will continue, however, to lag the United
States and Japan. Sweden will also lag but will
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manage to have a place in the ceramic industry
through the leadership of companies like ASEA and
Hoganaes
The United Kingdom will become more active in the
near future as it makes up for time lost during the
past 10 years when very little effort was being applied
in this area. The Collyear Commission has recom-
mended an expenditure of $18 million over a five-year
period with over half of this amount to be spent by
government. The commission also recommended the
establishment of a materials-coordinating group to set
up consortiums to develop key technologies. The
United Kingdom will still continue to lag the United
States, Japan, and West Germany.
Armor Materials
The non-Communist world has yet to field a ceramic
armor system on a combat vehicle. It is difficult to
predict who will be first, but Japan, France, Germa-
ny, Sweden, and Israel are all contenders and will
probably beat the United States, in spite of all the
R&D effort the United States has placed in the area
of armor. The presence of ceramic armor on Soviet
tanks, while highly likely, must still be confirmed.
The only use of ceramics in personnel armor will be in
that for aircrewmen and in other limited applications
where the excessive weight and restraints on mobility
can be tolerated in order to gain the protection.
Overall, the adoption of ceramics for armor will be
dependent on the decision by system program manag-
ers to incorporate these materials at the onset of
design. This will allow the problems associated with
multihit capability to be minimized through mechani-
cal design techniques. The use of ceramics will be
most appropriate where a high degree of ballistic
protection is required with a minimum weight penalty
and where the increased cost can be tolerated. The
adoption of ceramics in heat engines should create a
large-volume market that will serve to lower the costs
of these materials for armor applications. The most
likely candidate, which has excellent potential for
both applications, is silicon carbide
Cutting-Tool Materials
The greatest future impact of ceramic materials on
the machine-tool industry will be the widespread
availability of silicon nitride for cutting-tool inserts.
This proliferation will follow the course of ceramic
heat-engine materials, since advances in one area will
benefit the other. Japan can be expected to try to
dominate this market, with the United States and
West Germany providing the most competition. Be-
cause the Soviets have not devoted many resources to
development of silicon nitride for heat engines, they
cannot be expected to benefit from the use of silicon
nitrides as cutting-tool materials
Table 2 contains some optimistic projections regard-
ing US sales growth of high-performance ceramic
cutting tools and the possible cost savings resulting
from the substitution of such tools over the period
1990 to 2000. Among the assumptions on which this
table is based is the estimated potential for ceramic
cutting tools to capture 50 percent of the market now
held by carbide tools. It is also assumed that both
material improvements and process controls will re-
sult in improved ceramic cutting-tool reliability.
Because European and Japanese manufacturers have
had more experience and greater commercial success
to date with high-performance ceramic cutting tools,
they may be significantly further along the so-called
learning curve than the United States, and thus in a
better competitive position to capture much of the
future growth projected for this ceramic market. It is
anticipated that the beneficial interaction with other
high-performance ceramic applications will also be
greater in Europe and Japan because of the greater
integration of individual ceramic manufacturers.
While there are benefits to substituting ceramic cut-
ting tools for tools made from strategic materials,
these benefits have probably been exaggerated. Rath-
er, the principal benefits of increased use of ceramic
cutting tools are in areas of improved machining
productivity. The future consequences for the US
competitive position are difficult to determine but do
not appear to be beneficial because of the clear lead of
Japan, the possible lead of European countries, and
the more advanced R&D being performed in both
places on ceramic cutting tools. The Soviets can be
expected to become more interested in the use of
silicon nitride cutting tools to replace tungsten, the
supply of which is becoming increasingly critical in
the USSR.
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Table 2
Projections for US
Cutting-Tool Market
experiencing a decrease in the level of funding, which
will have a major impact on the probability of future
Total US sales of carbide and 704 740 777
ceramic cutting tools
Total US sales of advanced ceram- 5.0 10.8 20.4
is cutting tools as a percentage of
carbide plus advanced ceramic
tools
Total US sales of advanced ceram- 35.2 79.9 158.5
is cutting tools
Total US cost savings from substi- 118 269 533
tution of advanced ceramic cutting
tools
Source: Charles River Associates, January 1984
NOTE: The demand referred to here is sales of carbide plus
advanced ceramic cutting tools. (u)
MHD Materials
The present ranking in MHD materials development,
in which the United States holds a slight lead, is
expected to continue until 1990, mainly because of the
long delay between research advancements and imple-
mentation. Slow but steady progress is likely world-
wide with the present rate of funding. The perfor-
mance of existing ceramic candidates has yet to be
established for long-term commercial applications, so
future needs are not really certain. (Existing genera-
tors have not operated long enough [thousands of
hours] to determine if these materials will survive in a
coal-fired, full-scale MHD environment. Odds are
that further improvements will be necessary.) F--]
Japan poses the greatest threat to the US lead in
MHD materials development. This postulation is
based on Japanese expertise and progress in other
aspects of advanced ceramics, namely heat engines
and electronics. If Japanese efforts are directed to
MHD materials development to an extent comparable
to that of heat engines, a significant breakthrough
could result. Even so, basic research successes would
not impact system developments for the next 20 years.
At present, however, the Japanese MHD program is
success.
Introduction
The technical exchange of information related to
ceramics is believed to have occurred somewhat freely
between individuals, through joint ventures, and
through governments that have had specific target
technologies. The primary motivation in the ex-
changes appears to have been the promise of commer-
cial gain or the use of information for military
applications. Records of transfers are somewhat
sparse, primarily because the ceramics field is so large
and diverse and because no one was monitoring or
recording the multitude of exchanges of all types that
were taking place
In many countries that are leaders in the ceramics
field, the training of scientists in leading universities
has taken place for many years. An example of this is
the current situation in which many Chinese students
attend universities in the United States.
A few of the technical transfers are listed below and
can be used as a reference to the types of exchanges of
which we have record.
Meetings and Conferences
During the conference entitled "Ceramics for High-
Performance Applications III-Reliability" held in
July 1979, the Japanese firm Kyocera described a
breakthrough in very-high-quality, single-phase sili-
con carbide-FC-201. Dr. Hamand described the
Japanese Moonlight Ceramic Heat Engine project
regarding gas turbines, magnetohydrodynamics, and
waste heat utilization. The West German and US
programs were also reviewed. An agreement was
signed by the West Germans with the International
Energy Agency implementing an agreement for a
program of research and development on high-tem
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perature materials for automotive engines. The US
Department of Energy was a signatory and the Japa-
nese planned on joining this interagency agreement to
exchange information and papers on ceramics for auto
engines and gas turbines.
The Fourth International Meeting on Modern Ceram-
ics Technology was held in Italy in mid-1979. The
joint effort of the Fiat Research Center and British
Ceramics Research Association to find a method for
producing and densifying reaction-bonded silicon ni-
tride (RBSN) engine parts was described. During
private discussions it was revealed that in Europe hot
isostatic pressing was being actively explored for
diesel engine parts, and in Japan for magnetohydrody-
namic systems.
In September 1980 a group of Japanese ceramic
engineers visited the USSR for 30 days and toured
Soviet ceramic research facilities in Moscow. The
flow of information included many Soviet questions
concerning West German, UK, and US ceramic
programs as well as those of the Soviets and the
USSR. In December 1981 ASEA of Sweden accepted
a contract for isostatic presses at Voest-Alpine of
Austria to be added to equipment destined for the
Soviets. A US company could not bid because of
restrictions imposed by the Coordinating Committee
for East-West Trade Policy (COCOM)
During a visit to the Mechan-
ical Engineering Research Institute (MERI), Kiev, a
wide variety of analytical equipment, principally of
US, West German, and Japanese origin, was ob-
served. The laboratory maintains three US and two
Japanese electron microscopes, several X-ray defrac-
tometers and nuclear microprobes from West Germa-
ny and Japan, and several US differential scanning
calorimeters, gas chromatographs, and spectrometers.
Early in 1978, Dorst Company of West Germany
made 10 ceramic powder compacting presses for the
Soviets. Because of a foul-up, the Soviets insisted on
an old design that was no longer in production, and it
was made up and delivered
In late 1978 the All-Union Institute for Design of
Heat-Resistant Materials, Leningrad, received a re-
quest to design and construct a production shop for
the fabrication of aluminum oxide balls up to 70
millimeters in diameter. The balls reportedly were to
be used for a new type of Soviet tank armor.
]the Soviets had heard about earlier
US work on ceramic ball armor and wanted to follow
a similar concept. The Soviets had experimented with
porcelain balls, but opted for alumina, which parallels
early-to-mid-1970s US Navy ballistic experiments.
A delegation of Soviets visited Japan in June 1981
and toured the Kokubu Plant (Kaghoshima Prefec-
ture) of the Kyoto Ceramic Company. During this
time this company was engaged in developing ceramic
materials for tank armor.
A Soviet publication containing an article on the
penetration of fused quartz provided a clear indication
of the Soviet interest in penetration of glass- or
ceramic-cored laminated tank armors. From the ref-
erences, we also inferred that the Soviets had a large
data base of Western literature that contained pub-
lished information on Western weapons R&D. Their
work on advanced tubular shaped charges that could
be used to defeat laminated glass-cored armors and
cause disruption by shockwave interactions implied
they were aware of US armor work.
Most recently the Soviets have expressed interest in
obtaining Kyoto developed ceramics for use in Soviet
tank engines (for example, pistons) and in ceramics
recrystallization technology for armor penetrator ap-
plications (for example, projectile tips). At least one
Soviet technician is a trainee at a Kyoto ceramics
plant.
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Various aspects of Austrian ceramic cutting-tool tech-
nology have been transferred to the USSR. In 1981
student exchanges occurred with the Technical Uni-
versity of Vienna in the area of inorganic materials.
During this same time this facility was conducting
research on hot isostatically pressed ceramic cutting
tools of unidentified composition, and a presentation
was made on this topic at an international conference
in Minsk, USSR.
In 1981 the Austrian firm Metalwerk Plansee built a
turnkey plant in Kasakhstan (south-central USSR) for
producing titanium nitride coatings on tungsten car-
bide cutting-tool tips.
Czechoslovakia. Automated rotary presses, believed
used to fabricate ceramics such as tungsten carbide
and boron nitride, are being purchased by the Czecho-
slovaks from the Japanese. The particular presses are
manufactured by the Sugahara Company, Ltd. F_
At least two Czechoslovak facilities have obtained
Japanese sintering systems. Known facilities include
the Tatra Machine Tool Company and the Ceramics
Research Institute of the Czechoslovakia Academy of
Sciences, both in Prague. The sintering system, pro-
duced by the Yoshizuka Company, represents circa
1980 Japanese state of the art. The equipment is
alledgedly being purchased for automotive, aircraft,
electric motor, valves, and gear applications. The
Sumitomo Electric Company and the Mitsubishi
Mining and Metals Company use identical equipment
for tungsten alloy penetrator manufacture. Clearly,
this particular sintering system can be used for the
manufacture of numerous components for military
equipment and could be used to sinter ceramic as well
Implications
The transfer of US technical literature in the area of
basic materials science, in which the United States is
a clear leader, represents the most significant area of
technology transfer. This same type of information is
transferred at technical meetings and symposiums.
The United States also benefits from foreign R&D in
those specific areas in which the United States is
behind other countries; some US researchers recog-
nize the positive aspects of technology transfer and
view it as a viable part of the overall US program that
must not be constrained. In terms of actual hardware,
the sale of hot isostatic presses by the Swedish firm
ASEA is of greatest significance. These presses are in
use around the world and will continue to be available
to proscribed nations, as Sweden is not a member of
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as metallic parts.
China. joint US-Chinese Seminar on Microstructure
and Properties of Ceramic Materials held in Shanghai
in May 1983 was attended by 15 Chinese and 14 US
participants. In addition, there were approximately 20
official Chinese observers and an equal number of
unofficial observers
There is an active exchange program between re-
searchers of the Shanghai Institute of Ceramics (SIC)
and the National Inorganic Research Materials Insti
COCOM
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materials.
There is also no doubt that all of the US experience
has not yet added up to an application that is an
unqualified success, yet the effort to develop ceramics
for heat engines continues to be reasonably well
supported, based on the promise of increased fuel
efficiency and potentially lower cost nonstrategic
able to make better ceramic components
The Japanese efforts to develop ceramics for heat
engines, and probably the related programs in other
countries as well, have benefited greatly from US
research and have had some visible, but again, not
unqualified, success. Because of the closed nature of
Soviet and other Communist Bloc programs, we do
not have enough detail to permit a reasonable judg-
ment of where these countries stand with regard to
even the seriousness of their intent to incorporate
ceramics into heat engines. We do note that a few
ceramic materials, (for example, mullite-reinforced
aluminum oxide and silicon nitride-silicon carbide
composite) are being investigated by the Soviets, and
are not under active study elsewhere. And even
though the Soviets have a lead in some aspects of
ceramic processing (for example, self-propagating
high-temperature synthesis, explosive compaction,
and so forth), this alone does not suggest that they are
Advances in design capability and better understand-
ing of the heat engine operating environment devel-
oped through experience gained in US programs have
had a significant influence on efforts to develop better
ceramic materials, not only in the United States but
in other countries as well. These efforts have not yet
succeeded in producing a hoped-for breakthrough in
materials, such as a ductile ceramic, and it has been
recognized for some time that the inherent properties
of ceramics that make them attractive for high-
temperature, corrosive-environment applications less-
en such a possibility. Nor is it likely that the flaw-free
ceramic will be made soon, since no large-scale
process for making materials can yet be controlled
Heat Engines well enough to eliminate defects totally. Current
There is no doubt that the United States has accumu- ceramic materials development efforts are therefore
lated the largest amount of direct experience with aimed at producing ceramics with some useful for-
ceramic heat engine parts, and has freely shared such giveness, measured in terms of increased resistance to
experience through open-literature publications.
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the cracking (toughness). At this time, we also lack
component operational experience that would quanti-
tatively relate improved toughness in ceramics to
increased heat engine component reliability. F____]
The use of ceramics for heat engines is still a promise
that has not been realized. Brittleness will continue to
be the dominant ceramic property, and this will
govern the acceptance by engine designers to an
extent far greater than the accumulation of isolated,
one-of-a-kind, hardware operational successes. It will
be useful to watch closely the already announced
intention of a Japanese auto manufacturer to intro-
duce a ceramic rotor turbocharger in 1986. This date
has been slipped several times already, and may be
slipped again.
Armor
The aspect of armor technology that will benefit most
from ceramic materials is tank armor. Ceramics will
allow kinetic-energy munitions (long rod penetrators)
to be defeated with less weight penalty than other
armor materials. Even though brittleness and associ-
ated low multihit capability will continue to be a
problem, which must be addressed through proper
armor system design, ceramics are ballistically the
best all-around armor materials. The USSR is as-
sessed to have already developed and fielded ceramic
tank armor. The United States has conducted suffi-
cient materials R&D and exploratory development,
but has not devoted enough attention to manufactur-
ing processes related to the total armor system. As a
result it appears that Japan, France, Israel, Sweden,
or West Germany might field ceramic tank armor
before the United States. This will have a significant
effect on combat survivability of tanks, particularly
against kinetic-energy threats. Other non-Communist
countries can be expected to follow the lead countries.
Cutting Tools
Although future manufacturing capabilities are not
critically dependent on ceramic cutting tools, there
are some distinct advantages in productivity to be
provided by new materials such as silicon nitride. For
example, computer numerical control allows increased
machining speeds, but without improved cutting-tool
materials wear is too severe. Silicon nitride will
provide excellent wear resistance and also will be
tough enough to permit interrupted cuts to be made.
In the near term, this will be the largest market for
high-performance ceramics
MHD
Sufficient ceramic materials R&D has already been
conducted to meet the immediate needs of MHD
power generator designs. It appears that materials
developments are outpacing systems developments.
Higher performance ceramics may be needed in the
future, but requirements have not yet been identified.
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Amorphous
Elastic modulus
Ferrites
Cermet
Glacis
Green bodies
Hot isostatic pressing
Hot-pressing
Injection molding
Liquid-phase sintering
Mullite
Plasma chemical
synthesis
Reaction bonding
Self-propagating
high-temperature
synthesis
Appendix B
Glossary
Noncrystalline; having no crystal lattice structure.
Elastic stress per unit elastic strain.
Compounds of ferric oxide with another oxide.
A material composed of discrete ceramic particles in a metal matrix.
The front slope of a combat tank hull.
Compressed ceramic powder prior to agglomeration by sintering.
The fabrication of ceramic shapes from powder by the simultaneous application of
heat and nominally equal pressure in all directions.
The fabrication of ceramic shapes from powder by the simultaneous application of
heat and pressure.
A process for shaping ceramic bodies by mixing a plasticizer with the ceramic
powder and then injecting it into a die.
Sintering of a ceramic body under conditions in which a liquid phase is present
during part of the sintering cycle.
A form of aluminum silicate having the chemical formula 3A120, 2SiO2.
A ceramic powder production process in which the compound is chemically formed
in the heat of a plasma.
The production of ceramics by a process in which sintering and chemical reaction
between two or more components take place simultaneously. Also called reaction
sintering.
A ceramic production process in which the elemental components are ignited and
the subsequent exothermic reaction chemically forms the ceramic compound by a
self-sustaining combustion wave.
A ceramic compound composed of silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, and silicon
nitride.
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A family of compounds containing silicon, oxygen, and one or more metallic
elements, with or without hydrogen. Examples are asbestos, mica, feldspar, clays,
and cement.
Sintering The agglomerating of ceramic powders to form a solid body by heating.
Sitall
Slip casting
Whiteware
A Soviet name for glass-ceramic materials that are formed in the glassy state and
then heat treated to produce a crystalline material.
A process in which a ceramic slurry (slip) is poured into a plaster mold that absorbs
the water, leaving a solid body in the shape of the mold.
Ceramic articles made from clays; earthenware.
This appendix is Unclassified.
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Appendix C
Bibliography
The following is a list of documents that will give more information to the interested reader.
Bell, John. "The Ceramics Age Dawns," New Scientist, 26 January 1984, pp 10-21. (u)
Katz, R. Nathan. "High Temperature Structural Ceramics," Science, Vol. 208, 23 May 1980, pp 841-847. (u)
Katz, R. Nathan. "Ceramics for the Army of the Eighties," Army Research, Development, and Acquistition
Magazine, Vol. 21, No. 6, November-December 1980, pp 1-4. (u)
McIntyre, Ruluff D. "Ceramics-A Material Whose Time Has Come," Materials Engineering, June 1983, pp
19-24. (u)
Sanders, Howard J. "High-Tech Ceramics," Chemical and Engineering News, 9 July 1984, pp 26-40.
(u)
Charles River Associates Inc., "Technological and Economic Assessment of Advanced Ceramic Materials,"
CRA Report No. 684, August 1984. (u)
Ceramic Bulletin, Vol. 64, No. 2, 1985. (u)
This appendix is Unclassified.
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