NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 22; RUMANIA; GENERAL SURVEY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: NIS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200110033-7
• Release Decision: RIF
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 182
• Document Creation Date: October 25, 2016
• Sequence Number: 33
• Content Type: REPORTS

NIS 22 GS (REV)
Romania
GENERAL SURVEY
JULY 1970
SECRET
'lee
W
_4 1
SECRET
NA FOREIGN
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GENERAL SURVEY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
This General Survey supersedes the one dated
April 1967, copies of which should be destroyed.
Page
Glossary.. vii
Chronology viii
1. Introduction 1
2. Geography 3
A General 3
1. Topography
3
2. Climate
3
B. Military geographic regions
3
1. West Romanian Plain
4
2. Danube -Prut Plains
6
3. Transylvanian Basin
7
4. Romanian Mountains
7
C. Strategic areas
8
1. Bucharest
8
2. P1o1gti
8
3. Other important areas
9
D. Internal routes
9
E. Approaches
10
1. Land
10
2. Sea
10
3. Air
11
3. Trawportatbn and Telecommunications 15
A. General
15
B. Railroads
18
C. Highways
17
D. inland waterways
19
E. pteihm
I 20
F. Parts
20
C. Merdhom swine
22
IL Civil air
24
L Airfields
23
1. Td "awnun k s 6 oft
277
4. SGCWq*W 29
A. CAN" 29
8. Pbpaudw 29
1. QWTA 29
L Dberexal o 30
z Compoeitioo sad &m& 31
4, 34
&P1*C
NO FOI OGN DISSEM
SECT=
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C. Structm -a and characteristics of the society 34
1. EYihnic composition 34
2. Romanian language 36
3. Social stratification 37
4. National attitudes 37
D. Manpower and labor 38
1. Planning and utilization 38
2. Manpower resources 39
3. Characteristics of the labor force 40
4. Labor productivity, working conditions, and wages 42
5. Labor relations and trade unions 44
E Health and welfare 45
1. General 45
2. Nutrition, water, and sanitation 45
3. Medical care and principal diseases 47
4. Health safeguards for nonindigenous personnel 48
5. Level of living 48
a. Consumer products and costs 48
b. Housing 51
c. Public welfare programs 52
6. Social problems 53
F Religion 54
C Education 57
H Public information 61
I. Artistic and cultural expression 66
1. Pre- Communist period 66
2. Communist period 67
5. Political 71
A General
71
B. Structure and functioning of the government
71
1. Constitution
71
2. Structure of the government
74
a. Grand National Assembly
74
b. Council of State
76
c. Council of Ministers
77
d. Local government
79
e judiciary
80
f. Penal codes
81
C. Political dynamics
82
1. Party development
8.3
2. "organization
85
a. National level
87
(1) Party Congress
87
(2) Central Committee
87
(3) Central Auditing Commission
89
(4) Elite top-level organs
89
b. Loral level
90
G Party membership
91
3. Front and mats orpninftu
92
4. Electoral procedures
93
D. National policies
94
1. Docnestie
95
L Foreign policy
98
3. NaHanal dcfrt�c
102
4. Ctwil defame
103
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E. Police and intelligence services 104
1. The Securitate 104
2. The Intelligence Directorate (military) 106
3. Directorate for Securitate Troops 107
4. The Ministry of Internal Affairs 107
F. Subversion 107
G Propaganda 108
H. Suggestions for further reading 110
6. Economic 113
A General 113
1. Introduction 113
2. Economic institutions 113
3 Resources and development 114
4. Intrabloc economic relations 117
B. Sectors of the economy 118
1. Agriculture, fisheries, and forestry 118
2. Fuels and power 121
3 Minerals and metals 123
4. Manufacturing and construction 124
C. Economic institutions and policies 128
1. Economic institutions 128
2 Economic policy 131
3 Labor force 133
D Trade 134
1. Domestic 134
2 Fo -sign 134
3. Balance of payments and foreign aid 142
7. Scientiftc 145
A General
145
B. Organization, planning, and financing of research
145
C. Scientific education, manpower, and facilities
147
D Major research fields
148
1 Air, ground, and naval weapons
148
2. Biological and chemical warfare
148
3 Atomic energy
U9
4 Electronics
149
5. Medical sciences, including veterinary medicine
150
6. Other sciences
150
a Chemistry and metallurgy
150
b. Physics and mathematics
151
c. Astrogeophysical sciences
152
Armed Forces
155
A Ceneral 155
1. Historical 155
2. Defense organization 156
3. Military manpower and morale 156
4. Strength trends 157
5. Training 157
6. Economic support and military budget 158
7 Logistics 159
B Cround forces 159
1. Organization 159
2. Strength, composition, and disposition 159
Training..................... 180
4 Logistics 160
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C. Naval forces 160
1. Organization 161
2. Strength, composition, and disposition 161
3. Training 161
4. Logistics 162
D. Air and air defense forces 162
1. Organization 162
2. Strength, composition, and disposition 163
3. Training 163
a. Preoperational (air) 163
b. Operational (air) 164
c. Surface -to-air missiles 164
4. Logistics 164
a. Air 164
b. Surface -to -air missiles 165
E. Militarized security forces 165
1. Frontier Troops 165
2. Maritime Frontier Guard 165
3. Security Troops 165
AreaBrief 166
FIGURES
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Fig. 1
Military geographic regions and terrain map)
4
Fig. 2
Precipitation, snowfall, relative humidity, cloudiness, tempera-
tures, and thunderstorms (chart)
5
Fig. 3
Nearly flat plains near Bucharest (photo)
6
Fig. 4
Transylvanian Basin in central Romania (photy)
7
Fig. 5
Rugged mountains in Transylvanian Alps (photo)
8
Fig. 6
Hills in eastern Romania (photo)
8
Fig. 7
Bucharest strategic area (map)
9
Fig. 8
Modern section of Bucharest photo)
9
Fig. 9
Ploie�ti strategic area (map)
10
Fig. 10
Oilfield near Ploie �ti (photo)
10
Fig. 11
Strategic areas, internal routes, and approaches (map)
11
Fig. 12
Internal routes (table)
12
Fig. 13
Boundaries (table)
13
Fig. 14
Land approaches (table) I................
13
Fig. 15
D ruble -track railroad section between Ploielti and BuzAu photo)
16
Fig. 16
Diesel electric locomotive photo)
17
Fig. 17
Two-lane, bituminous surfaced road (photo)
18
Fig. 18
Iron Gate project (photo)
19
Fig. 19
Pipelines (table)
21
Fig. 20
Secondary ports (table)
22
Fig. 21
The BAC One Eleven (photo)
24
Fig. 22
Selected airfields (table)
26
Fig, 23
Urban centers (table)
31
Fig. 24
Population by county: urban and rural areas (table)
31
Fig. 25
Age -sex pyramid (chart)
32
Fig. 26
Vital rates, selected countries (table)
32
Fig. 27
Birth rate, by month (chart)
32
Fig. 28
'infant mortality ratt-i (chart)
33
Fig. 29
Population projection to 1990 (chart)
34
Fig. 30
Population and labor force chart)
39
Fig,. 31
Labor force by branch of economic activity and sex chart)
40
Fig. 32
Principal insects and animals adverse to health (table)
49
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Fig. 33
Romanian motor car "Dacia 1,M" photo)
50
Fig. 34
New residential district in Bucharest (photo)
51
Fig. 35
Newly constructed village housing photo)
52
Fig. 36
Cartoon by Eugen Taru (photo)
53
Fig. 37
Interior of Orthodox church photo)
55
Fig. 38
Patriarch Justinian (photo)
56
Fig. 39
School enrollment (table)
58
Fig. 40
Structure of education system chart)
59
Fig. 41
Vocational school in Bucharest (photo)
60
Fig. 42
Village school (photo)
60
Fig. 43
Bucharest University (photo)
60
Fig. 44
Selected Romanian newspapers table)
62
Fig. 45
Selected Romanian periodicals table)
64
Fig. 46
Scinteia Printing House (photo)
64
Fig. 47
Sere from Michael the Brave photo)
65
Fig, 48
Rural handicrafts (photo)
70
Fig. 49
Former territorial- administrative divisions map)
72
Fig. 50
Territorial- administrative divisions map)
73
Fig. 51
Structure of party and government (chart)
75
Fig. 52
Top leadership: party and government (chart)
76
Fig. 53
Historical boundaries (map)
83
Fig. 54
King Carol II (photo)
84
Fig. 55
Gheorghe Gheorghiu -Dej (photo)
84
Fig. 56
Nicolae Ceausescu (photo)
86
Fig. 57
Ion Gheorghe Maurer (photo)
86
Fig. 58
Tenth Party Congress mass meeting ?photo)
88
Fig. 59
Party membership trends chart)
92
Fig. 60
Election results (table)
94
Fig. 61
Romanian Foreign Minister with Soviet officials photo)
98
Fig. 62
Maurer meeting with Mao Tse -tung photo)
100
Fig. 63
De Gaulle with Ceausescu in Romania (photo)
101
Fig. 64
President Nixon with Ceausescu (photo)
102
Fig. 65
Patriotic Guards (photo)
103
Fig. 66
Organization of security and intelligence (chart)
104
Fig. 67
Structure of the Secur #ate chart)
10.>
Fig. 68
Radiobroadcasting to and from Romania (chart;
110
Fig. 69
Focal points of economic activity (nap)
115
Fig. 70
Strategic supply position table)
115
Fig. 71
Indexes of GNP and industrial and agricultural production
(chart)
116
Fig. 72
Composition of GNP, by sector of origin table)
116
Fig. 73
Structure of gross industrial production and employment in
industry (table)
116
Fig. 74
Land use (chart)
118
Fig. 75
Production and yields of principal crops table)
119
Fig. 76
Livestock inventory and output of products table)
119
Fig. 77
Energy position (table)
121
Fig. 78
Electric power production and other sources of energy table)
121
Fig. 79
Output of minerals and metals industry products table)
124
Fig. 80
Output of machinery and equipment table)
125
Fig. 81
Output of chemical industry products table)
12B
Fig. 82
Output of light industry products table)
W.
Fig. 83
Output of the agricultural processing industry (table)
Fig. 84
State budget (chart)
132
Fig. 85
Growth and structure of gross fixed investment (chart)
132
Fig. 86
Distrib-etion of gross fixed investment (chart)
133
Fig. 87
Distrilwtion of gross fixed investment in industry (table)
133
Fig. 88
Growth of foreign trade, by geographic area (chart)
135
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This General Survey was prepared for the NIS under the general
direction of the NIS Committee. Geography, Transportation and
Telecommunications, and Armed Forces were prepared under the
general supervision of the Defense Intelligence Agency, Ch- onology,
Introduction, Sociological, Political, Economic, and Scientific were
prepared under the general supervision of the Central Intelligence
Agency. Research was substantially completed by May 1970.
The NIS Basic Intelligence Factbook provides semiannual up-
dating of basic data of the type appearing in the Area Brief of this
General Survey. A listing of all NIS units dealing with this and other
areas is in the CIA prepared Inventory of Available NIS Publica-
tions, issued quarterly and also bound into the concurrent Faetbook.
A
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Fig. 89
Percentage distribution of foreign trade chart)
135
Fig. 90
Value of foreign trade by geographic area table)
138
Fig. 91
Commodity composition of foreign trade chart)
139
Fig. 92
Share of imports from non Communist cc: mtries table)
139
Fig. 93
Commodity structure of imports by geographic area table)
140
Fig. 94
Imports of selected commodities table)
140
Fig. 95
Commodity structure of exports by geographic area table)
141
Fig. 96
Share of exports to non Communist countries (table)
141
Fig. 97
Exports of selected commodities table)
142
Fig. 98
Organization of scientific and technical research (chart)
146
Fig. 99
Organization of the armed forces chart)
156
Fig. 100
Personnel strengths table)
158
Fig. 101
Military budgets table)
159
Fig. 102
ScuD surface -to- surface missile (photo)
160
Fig. 103
Soviet large submarine chaser similar to those in Romanian
navy (photo)
161
Fig. 104
Yugoslav large guided- missile patrol boat similar to those in
Romanian navy (photo)
161
Fig. 105
GUIDELINE (SA -2) surface -to -air missile photo)
162
Fig. 106
FisxaED fighter aircraft photo)
163
Fig. 107
Border guard watchtower (photo)
165
Fig. 108
Summary Map follows 166
This General Survey was prepared for the NIS under the general
direction of the NIS Committee. Geography, Transportation and
Telecommunications, and Armed Forces were prepared under the
general supervision of the Defense Intelligence Agency, Ch- onology,
Introduction, Sociological, Political, Economic, and Scientific were
prepared under the general supervision of the Central Intelligence
Agency. Research was substantially completed by May 1970.
The NIS Basic Intelligence Factbook provides semiannual up-
dating of basic data of the type appearing in the Area Brief of this
General Survey. A listing of all NIS units dealing with this and other
areas is in the CIA prepared Inventory of Available NIS Publica-
tions, issued quarterly and also bound into the concurrent Faetbook.
A
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GLOSSARY
ABnrurvrAMN ENCrass
ARLUS Romanian- Soviet Friendship Society
ARSR
AVSAP
CFF.......
CFR
CSS
FDP
FUS
GUTU
IAU
IFA
NAVROM
OCLPP
Academy of the Socialist Republic of
Romania
Voluntary Association for the Support
and Defense of the Fatherland
Forestry Railways
Romanian State Railroads
Council of State Security
Peoples Democratic Front
Front of Socialist Unity
General Union of Trade Unions
Air Work Enterprise
Institute of Atomic Physics
Romanian Sea and River Navigation
Organization
Office for Contracting of Privately
Owned Apartments
RCP.......
RWP.......
SPC........
TAROM
UTS
Romanian Communist Party
Romanian Workers Party
State Planning Commission
Romanian Air Transport
Union of Communist Youth
Academy of Medical Sciences
Institute of Fluid Mechanics
Liberal Party
Na':onal Peasant Party
P:owman s Front
Securitate (security forces or secret
police)
Social Democratic Party
United Workers and Peasants Bloc
ROMANIAN
Asociatia Romdna pentru Legaturile de
Prietenie cu URSS
Academia Republicii Socialiste Romania
Asociata Voluntara Sportiva pentru
Apararea Patriel
Cdile Ferate Forestiere
Cdile Ferate RonAne
Consiluil Securitatii Statului
Frontul Democratisi Populare
Frontal Unitatii Socialiste
Uniunea Generala a Sindecatelor
Intreprindere Aero Utile
Institutul de Fizica Atomica
Navigaliume Romdna
Asociatia de Cooperare pentru Con
struirea de Locuinte Proprietate Per-
sonals
Partidul CommuMst Romdne
Partidul Muncitoresc Romdne
Comitetul de Stat at Planificarii
Transporturile Aeriene Romdne
Uniunea Tineretului Communist
Acamemia de Stiinte Medicalc
Institutul de Mecanicd Fluidelor Traian
Vuia
Partidul Liberal
Partidul National Teranese
Frontal Plugarilor
Securitatii
Partidul Social Democrat
Blocul Muncitorese- Taranesc
U n
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Chronology (UIOU)
2d -3d centuries
Dacia, occupying the approximate territory of modern Ro-
A.D.
mania, is a province of the Roman Empire.
13 century
Walachian and Moldavian principalities gradually emerge
to form the nucleus of moden, Romania.
19th -19th centuries
Romania is alternately subjec- to, or allied with, Hungary
and Turkey.
1859 December
Union of the principalities of "A;achia and Moldavia within
the Ottoman Empire.
1878 July
Romania becomes an indepe_dent kingdom.
1918 November
Transylvania anexed from Hungary by Romania.
1920 October
Romania annexes Bessarabia from Russia.
1940 June
Russia annexes Bessarabia from Romania.
August
Romania cedes southern Dobruja to Bulgaria and northern
Transylvania to Hungary.
1941 June
Romania enters World War II against the U.S.S.R.
1944 August
Romania surrenders, is occupied by Soviet troops, and de-
clares war on Germany.
1945 March
Communist- dominated Petru Groza government is formed.
1946 November
Controlled parliamentary elections provide overwhelming
majority for Communist front.
1947 February
Romanian Peace Treaty is signed in Paris.
December
King Michael is forced to abdicate.
1948 February
Communist and Social Democratic parties merge to form
Romanian Workers Party.
1949 March
Collectivization of agriculture officially begins.
1952 May
Politburo members Ana Pauker, Teohari Georgescu, and
Vasile Luca are purged from thy^ party.
1955 December
Party adopts new statute along with second 5 -year plan
(1955 -60).
1956 March
Party First Secretary Gheorghiu -Dej initiates de- Stalinization.
1958 June -July
Soviet occupation troops are withdrawn.
1960 April
U.S.-Romanian claims settlement is signed.
October
Gheorghiu -Dej attends 22d CPSU Congress in Moscow.
1962 March
Farm collectivization is virtually completed.
July -Sept.
Talks between Romanian leaders and other bloc leaders hint
at growing friction between Romanian and bloc concept of
economic integration.
1963 March
Enlarged party Central Committee plenum gives first indica-
tion of Romanian -CEMA dispute.
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April Romania unexpectedly returns its ambassador to Albania.
June
Romania and Yugoslavia initial Iron Gate Project agreement.
July
Gheorghiu -Dej attends CEMA summit conference, where
Romania's economic policy on CEMA is stated.
November
Gheorghiu -Dej visit with Tito makes Romania last bloc coun-
try to resume state -level relations with Yugoslavia.
1964 March
Premier Mourer heads Romanian delegation to Communist
China in attempt to mediate worsening Soviet Chinese
relations.
April
Manifesto proclaims Romanian regime's national, indepen-
dent policies.
May
Indoctrination campaign throughout country on April Mani-
festo has anti Soviet tones.
June
Romania and United States agree to raise legations to embassy
level.
September
In meeting with Gheorghiu -Dej, Tito supports Romania s
independent position.
1965 March
Romania does not attend Moscow meeting of 19 pro Soviet
parties convened to discuss Sino-Soviet dispute.
Gheorghiu -Dej dies and Nicolae Ceausescu is elected new
party chief.
April
U.S. Firestone Tire and Rubber Co. announces decision to
call off negotiations with Romania on construction of syn-
thetic rubber plant.
July
Romanian Workers Party holds *linty (Fourth) Party Con-
gress, changes name to Romanian Cot imunist Party, adopts
new statutes, and approves draft directives for the 5 -year
plan for 1966 -70.
August
Romanian Grand National Assembly manimously adopts
new constitution proclaiming the country a socialist re-
public.
1966 March
Ceausescu leads Romanian party delegation to 23d CPSU
Congress in Moscow.
May
In highly nationalistic speech on 450-, anniversary of the
party, Ceausescu declares military blocs "anachronistic."
June
Chinese Communist Premier Chou En -lai visits Romania.
Warsaw Pact's Political Consultative Committee meets in
Bucharest.
Romania directs strident attack against U.S. involvement in
Vietnam.
Romanian Communist Party approves tt a final form of the
5-year plan for 1966 -70.
1967 January
Romania establishes diplomatic relations vAth West Germany.
June
Romanians refuse to endorse Soviet position condemning
Israelis for their part in the Arab- Israeli war.
September
Romanian Foreign Minister Manescit becomes first Commu-
nist official elected president of U.N. General Assembly.
December
National Party Conference outlines important changes in the
structure of the party and government.
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Ceausescu becomes President of the Council of State, thereby
becoming the head of state as well as of the party.
1968 February Romanian delegation walks out of the Budapest meeting pre-
paring for international Communist conference.
August Ceausescu leads high -level delegation to Prague as sign of
moral support for Dub6ek's leadership.
Romania does not participate in Warsaw Pact invasion of
Czechoslovakia led by Soviet forces, and Ceausescu pub-
licly denounces the action.
Ceausescu meets Tito at Vrsac for contingency planning in
wake of invasion of Czechoslovakia.
1969 March Romanian delegation attends Warsaw Pact meeting in Buda-
pest.
April French President Charles de Caulle visits Romania.
June Ceausescu defends absent Chinese at the international Com-
munist conference in Moscow.
New Chinese ambassador appointed to Bucharest after ab-
sence since 1967.
August U.S. President Nixon visits Bucharest; Soviets react to an-
nouncement by canceling the planned trip of Brezhnev and
Kosygin for purpose of signing a treaty of friendship and
mutual cooperation, which lapsed in February 1968.
Romanian Tenth Party Congress held; Ceausescu's policies
endorsed and his political position strengthened; draft
directives for 1971 -75 plan adopted.
1970 July Premiers Kosygin and Maurer sign the long delayed Soviet
Romanian friendship treaty in the absence of both party
leaders, Brezhnev and Ceausescu.
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1. Introduction (S)
Romania, it perennially sneak and foreign dominated
lapin country in the Balkans, has in recent years suc-
cessfully followed a policy of greater independence
from Soviet domination. A submissive satellite from
1945 until 1960, Romania under the dynamic leader-
ship of Communist Party chiefs Cheorghe Cheorghiu-
Dej and Nicolae Ceausescu has taken maximum
advantage of its own rapid economic growth, as well
as the Sino- Soviet ideological split and the East -West
dialogue to pursue increased freedom of action in eco.
nomic and political affairs. Romania's importance to
the Soviet Union derives not only from its status as one
of the largest states in Eastern Europe in area and pop-
ulation but also from its strategic position along the
corridor between the Carpathians and the Black Sea-
long a route of easy access into and out of the southern
European part of the U.S.S.R.
Probably the most serious challenge to the Romanian'
enrdnging indeprmlence formally declared I�� the Romanian
Communist Party in April llk4 �came with the Warsaw
Pact invasion of errant Czechoslovakia in August 1968.
The invasion contravened all the fundamental principles
of Romania's foreign policy as laid clown in the April
declaration. The most important of these stated that
relations among all Conununist states and parties must
lie basdol on national independence. equal rights, fraternal
mutual aid, noninterference in the internal affairs of
others, and respect for territorial integrity. Thus, the
invasion of Czcchlnlo atria cast a new and ominous
shadow over Romania's future position in the Soviet
orbit.
Since that time Romania has continued to espouse
poblic�l% the Nwe principles of independence on at regular
basis. Bucharest still oppxses Soviet plans for economic
integration of Eivarm l�umpean co ontries under the umlrella
of the Council for Economic Mutual Assistance (CENIA).
on the grounds that such plans could hamper Romania's
:unbitiogt% indlntrializ rtion program and relegate the country
to a pnition of supplier of raw materials for the more
dcselopxol Eastern Ftirop pan countries. Romania's rejection
of this role has been made possible largely because of
its self- sufficiency in f(XKlstllff!-, a good rase materials
base.. rapid indltstriA grosdth. extanding trade and credit
ties with the Wmt, tight party control over all important
faco�ts of %ocial and economic life. and a unified party
leadership. Ruc�harest has tried to balance its rejection
of Soviet plans in this and other areas by agreeing with
the Snidt pimaion uhrov%er it c:an d 6 sd ui&1lit endangering
its indepd -ndent policy.
Tile gro(lodNUrk for `miet control in file postwar
period �the latest epiuxle in a long history of foreign
interference with as poqle ubo have little tradition of
tesistan_e to conlpuents �uas laid in 1944 when the
invading Red Army installed Communists in all level
of government. A pqpet regime, largely trained in Moscow,
was installed in March 1943, and the King was forced
to abdicate in December 1947. Immediately thereafter,
the Romanian Peoples Republic was established, and
the U.S.S.R. abandoned the pretense of tolerating
noncnllab orationists in the government. in the meantime
the U.S.S.R. began exploiting the economy through a
transparent device known as the joint Soviet- Romanian
companies (SOVROM's) am] discriminaton� track agreements.
The presence of Soviet troops in Romania until 193$
insured the regime's utter subservience to the U.S.S.R.
as well as complete control over the population.
Despite the widespread dislike for communism. there
has [wen virtually no overt opposition to the Communist
regime. Moreover, the regime has gained some measure
of popular acceptance since the early 1960's by fostering
nationalism, instituting a slight relaxation of harsh police
controls. and by maintaining its independence in foreign
affairs. In one of its most popular moves, the regime
has thoroughly expunged Russian influences throughout
the country, especially in cultural matters. The Romanian
people also welcome the expansion of contacts with the
West. but the regime is aware of the dangen inherent
in this policy and is keeping careful watch to see that
such contacts do not proKluce pressures for a serious
domestic liberalization.
Although the new txlicies in hoth domestic and foreign
affairs haul their beginnings in the early 1960's under
the rule of Cheorghiu -Dej, who died) in March 196i.
they have been most fruitfulh continued by the regime
of his successor Nicolae Ceausescu. Ceausescu inherited
from Dej not only the promising nesv policies of independence
Nut the secret memories of dark Stalinist deeds as well.
Ceauumcut, in order to form is strong and unified leadership
loyal only to himself, has openly exp ow. d the previous
Stalinist leadenhip. repudiating its violent and illegal
acts. In thus starting with a relatively clean skate. Cdaausesen
has been able to commit himself and his regime to
a more legal adrninistra(ion.
Although great strides have been made in ind mtriuliz diem.
Romania remains a partially developed country with
a relatively low per capita GNP. It hits achieved about
the same degree of economic development as Bulgaria.
Yugmlavia. and Greece. Over half of the labor force
still works in agriculture, which is now largely uc�ialized.
AltbMxtgh Romania agricultural prahi tisity is low rrlative
to that of advanced Western countries, it has been regarded
historically its a coKantry with a high agricultural pttential.
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Current levels of production, however, are high enough
to normally permit export of grain, fruit, vegetables,
livestock, and livestock products.
The country is well endowed with agricultural land,
petroleum, nntural gas, and timber; its hydroelectric
potential is large but mostly unexploited. Romania is
entirely or largely self- sufficient in the production of
salt, sulfur, lead, and zinc, but relies heavily on imports
of rolled steel, iron ore, coke and coking coal, and cotton.
It also must import a large part of its machinery and
equipment, especially that involving advanced
technology.
The 5 -year plan for 1971 -75 is patterned essentially
after previous plans, putting priority on rapid industrialization
through centralized economic planning and administration.
Because of its political and economic successes, the regime
long exhibited no inclination to follow the U.S.S.R. and
the Fast European Communist countries in trying to
reform the traditional Communist economic system. With
the establishment of industrial centrals in 1969, however,
it became evident that Romanian planners have recognized
certain problems endemic to their highly centralized
system and have made some organizational changes to
deal with them.
Romanian efforts toward achieving rapid growth and
diversification of industry have met with considerable
success. During the decade of the 1960's, value added
In industry grew at an estimated average annual rrde
of I I This is the highest rate for any Communist
country, with the pov;'hle exception of North Korea
and North Vietnam v nose industrial growth rates are
not fully known, and it is certainly one of the highest
In the world. This rapid industrial growth was in large
part the result of a high rate of investment, the favorable
effect of improved agricultural production, and large
imports of advanced technology and equipmer,3 from
non Communist countries. Romania was able to pay
for these imports partly by borrowing and partly by
expanding its exports to these countries� c'niefly foodstuffs,
timber products, and petroleum products. This success
has severely retarded the development of a viable consumer
economy.
The Romanian armed forces, which number an estimated
1$6,1)00 (mainly ground forces), comprise one of the
largest in the Warsaw Pact. The regime has shown
dissatisfaction with its ties to the Pact since about 1964.
Since that year Romania has participated in joint Communist
military exercises only as an observer or with limited
military involvement, and since 1962 it hm resisted political
pressure to hold exercises on Romanian territory. Neverthelem
the leadership accepts in principle Romania's obligation R
to participate in Warsaw Pact joint training.
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2. Geography/
A. General
Romania, located in soatheastern Europe and fronting
on the Black Sea. controls the most easily trarersablc
land route lxfisern the Balkans and F;uropean U.S.S.R.
All the political capitals, industrial centers, and seaports
of Enrope are trithin I,800 nautical miles of Bucharest.
the capital and largest city (Summary map inset, Figure
l0h). The oilfields at the head of the Persian Gulf are
within 1,:100 nautical miles. and the Suez Canal is within
1,000 nautical miles. The only major Romanian port.
Constanla, is about 213 nautical miles from the U.S.S.R.
Black Sea naval base at Sevastopol' and less than M
nautical miles from the northern entrance to the 'Turkish
straits. (U!OU)
Romania has an arc., of approximately 91.700 sopuare
mile. slightly smaller than the coimbirm -d areas of New
York and Pennsylvania; the population, estimated at
20.4 mill-on. is alxut two-thirds that of the two states.
The maximum cast -west extent is approximately 450
miles,' and the maximum north -south extent is alxrrt
.300 miles. (U /OU
1. Topography (C)
Allow two thirds of Romania co n%10 of nearly flat
to undulating plains that are mostly peripheral to a
crntral. roughly U- shaped twit of hills and mountains
Figure 11. The mountains and hills separate the plains
in the west from thine in the sonith and cast. The central
part of the country contains broad. mostly flat plains
and low ranges of hills and is nearly enclolsrd by the
U- stalled twit of hills and mountains. The long rugged
arc 411 nwontaims channelires m osctnent along establi hed
tunic.. influences settlement patterns. and prosides a
natural dcfemsisr p,nition.
\ordtrleaf mcigreen and hro:dllrai dreidnous forests
ctiosrr most of the %parsely po/pulatrd mountains and
hills. The plains hate prcdomimantly ctiltisatrd field%
and grasslands. and there are scattered forestrd sections.
A fairl well dcsclopxol network of roads and railroad%
eoonncct% the munlctotrs agricuittira) communities and
the few large cities.
\carls all tide -.twain- of Romania drain into the
Danulx The �urfave drainage is chafacterired in the
apller reaches b% swift. turlxiMnt orrums dieing through
nnnucrons gorges; and in the lower reaches b slow.
me :uudcring strrams that hasc swamp% and marshrs near
their mouths
over Asia and the North Atlantic. In winter (November
through `larch) the weather is cold and cloudv, and
fog and snow arc fre(p lent. In summer (June t6 ongh
September) the weather is warm and mostly sonny, and
thunderstorms and shovers are frequent. At elevations
up to about 2,(00 feet, mean daily minimum temprratiars
in winter range mostly from the high terns OF.) to
the mid -W%. and at higher elevations the minimums
are mach lower. i +f4nt places have recorded absolute
minimums between -3 and :3W. Summer mean daily
maximum temperatures range mostly in the i0's and
lower 80's at elevations up to about 2,000 feet and
are much lower in the higher mountains. Most places
have recorded absolute maximums of more than 100�.
Precipitation in general is light to moderate. Ctratest
mean annual precipitation. near :i0 inches, falls in the
mountains; and least mean annual precipitation, about
13 inches, falls along the coast (Figure 2). The largest
amounts of precipitation occur from rarly May through
August. when thunderstorms and stxrsrn are mint fretlurnt_
Snow generally falls in the period from November throtigh
`larch. Except on the Black Sea coast. snow cover is
present at least 30 days, and several places have from
50 to 75 days with snow cover. January has the greatest
number of days of snow coser at mint places. Snow
depth-s generally cured 1 foot in the mountains and
are less than 1 foot elsewhere.
Mean cl �idinevs is greatest (55% to h050 in Ncnemlict
through May anti (cast (273% to 675%) in June through
October. With few exceptions. mean relathe humidity
Is highest daring winter mornings. hO% to 95%. and
is lim"t during summer afteniont s. 4W t to flit. *6111ility
is generally po orest during winter. when fog is the major
reoriction; it occurs on 2 to 10 days per month at mint
places. Fog is most (rcoluent in the basins and valleys
of the mountains. in the xxuthrrn and eastern plains,
and in the Transylvanian Basin.
Surface wines generally are weak except at higher
elevations in the mountains and in lowland% near the
Black Sea. At mist places. the mean monthly surface
witxl speeds are greatest in March through Slay; hourscr.
mran preds are month Im-% than K knob oxen in these
months Strong winds (22 knots or greater) occur on
Icss than K days per month in all seasons. although
in man% places tilers are as many as 40 to W-5 days
w ith strong w incls annually
2. Climate (U /Olt)
Romani., has it continental climate that is c.ntrolled
primarily by the large, %cnuip ermancnt pressure ssstctns
1 D1 141� Alf' 111 *14,111P tw1- 1IM�A ,,4111( f.i MAM are ttwrvixaii+
11141H .41M
B. Military geographic regions (C)
Therr arr four milit:uv geographic regions �tile WmI
R,rounian Malt, tier Dunuhd-Phil Maur. tilt Trurtsyhanian
Burin. anti the Romuniun Mountains (F igurr 1). Thr
c.ombinution of cnsironmental conditions within each
3
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FIGURE 1. iwiitary geographic regions and terrain (f)
region hus a "thely uniform effect on Inilitary //peratims.
but there would be maArd differrnces lvtwern adjacent
re xions.
1. West Romanian Plain
'The mllstfy flat to rolling plains cif western Rnmania
ncnKe in ele%aiion from ah.ut 400 feet in the north
to 270 feet in the +cnith, The trilling plains slnpr Itently
Ammard from hillock% altinR the eastern margin 111 bnlad.
nearly flat 1(mlanck. Differences in elesation between
salleh' lillthml_s acid adjacrnt crests of the hillock% Renrrully
are less than 300 fret. and slopes are mintly less than
10 in the western part (if the plains. differences in
elmatinn elf mer 70 fret are uncommon, and sloprs
Kctlerally are it-%% than 1 f:. E for scattered arras
Of swamp anti marsh. the plains are well drained by
1
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JA
A
Y Y A
ft Q Q
P.
ey
1/
fx
S
1" nief
4'
olio Pla t sw tm
/y
IaaaeaMa eler mmm it"
toted
JW4 ape MW 1 tM fee"
coevow
tleo+al te/agre
BLACK SEA
10meromm ON flow~ be
sm a"' or aolaeeet
BULGARU
pqp oll MMMMf
g N) 0 Map
MmaMn
0 A io to R
jJ
PROFILE
WEST
ROMAM" MOUMTA"
eoMAWN INAM v M AM TRA 4 WMAN"
OAM1eE~
PLAN MIN
I US"
MOLWTAIrl13
PLANS
Foot
Meters
9000
I 1
BuGAerest
2400
1000 1
I 1
I I
2000
1
5000
1 1
1 I
1600
I
1 1
i I
1200
3000 1
I 1
1
800
1000 i
1
1
400
A 0
O (3
0
100
200
300
Statute Was
Aliproaaute vortical outtoratre 30 1
FIGURE 1. iwiitary geographic regions and terrain (f)
region hus a "thely uniform effect on Inilitary //peratims.
but there would be maArd differrnces lvtwern adjacent
re xions.
1. West Romanian Plain
'The mllstfy flat to rolling plains cif western Rnmania
ncnKe in ele%aiion from ah.ut 400 feet in the north
to 270 feet in the +cnith, The trilling plains slnpr Itently
Ammard from hillock% altinR the eastern margin 111 bnlad.
nearly flat 1(mlanck. Differences in elesation between
salleh' lillthml_s acid adjacrnt crests of the hillock% Renrrully
are less than 300 fret. and slopes are mintly less than
10 in the western part (if the plains. differences in
elmatinn elf mer 70 fret are uncommon, and sloprs
Kctlerally are it-%% than 1 f:. E for scattered arras
Of swamp anti marsh. the plains are well drained by
1
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S ;k
S C6Al1A_
SNINAw
WCNAIItS1/
;y CtAIOrA WC.Alt31
A
MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
MEAN MONTHLY PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
MEMI NUMBER OF DAYS WITH SNOWFALL
OMIT
10o r,
80
00
40
701 III. j
1(MAMI IAl00401
IKKHAKS1
100
0 I
a
o i jVI
b r
30
O 1 /MAMJJA90MDI
SUt11N
100
I
b I
60
b
70 it
O IFMAMIIASONDI
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%j AT SPECIFIED HOURS (BST)
{+UCMAttSt VAINA
3D- 7 p
70 I 2
10 I 10
I
I
0 1 /MAM1lASON 0 IIMAM) IASO.
tUCNANST /tMRASA
100
so
00 0
40 I 1
20
0 II1AAM/1ASONDI
SIAINA
100
b
10
2
0 /MAMI IASONDI
MEAN CLOUDINESS AT SPECIFIED HOURS (LST)
OIMA vio" st VAINA
170 170 170
III I �I�' i
100 I 100 r
ij ill, II I!
p p I
W i t A11MVIt MAXWOM i 1 1 1 y
I a� WAN DM T MAtPAW I
t 40
pw p l i�I WAN 0"T WPGWJM
wll I I I I I I 1 A/SOIYfl MINIMUM I i
.,1
p�..itt.iw 0
p �ii.iLi ltj..
1 f
20' 70 TEMPERATURES ('F)
'10 401
1 0 MAMI IASON/ IIMAMI IASON IIMAMIIASONI
tuv M 9991 11])A qfY M W11 7e9 M nt< 10
CIIA10vA
70
70
10
I
0 /IMAMI IASON
MEAN tN"U OF DAYS WITH
THUNDERSTORMS
FIGURE T. Precipitation, snowfall, relative humidity, cloudiness, temperatures, and
thunderstorms (WOW
rulrnrrlos ssrshsard- Flossing streams which connect with
is major tribut of the Danulie. The major streams
are unostly 50 to 3W feet wide and from 3.3 to 10
feet deep. Meadows, codtivated cnlin, wattered orchards,
and stanch of hroadlcaf dec�idllous trees are the main
h ix-s of srgrt all ion.
'this region is fairly wcll suited for comsrntional ground
oix�rations. The road and railroad networks uff+;rd access
to mint parts of lift region. Construction of new roads
genrrall Would be ras mpreially in the west where
grades mould be low and alignments unrestricted. In
most of the region, conditions are fair for offnutd disixrsal
and crops- counin movement. 1.ex7.111s, however, irrigation
and drainage ditches in the west, scattered wooded areas
in the cast, and areas of wet ground in the north comstitute
obstacles to movement. Seasonally, offroad dispersal and
cross -country movement would he impeded by mud during
thaws in `larch and after heavy rainfalls (mostly from
May through August). Gncculment froxn air otlscrvatioo
would }1e. providtA by scattered forests. Co>%er from flat-
5
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trajectory fire and concealment from ground observation
would be provided by the hillocks along the eastern
edge of the region. Almost all of the region is well
suited for the construction of hunkers, but becausks of
the low relief, the region is unsuited For tunnel -type
Installations.
Tile West Romanian Plain region is well suited for
airborne and airm ohile operations. There are numerous
sites suitable for parachute drops, helicopter landings,
and the landing of assault -type aircraft on unprepared
surfaces. Approaches to sites are clear except from the
east, where they are over mountains. The few existing
airfields are mainly in the southwest. Airfield construction
would be fairly easy, particularly in the west where
little grading would be required and where runway
orientations generally would be unrestricted.
The region is Ixrrly suited for irregular force operations.
The very sparse forest vegetation and flat to rolling,
cultivated terrain provide few opportunities for cover
and concealment, and troop movements could be easily
detected. Concealment from air and ground observations
and cover from small arms fire would he best in the
widely scattered stands of broadleaf deciduous trees from
naid -April to October. Cultivated foods, mainly cereals
and garden vegetables, are wadily available from midsummer
to early autumn. Population density is high and villages
and towns are relatively evenly distributed. Water should
be considered contaminated. Shelter, shelter materials,
and natural fuels would be most plentiful in wooded
areas. Supply by air would he relatively easy.
2. Danuhe -Prut Plains
The plains of southern and eastern Romania have
elevations of generally less than 800 feet; however, in
the cast and northeast there are several hilly areas. Wit!
of which reaches an elevation of 1,9414 feet. Most of
the plains are nearly flat to gently rolling (Figure 3);
diffen�nevs in elevation I>etsren valley h ottoms and drainage
divides are generally less than 325 feet, and slopes are
mostly less than 5%. The terrain in the northeast and
in parts of the area east of the Danube is rolling to
hilly; differences in elevation between valley bottoms
6
and hill crests exceed 1,000 feet in places, and slopes
of up to 20% are common. The major streams flow
south or southeast to the Danubc across.+ broad flood
plains that are bordered in many places by high, steep
bluffs. These streams have meandering courses and widths
that range from 100 to 500 feet. Most major streams
are from 1.5 to 6.6 feet deep. Marshes and swamps
are extensive in the Danubc Delta and are common
along the courses of the large streams. Grasslands and
cultivated crops are the principal types of vegetation,
although forests of predominantly deciduous trees grow
on many hilly areas in the cast and northeast and on
slopes adjacent to the Romanian Mountains region.
This region is mostly well suited for conventianal ground
operations. The read and rail networks facilitate year
round movement, and the construction of new roads
would be fairly cosy except in the hilly areas, in the
Danubc Delta, and along the courses of some of the
major streams. In most cf the region, offroad dispersal
would be fairly easy; in places, however, it would', be
hindered by swamps and marshes. Conditions generally
are favorahle for cross-country movement; the chief hindrances
are the major streams (especially during the spring thaw),
steep slopes in the hill areas, and extensive marshes
in the Danube Delta. Elsewhere, scattered areas of forest
are local obstacles, but they can be bypassed easily.
Concealment from ground observation and cover from
flat- trajectory fire would be provided by surface irregularities.
particularly in the hilly areas. Some concealment from
air observation would be afforded by the predominantly
deciduous forests. The region generally is well suited
for construction of bunker -type installations; the main
exceptions are the poorly drained Danube Delta and
some poorly drained areas along other large streams.
Me region is mostly well suited for airbxme and airrmN!!
operations. On the plains there sire numrmus sites suitable
for parachute drops, helicopter landings, and landing
of assauk -type aircraft on unprepared surfaces. Construction
of airfields. would be fairly easy, with little grading required
and runway orientations unrestricted. In most of the
northeastern part, however, and in scattered areas in
the west and east, sites are few necause of steep slopes
or swamps and marshes. Several airfields suitable for
the landing of assault -type aircraft are mainly in the
southeastern part of the region.
The coast of the region is generally unsuited for large
scale amphibious operations. Nearshore approaches are
partly obstructed by sandbars, shoals, rocks, jetties, piers,
and groins; bottom slopes are relatively flat; and much
of the coast is backed by cliffs, bluffs, or headlands,
and lacks good exits. The area most suitable for amphibious
operations is immediately north of Constanla. Most of
the coast north of Constanla is backed by the extensive
lagoons and marshes of the Danube Delta.
The Danube -Pnd Plains provide fair to unsuited auditions
for irregular force operations. Small elements of foot
troops would have few opportunities for cover or concealment
in the sparsely forested, nearly flat to gently rolling
plains. Scattered stands of broadleaf deciduous trees provide
some cover and concealment, and in the south and
cast marshes and swamps provide good to fair concealment
in the dense, tall reeds and sedges mixed with small
stands of trees. The region is densely populated and
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FIGURE 3. Fiat plains near Bucharest (C)

contains numerous cities and towns that are connected
by a fairly well developed transportation network. The
settlement pattern is very dense near Bucharest arid Ploie �ti.
Cultivated foods, mainly cereals and garden vegetables,
are readily available from midsununer to early autumn.
In the areas of swamps and nwrshes, fish, berries, and
most wild animals are edible. Water should be considered
contaminated. Shelter, shelter materials, and natural fuels
would he most plentiful in wooded areas. Supply by
air would be relatively easy, but coastal conditions are
generally unsuited for supply by sea.
;3. Transylvanian Basin
This region consist of nearly flat valley floors and
several large, nearly flat to rolling plains separated by
scattered low ranges of hills and ridges (Figure 4). Elevations
range from less than 600 feet in the nearly flat plains
to over 1,900 feet in the hills in the northwest. In the
interior of the basin, differev es in elevation between
the generally flat valley b:;ttorns and the crests of hillocks
and low ridges are usually less than 325 feet, and slopes
commonly are less than 10 In many places where
the basin merges with the foothills of the mountains,
diffviences in elevation from valley bottoms to hill crests
exceed 1,000 feet, and slopes are commonly as much
as 305('. Several large streams flow through the basin;
all originate in the neighboring mountain ranges and
f Inundation of their flood plains is common
during, the spring thaw in late March aril early April.
`early all of the basin is cultivated; the more rugged
and It slopes are forested, mostly with deciduous trees.
This region is moderately %veil suited for conventional
ground operations. Existing lines of transportation utilize
the flatter valley floors and provide access to most of
the region. The roads, however, are generally in poor
condition, and extensive maintenance would be required
to keep them passable for prolonged heavy military traffic.
Construction of new roads would be fairly easy through
the valleys; it %ould be more difficult in the hilly areas,
here grades would be steep and alignments restricted.
offroad dispersal would he fairly ea.v; cross country
movement would be feasible most of the year except
near the mountains, where steep slopes make cross- country
movement difficult year- round. Seasonal hindrances to
movement occur in the spring thaw period, usually between
mid -March and mid- April, when wet ground and flooding
are common, and from early November to mid- March,
when nuud, snow, and extreme cold would hinder operations.
Some concealment from air observation would be provided
by the forests, although year -round concealment would
be provided only by the scattered stands of coniferous
trees. Cover from flat trajectory fire and concealment
from ground observation would be available in the areas
of hills, hillocks, and ridges. Conditions mostly favor
construction of bunker -type installations. In general, sites
are readily accessible and could be easily worked; shoring,
however, world be require Conditions generally are
not suited for construction of tunnel -type installations,
but a few scattered sites are available in the northwest
hills.
The region is moderately well suited for airborne and
airmobile operations. There are many sites in the wider
valleys and large plains suitable for parachute drops
and t6 'anding of helicopters; however, sites for landing
assault -type aircraft on unprepared surfaces are limited.
In places, particularly near 'he mountains, approaches
to sites are restricted by adjwvri' high elevations. Conditions
generally are not favorable for the construction of airfields,
and, the few existing airfields are concentrated mainly
in the larger valleys and plains in the southwest.
Conditions for irregular force operations in this region
are poor to fair. Concealment and cc �er from flat- trajectory
fire are mostly poor because cereal crops and grass are
the predominant vegetation. Some cover and concealment
is available on the more rugged and hilly slopes, which
are covered mainly by deciduous trees. The population
density is high. The numerous agricultural settlements
in the basin are widely distributed, but the larger towns
and the major roads and railroads are concentrated in
the broad, nearly flat valleys. Cultivated foods, mainly
cereals and garden vegetables, are readily available from
midsummer to early autumn. Safe water is available
from mountain streams and springs, but water near settlements
should be considered contaminated. Shelter, shelter materials,
and natural fuels would be most plentiful in wooded
areas. Supply by air would be relatively easy.
4. Romanian Mountains
In this roughly U- shaped area of hills and mountains,
elevations generally exceed 1,500 feet. Maximum elevations
are 7,560 feet in the north and 8,343 feet in the south.
In the mountainous parts (Figure 5), particularly in the
south, differences in elevation between valley bottoms
and adjacent ridge crests are mostly more than 2,000
feet, and slopes generally are betvezn 20% and 30
some slopes exceed 45 Less rugged parts (Figure 6)
consist mainly of rounded hills, broad valleys, and
intermontane basins, and most slopes are less than 20
The hills and mountains are drained by streams that
are shallow in most places and generally swift flowing
in mountainous areas. The streams, commonly frozen
in winter, are usually less than 200 feet wide and less
than 3.5 feet deep except during high water in spring
and early summer. Extensive forests occupy the slopes;
stands of broadleaf deciduous trees are common at the
lower elevations and needleleaf evergreen trees are on
8
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FIGURE 4. Transylvanian Basin in central Romania (U /OU)

the higher slopes. Above the forests, brush and scrub
are common, and there are scattered clearings used for
summer pasture. Elsewhere, areas of low slopes, intermontane
basins, and the broader stream valleys are cultivated.
This region is mainly unsuited for conventional ground
operations. Most vehicular movement would be confined
to the few existing transportation facilities. Movement
along the predominantly earth roads would be difficult
because of snow and ice in passes from early November
through March, narrow bridges, steep grades, numerous
sharp curves, and a lack of alternate routes. In addition,
many roads become muddy and impassable during late
March and early April. Except in the basins and the
wider valleys, offroad dispersal, cross country movement,
and construction of new roads would be difficult because
of steep slopes and dense forests. The numerous surface
irregularities provide good cover from flat- trajectory fire.
Concealment from air and ground observation would
be provided by the dense forests; on the lower slopes,
however, these forests lose much of their concealment
value when the deciduous trees are leafless. Conditions
in most of the area generally are suitable for the construction
of tunnel -type installations. Along the eastern and southern
margins of the region, deep soil and soft rock are suited
for bunker -type installations.
The Romanian Mountains region is unsuited for large
scale airborne and airmobile operations. Only in the
wider river valleys and basins are there sites suitable
for airdrops, helicopter landings, and landing of assault
type aircraft on unprepared surfaces; however, approaches
to such sites would be difficult because of the surrounding
high terrain. Construction of airfields would be confined
to the larger valleys and basins. A few existing airfields
are suitable for landings of assault -type aircraft.
The Romanian Mountains provide fair to good conditions
for irregular force operations. Small elements of foot
troops could move undetected in the rugged mountain
terrain and dense forests. Concealment from air and
ground observation is available year round in the needleleaf
evergreen forests on the higher slopes and seasonally
in the broadleaf deciduous forests on the lower slopes.
Natural cover from flat trajectory fire is abundant. The
basins and valleys contain most of the population and
transportation facilities. There are numerous villages and
towns and a few cities. Food is generally available in
all but the most rugged areas; it is most easily obtained
in cultivated sections scattered along valleys and basins.
Crops mature from midsummer to early autumn. Water
from' mountain streams and springs is safe, but water
near settlements is usually contaminated. Shelter and
shelter materials are available in forests, and shelter is
available in caves. Wood is the most plentiful natural
fuel. Very few sites are suitable for supply by air.
C. Strategic areas (S)
There are two strategic areas in Romania� Bucharest
and Ploie �ti (Figure 11). They are significant as transportation,
industrial, and agricultural centers; and as sites of miiiiany
installations.
1. Bucharest
This strategic area (Figure 7) in the southern part
of the country contains Bucharest (population about
I.5 million), the capital and largest city (Figure 8). Bucharest
is the principal administrative, cultural, commercial,
industrial, and transportation center of the country, the
headquarters of the armed forces, and the heart of the
telecommunications system. The city is a center of production
of motor vehicles, agricultural equipment, electrical and
electronic equipment, machinery, and machine tools.
Other products of importance include diesel engines,
construction equipment, cement, rubber products, chemicals,
optical instruments, and pharmaceuticals. Also significant
are railroad yards and repair shops. This area is the
focal point of the rail and road networks of the country.
An international civil airfield is immediately north of
the city, and a large civil /military airfield is about 4
miles farther north; in the 1970's this field is to become
Bucharest's international airfield. Billeting facilities for
about 40,000 troops and extensive storage facilitic including
large refrigerated storage and refined petroleum products
storage estimated at 225,000 barrels, are available in
the strategic area.
2. Ploieti
This strategic area (Figure 9) contains Ploieiti (population
about 150,000) and encompasses the oilfields (Figure
10) and garfields scattered around the city. It is the
largest single oil producing field in Europe, excluding
the U.S.S.R., and the largest petroleum refining center
in the country. Several pipelines transport petroleum
products from Ploiesti to Bucharest and Giurgiu, in the
south; to Constanla, on the Black Sea coast; and via
Galali to the U.S.S.R. The principal industrial plants
manufacture equipment for the petroleum industry and
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FIGURE 6. !sills in eastern Romania (U /OU)
FIGURE 5. Rugged mountains in Transylvanian Alps (U /OU)

Figure 13 presents more detailed data on the perimeter
of the country. (U /OU)
1. Land (C)
i\
FIGURE 9. Ploielti strategic area (C)
routes, but conditions in all routes are poor to unsuited
for a 2- to 6 -week period in March and April because
of miry ground or flooded streams. Detailed information
on the selected routes is presented in Figure 12.
E. Approaches
The perimeter of Romania consists of 141 miles of
coastline and 1,845 miles of land boundaries. Romania
claims territorial jurisdiction 12 nautical miles offshore.
Conditions for movement across the borders range
from good to unsuited. The best condition, for cross
country movement are on the plains which extend into
Romania from Hungary, from Yugoslavia north of the
Danube, and from eastern Bulgaria. More than half
of the borders with Bulgaria and the U.S.S.R. are delineated
by sections of two rivers, the Danube and the Prut,
which are natural obstacles to movement. In most other
places, cross country movement would be precluded or
severely hindered by steep slopes in mountains or hills.
Roads approaching or crossing the borders are most numerous
on the plains; elsewhere they are generally confined
to valleys or small areas of plains. Free movement across
the borders is prohibited and security measures, such
as barbed wire, plowed strips, minefields, observation
towers, and border patrols, are employed to prevent
illegal crossings. The approaches shown in Figure 11
and described in Figure 14 are the best means of access
from adjoining countries.
2. Sea (C)
Approaches by sea are across the Black Sea, reached
from the Mediterranean via the Turkish straits. Offshore
approaches are clear. Nearshore approaches are generally
clear to the 6 -foot depth curve, except for scattered
shoals and bars. Shoreward of the 6 -foot depth curve,
approaches a-e partly obstructed by sandbars, shoals,
rocks, jetties. piers and groins. North of Constanja, the
coastline is low, sandy, and backed by numerous lagoons
and marshes; south of Constanja, rocky coastal cliffs
and headlands are interspersed with sandy shores. The
best stretch of coast for amphibious landings extends
northward from Constanja and consists of one sandy
beach that is about 9' /2 miles long and 70 to 200 yards
wide. The beach is immediately backed by a sandy
strip of lowland about 400 yards wide. The resort town
of Mamaia is built on the sandy strip behind the south
half of the beach. Seawalls 2 to 3 feet high front the
resort. A large lake backs the sandy strip in the south,
and a cultivated plain containing a large lake backs
the sandy strip in the north. Beach exits are directly
to hard- surfaced streets of Mamaia that lead to a hard
surfaced road 50 to 400 yards behind the south half
of the beach and to a loose surfaced road 400 to 1,200
yards behind the north half. These roads lead to the
main port of Constanja, 3' /z miles south of the south
end of the beach. Sea approaches are clear except for
nearshore bars and a breakwater off the north end. Nearshore
bottom material is sand, and gradients are flat but irregular
because of submerged sandbars. The tidal range is negligible.
Surf 4 feet or higher occurs 5% of the time January
through March, 6% April through September, and 7%
October through December.
10
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FIGURE 10. Oilfield near Ploie ;ti (U /OU)
rBo ;te
Flo ;t
Gas pipeline
Road
Crude oil
or Oilfield
products pipeline
r Railroad
Gasffeld
Ai
0
10
20
FIGURE 9. Ploielti strategic area (C)
routes, but conditions in all routes are poor to unsuited
for a 2- to 6 -week period in March and April because
of miry ground or flooded streams. Detailed information
on the selected routes is presented in Figure 12.
E. Approaches
The perimeter of Romania consists of 141 miles of
coastline and 1,845 miles of land boundaries. Romania
claims territorial jurisdiction 12 nautical miles offshore.
Conditions for movement across the borders range
from good to unsuited. The best condition, for cross
country movement are on the plains which extend into
Romania from Hungary, from Yugoslavia north of the
Danube, and from eastern Bulgaria. More than half
of the borders with Bulgaria and the U.S.S.R. are delineated
by sections of two rivers, the Danube and the Prut,
which are natural obstacles to movement. In most other
places, cross country movement would be precluded or
severely hindered by steep slopes in mountains or hills.
Roads approaching or crossing the borders are most numerous
on the plains; elsewhere they are generally confined
to valleys or small areas of plains. Free movement across
the borders is prohibited and security measures, such
as barbed wire, plowed strips, minefields, observation
towers, and border patrols, are employed to prevent
illegal crossings. The approaches shown in Figure 11
and described in Figure 14 are the best means of access
from adjoining countries.
2. Sea (C)
Approaches by sea are across the Black Sea, reached
from the Mediterranean via the Turkish straits. Offshore
approaches are clear. Nearshore approaches are generally
clear to the 6 -foot depth curve, except for scattered
shoals and bars. Shoreward of the 6 -foot depth curve,
approaches a-e partly obstructed by sandbars, shoals,
rocks, jetties. piers and groins. North of Constanja, the
coastline is low, sandy, and backed by numerous lagoons
and marshes; south of Constanja, rocky coastal cliffs
and headlands are interspersed with sandy shores. The
best stretch of coast for amphibious landings extends
northward from Constanja and consists of one sandy
beach that is about 9' /2 miles long and 70 to 200 yards
wide. The beach is immediately backed by a sandy
strip of lowland about 400 yards wide. The resort town
of Mamaia is built on the sandy strip behind the south
half of the beach. Seawalls 2 to 3 feet high front the
resort. A large lake backs the sandy strip in the south,
and a cultivated plain containing a large lake backs
the sandy strip in the north. Beach exits are directly
to hard- surfaced streets of Mamaia that lead to a hard
surfaced road 50 to 400 yards behind the south half
of the beach and to a loose surfaced road 400 to 1,200
yards behind the north half. These roads lead to the
main port of Constanja, 3' /z miles south of the south
end of the beach. Sea approaches are clear except for
nearshore bars and a breakwater off the north end. Nearshore
bottom material is sand, and gradients are flat but irregular
because of submerged sandbars. The tidal range is negligible.
Surf 4 feet or higher occurs 5% of the time January
through March, 6% April through September, and 7%
October through December.
10
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FIGURE 10. Oilfield near Ploie ;ti (U /OU)

produce ammunition, textiles, ceramic goods, and leather
products. In addition, Ploie�ti is an important transportation
center and has railroad and highway connections to
all important parts of the country. An airfield used primarily
by a paramilitary unit is west of Ploie �ti. Billeting facilities
for about 10,000 troops in military barracks and extensive
refined petroleum products storage facilities, which have
a capacity of 5,460,000 barrels, are m the strategic area.
3. Other important areas
Although less significant than the two strategic areas,
the following urban areas are important industrial,
commercial, transportation, or military centers:
NAME AND LOCATION IMPORTANCE
Constants.......... Population about 151,000. Most im-
44'11 N., 28'39'E. portant seaport in Romania; largest
ship repair yard in country; ranks
second in shipbuilding. Important
producer or chemicals, cement, farm
machinery, textiles, and cellulose.
Only major railroad terminal on
Romania Black Sea coast; rail
facilities include repair yard. Major
telecommunications center. NUB
tary /civil airfield near city. Exten-
sive refined petroleum products
storage, totaling 5,800,000 barrels,
and other storage facilities. Billeting
for about 15,000 troops.
FIGURE B. Modern section of Bucharest (U /OU)
NAME AND LOCATION
IMPORTANCE
Galati
Population about 152,000. Important
45 �27 28 �03
industrial and transportation center
in eastern Romania. Site of large
iron and steel combine, ore sorting
facility, largest shipbuilding yard in
country, food processing plant, and
distilleries. Other industrial prod-
ucts include sheet steel, steel wire,
railroad car components, concrete
products, and textiles. Strategic
transportation center; inland port
on Danube at railroad and highway
focal point only 6 miles from
U.S.S.R. border. Refined petroleum
products storage, capacity more
than 15,000 barrels, and ammuni-
tion storage available. Billeting for
about 10,000 troops.
Timiyoara..........
Population about 175,000. Largest
45 �45 21 "13'E.
industrial center and focal point of
transportation facilities in western
Romania. Most important indus-
trial products include agricultural
machinery, electric motors, railroad
and telecommunication equipment,
and motor vehicles. Also contains
chemical plants, textile mills, shoe
factories, and food processing
plants. Road and railroad junction
on main routes to Yugoslavia and
Hungary; terminus of navigation
canals from the Danube. Large
railroad classification yards and
repair shops. Large military /civil
airfield northeast of city. Refined
petroleum products storage capac-
ity 60,000 barrels; ammunition
storage available. Headquarters for
Air and Air Defense Command;
billeting for about 15,000 troops.
D. Internal routes (C)
The internal routes (Figure I1) afford the easiest avenues
of movement from the borders and the coast to strategic
areas and between strategic areas. All routes contain
surfaced roads, and most include 4'8 1 /2" -gage railroads
for all or much of their length. Conditions for offroad
dispersal and cross -country movement differ in individual
9
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FIGURE 7. Bucharest strategic area (C)

ELI-
v
ZIP
rye y Z
oe
4%
%.Nk
Amphibious
EM strategic area �ea landing area
0 25 50 75 100 Mil.9
0 25 50 75 100 Kdomttfrt
CONFIDEWIAL
L 76862 6-70 CIA
r i ma
1 r
FIGURE 11. Strategic areas, internal routes, and approaches (C)
:3. Air (U /OU)
Approaches by air to Rotnania are rnainl% over mountains
in the south plains and mountains in the west and
north, and plains and the Black Sea in the cast. The
lx-st approach is from the cast. From the south, approaches
are over mountainous terrain, where maximum elevations
reach nearly 9,600 feet in Bulgaria and 8,865 feet in
Yugoslat la ss ithin 100 to 140 nautical niles, respec�tivel},
of the Romania lxrrder. From the ssest, maximum elevations
reach nearly 9,400 feet in the mountains of northern
Yugoslavia and eastern Austria, within 275 and 290 nautical
miles. respec�ti%ely, of Romania, closer to the Romania
Ixrrder, ho%%mer, the� approach is over the low Hungarian
plain. From the northwest and north. the chief terrain
hazards to flying are the Carpathian ;Mountains, %%here
ntaxinutm elevations reach rx:uly 9,000 feet in Czevhoslo akin
and about 7.000 feet in the U.S.S.R. within 130 and
s flee (hAt u.%ion nmr for air approadle% rtlrnd% appro%itnate1% 31X)
nautical rndr brurnd tla� Iwirder%of 11om:uria.
15 nautical miles, respec�tiseh, of the border. From the
southeast, a maximum elevation of nearly 8,500 feet
occurs in the mountains of western Turkey within 225
nautical miles of the Romania border.
Weather conditions in all approaches are most favorable
in summer, when mean cloudiness is at a minimum
(20 to 6 r) and visibility is best. However, thunderstorms
occur on 3 to 10 days per month in this season and
heavy icing may be encountered in convective clouds
above 10,000 feet. Weather conditions in all approaches
are least favorable in winter, when intense migratorn
loses and asso iatal frr ,;ts cause ssidespread and inultilavered
cloudiness (50% to 8051), low ceilings. poor visibilities,
and frequent moderate to heavy icing conditions. In
all approaches the mean height of the freezing level
varies between the surface and 7,000 feet in winter,
and 1 v tween 10,000 and 15,000 feet in summer. Winds
aloft we predominantly westerly in all approaches throughout
the %car. Llean wind speeds increase with height, the
strongest mean speeds, near 50 knots, occur in winter
in the southern- approaches at 40,000 to 45,000 feet.
11E
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FIGURE 12. INTERNAL. ROUTES (C)
ROM) AND TERRAIN
ROAD
RAILROAD
OrrROAD DIRPBRBAL AND
VEHICULAR CROM- COUNTRY
MOVEMENT
U.S.S.R. border near. Galati to the
Ploiegtl strategic area. Flat to
rolling, cultivated or grass
covered plains exeept the marshy
flood plains of the Prut, Danube,
and Siretul rivers near the border.
U.S.S.R. border near laai to
Bucharest strategic area. Rolling
plains to the nearly flat valley of
the Siretul, then HFarly flat
plains of southeasaTti lienvinia.
U.S.S.R. border near fialmeu to
Ploiegti. Nearly flat plains near
the border, rolling plains and hills
in the Transylvania Basin and
rugged mountains and high hills
in south central Romania.
Hungary border near Oradea to
llamleu- Ploiegti route at Sebeg.
Nearly flat to rolling, cultivated
plains; several areas of forested
hills north of the Muregul.
Hungary border near Sinnicolaul
Mare to internal route from near
Oradea at Deva. Nearly flat,
cultivated or grass- covered plains
except for a short distance in
forested hills west of Deva.
Yugoslavia border near Moravita
to southern -most route from
Hungary at Timigoars. Nearly
flat, cultivated or grass- covered
plains.
Bulgaria border near Turnu
Migurele to Bucharest. Culti-
vated or grass covered plains.
Bulgaria border near Giurgiu to
Bucharest. Cultivated or grass
covered plains.
Bucharest strategic area to Ploiegti
strategic area. Nearly flat, culti-
vated or grass covered plains
with scattered patches of forest.
Connects amphibious landing area
near Constanta to route from
U.S.S.R. border near Iagi at
Ur:iceni.
12
Two lanes, bituminous, good
condition. Low- capacity tim-
ber bridge over small stream
near Filimon Sirbu.
Two lanes, bituminous, good
condition, but some curves.
Two lanes, bituminous, in good
condition. Ferry across
Somegul, low- capacity timber
bridges in northern part of
route.
From border to point 30 miles
north of Deva and from Deva
to Sebeg, two lanes, bitumi-
nous, in fair to good condition.
Thirty miles north of Deva,
one to two lanes, bituminous,
in fair to good condition.
Bottlenecks are sharp curves,
steep grades, and a one -lane
timber bridge over the Crigul
Alb.
Two lanes, mostly bituminous,
gravel section between Lugoj
and Deva, in good condition.
Sharp curves and steep grades
east of Timigoara.
Single track except double
track between Galati and
Barbosi and Busdu and
Ploiegti. From border to
Galati, site of major trans
loading stations, railroad is
dual gage (�YSIIs" and 5'0
Single track except double
track for 9-mile stretch west
of lagi and stretch between
Adjud and BUidu. From
border to lagi, railroad is dual
gage (4 /a" and 5 and
there are several transloading
stations.
Mainly single track; double
track from Apahida to Cluj,
from Apahida to Riaboieni,
and from Bragov to Ploiegti;
electrified between Bragov
and Ploiegti. From border to
llalmeu, site of inactive trans
loading station, railroad is
5 gage, single track. Rail-
road parallels road in most of
route.
Single Vrack except double
track from Deva to Vintu de
Jos. No railroad between
Vagcdu and Deva except for a
15 -mile section just north of
Brad.
Single track except double
track between Ilia and Deva
(15 miles).
Generally good, but poor to
unsuited throughout year in
marshy and sandy areas.
Generally fair from border to a
few miles south of Adjud; good
from south of Adjud to Bucha-
rest. Locally unsuited in areas
of marsh and swamp.
Mostly fair except unsuited in
high hills and mountains.
Generally fair, but unsuited in
areas adjacent to steep forested
slopes.
Generally fair, but hindered or
precluded in areas of steep
forested slopes or grass- covered
loose sand.
Two lanes, bituminous, in good Single track Generally fair.
condition.
Two lanes, bituminous, in good No direct rail connections. Fair to good except in perennially
condition. No bridge or ferry marshy and swampy areas.
crossing Danube.
Two lanes, bituminous, in good Single track, parallels road..... Fair to good except in perennially
condition. marshy and swampy areas.
Two bituminous two -lane roads Double track, electrified....... Generally fair except in forested
(one west and one east of areas.
railroad) in good condition.
Two lanes, bituminous, in good Single track west of Giurgeni Good except in marshy valleys of
condition. Danube crossed by the Danube and Ialomita.
ferry and one -lane ponton
bridge.
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FIGURE 13. BOUNDARIES (C)
BOUNDARY
LENGTH STATUS TERRAIN
Milea
Bulgaria 380 Demarcated, undisputed, salt- Boundary is formed for four fifths of its length by
tered light fortifications. the Danube, which flows across a flRt -tO-
rolling, cultivated or grass covered plain. In
the east, the remainder of the boundary crosses
cultivated or grass- covered rolling terrain.
USSR
840 Demarcated, undisputed, no Boundary mostly is on plains in the east, but in
fortifications. hills and mountains in the west. More than
half of the border is delineated by sections of
two rivers, the Danube and the Prut. The
Danube flows across a level, marshy plain and
the Prut flows in a marshy and swampy valley
across cultivated and grass covered rolling
plains and hills.
275 Boundary is entirely across nearly flat to gently
Hungary
....do......................
rolling cultivated plains.
Yugoslavia
;ia0 Demarcated, undisputed, scat- Boundary crosses nearly flat to rolling plains
tered light fortifications. except for an area in the south- central part,
where it crosses high, forested hills. For the
most part, the plains are cultivated or grass
covered. In the hills, and on the plains east and
south of the hills, the boundary is formed by
the Danube.
Black Sea coastline
141 Territorial jurisdiction claimed North of Constants the coast is mostly low,
12 nautical miles offshore. sandy, and backed by numerous lagoons and
Scattered light fortifications. marshes. South of Constanta, rocky coastal
cliffs and headlands are interspersed with
sandy shores, and the coast is backed by a
cultivated plain.
FIGURE 14. LAND APPROACHES (C)
OFFROAD DISPERSAL AND CROSS
APPROACH
Rohl) RAILROAD COUNTRY MOVEMENT
From Bolgrad, U.S.S.R. Cultivated
Two lanes, improved earth, fair Single track, 5 gage, gener- Mostly poor. February through
or grass- covered plains.
condition. ally parallels road. May, muddy ground or streams
too deep to ford.
From Bel'tsy, U.S.S.R. Cultivated
One lane, bituminous, fair con- do Generally poor. Deeply dissected
plains. Unsuited from early
hills and dissected plains.
dition.
March 0rough April, when
streams are too deep to ford.
From fieregovo, U.S.S.R. Culti-
Two lanes, bituminous, good ....do Fair except unsuited during April
voted, flat -to- rolling plain.
condition. and May, when streams are too
deep to ford.
From Beretty6difalu, Hungary.
....do Single track, 4'8 1 /1" gage.... Generally favorable except in March
Nearly flat, cultivated plains.
and April, when soils may be
miry or streams too deep to ford.
From Szeged, Hungary. Nearly
Two lanes, gravel, fair condi- Single track, 4'8 /2" gage. Do.
flat, cultivated plains.
From Vr.Aac, Yugoslavia. Nearly
tion. Does not cross border.
Two lanes, bituminous, fair to Single track, 4'8 /2" gage.... Fair except poor to unsuited from
flat to rolling, cultivated plains.
good condition. early December to mid -April
because of miry soils.
From Nikopol, Bulgaria. Nearly
Two lanes, bituminous, good ....do Generally fair except for short
periods in March and April when
flat to rolling, cultivated or
condition. No bridge over
miry soils severely restrict move-
grain- covered plains.
Danube.
ment.
From Ruse, Bulgaria. Nearly flat
Two h%nes, stone block, good ....do Do.
to rolling, cultivated or grass-
condition. Combined road and
covered plains.
railroad bridge across Danube.
13
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3. Transportation and Telecommunications
A. General (S)
The transportation and telecommunication (telecom)
systems of Romania are adequate for the country's growing
economic needs. In terms of density and distribution
both systems generally compare favorably with those
of Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, but are not as extensively
developed as those of Hungary.
The rail and highway networks radiate primarily from
Bucharest in southeastern Romania and Timi �oara in
western Romania, both serving most urban areas and
concentrated largely in the southern half of the country.
Also located in southern Romania are the Ploie �ti centered
pipeline and Bucharest centered telecom networks. The
commercially significant Danube forms most of the country's
border with Bulgaria.
In the mountainous central and northern areas the
roads tend to be below Western standards. The alignments
of both the roads and rail lines in these areas follow
the geographically easier avenues, and the movement
and supply of forces could more eas.ly be effected in
an east -west direction rather than north- south. Principal
east -west aligned rail, road, and waterway routes also
service most of southern Romania, and good pipeline,
rail, and road facilities extend eastward from the strategic
Bucharest- Ploie �ti complex to Constanla on the Black
Sea and Galati on the Danube.
The government owns, controls, and operates the
transportation and telecom facilities through departments
and agencies of the Ministry of Transport, and the Ministry
of Posts and Telecommunications. The highways are
used primarily in short -haul feeder services, and in 1968
they accounted for nearly 70% of the freight tons moved
overland. Railroads, the most important means of long
haul transport, carried 28% of the 1968 freight. The
long distance haulage via waterways amounted to slightly
less than 1 of the total, while pipelines carried 1.5
The railroods and highways make international connections
with all neighboring countries. The Danube, one of he
world's great waterways, provides through navigation
from its mouth on the Black Sea upstream to Ulm,
Nest Germany. In and bordering Romania the lengthy
river has only three major crossing sites �the Cernavoda
rail bridge, the combination rail /highway bridge between
Giurgiu and Ruse, Bulgaria, and the railroad car ferry
between Calafat and Vidin, Bulgaria.
The pipeline system for both crude oil and refined
products is extensive and has one international connection
with the U.S.S.R. The natural gas system serves the
entire country and has a connection with Hungary.
The merchant marine fleet has 49 oceangoing ships
of more than 1,000 gross register tons, and since mid-
1966 it has experienced a 120% increase in total deadweight
tonnage. In 1968 the fleet carried about 20% of Romania's
seaborne trade, the total volume of which is adequately
served by the one principal, three secondary, and four
minor ports. Constanla, the principal port, and Mangalia,
a secondary port of naval importance, are seaports on
the Black Sea. The others are located inland on the
Danube.
Civil aviation is becoming increasingly important and
gradually less dependent on the U.S.S.R. than heretofore.
The flag carrier, Romanian Air Transport (TAROM),
has 41 major aircraft including four of recent British
manufacture. TAROM provides international services
to six Communist and eight non Communist European
capitals, and to five capitals in the Middle East. Romania
has increased the number of operational airfields, from
36 in 1967 to 66 in 1970. The current total includes
nine military, nine joint, and 48 exclusively civil.
The expansion and modernization of Romanian
transportation will undoubtedly continue, although in
some cases the main emphasis of development is on
improvement of existing facilities rather than on new
construction. Railroads are being strengthened by renovation
of track bed, rails, and structures, and slow advances
are being achieved in electrification and use of automatic
block signaling. Highway modernization is underway
and consists generally of improvement of the national
routes; completion of a highway bridge over the Danube
at Giurgeni will significantly enhance the means of direct
overland passage between Bucharest and Constanta.
Substantial progress, including a recently opened navigation
lock, is being made at the Iron Gate clam project on
the Danube near Turnu Severin.
A 240 -mile refined product pipeline is believed still
under construction between Gheorghe Gheorghiu -Dej
and Constanta, and at Constanla work continues on
a long -range projml &signed to eventually add more
than 5 miles of new wharfage and double the port's
size. The growing merchant marine is expected to reach
a deadweight tonnage goal of 570,000 by 1971, thus
giving the fleet a capability to carry 30% of the nation's
seaborne trade.
One of the two major Bucharest airfields and several
others to the north have been substantialh enlarged
and improved with new facilities. TAROM plans to
acquire additional major Western -built aircraft.
The Romanian telecom system, centered on Bucharest
and linking the capital with other major cities, is
predominantly a carrier equipped, open -wire network
supplemented in high- d.!nsn. rnulation areas by radio
relay links, underground cables, and radiocommunication
stations. Bucharest- originated radiobroadeast and TV
15
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programs reach all sections of the country; radio -relay
links and extensions of the oiontestie intercity wire network
provide the main international telecom connections. Plans
call for expansion of installations in larger cities and
construction of new automatic exkrhanges.
B. Railroads (C)
The Romanian State Railroads (CFR), an agency under
the M inistry of Transport, :.perutes a total of 6,850 route
miles of track, and it is the country's primary means
of long -haul transportation. In addition to the CFR,
many industrial lines of less importance are operated
by the Forestry Railways (CFF) under the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry.
Radiating principally from Bucharest and Timiloara,
the rail system is most extensively developed in the
southeastern, central, and western regions. The most
heavily traveled lines are Bucharest Brasov, Bucha-
rest-Constanla, and Bucharest -Turnu Severin. Some of
the principal east-west routes traverse the Transylvanian
Alps, -thers cross the Moldavian Carpathians; in those
mountain areas the rail lines have steep grades, sharp
curves, numerous bridges and tunnels, and deep cuts
and fills. Passes in the Carpathians range from 1,640
to 1,970 feet in elevation, and those in the Transylvanian
Alps exceed 6.000 feet. In southeastern Romania the
Danube and its marshes limit rail access to the seaboard
plain and its port areas.
As of 1 November 1969 the CFR network consisted
of about 6,430 miles of standard gage (4'81s 400
miles of various narrow gages, and about 20 miles of
5'0" broad -gage track. The 2,850 miles of CFF lines
arc iutrmw gage, chiefly 2'6" gage. Although predominantly
a single -track network, standard -gage CFR lines have
about 420 miles of double track, mostly in the southeast
around Bucharest and Ploielti. CFR electrification continues
and currently consists of 103 miles of standard -gage
and 43 miles of narrow -gage lines in the vicinity of
Arad.
International connections include seven with the U.S.S.R.,
thrco� with Bulgaria (one by rail ferry), two with Yugoslavia,
and four with Hungary. Standard -gage lines exist on
both sides of all frontier connections, except those with
the U.S.S.R., where direct interchange of rolling stock
is precluded by the difference in gage and freight transfer
is necessary. Soviet Romanian freight is transloaded tit
eight yards, located two each at Sighetul Marmaliei,
Dornelti, lali, and Calali. The yards range in sire from
approximately 10 to 30 tracks and contain Imth standard
and broad -gage track. Translo ailing facilities at the l lalmeu
connection are believed not to be in use. One of the
three connections with Bulgaria is made via the cross
Danube railroad car fern operating between Calafat
andVidir:� Bulgaria.
The standard -gage Romanian equipment can be
interchanged freely with that of neighboring countries.
The Council for Economic Mutual Assistance (CEMA)
freight -car pox)], formed in 1964 by railroads of the U.S.S.R.
and East European Communist countries, went into effect
with an inventory of 92,700 curs, of which Romania
contributed 8,000 initially �with 3,000 additional freight
cars to follow at a later date. The pttct) now has more
than 110,000 cars in service among the seven member
countries.
The rail network has more than 4,000 bridges 12 feet
and over in length; they total about 200,000 feet in
length. Several are major structures, but only about 5%
of the total are over 250 feet. The longest is the 7,296
foot railroad and highway bridge over the Danube at
Giurgiu. Most bridges 66 feet or longer are of steel.
Truss construction predominates in spans of over 100
feet; shorter spans are usually girders. Only two rail
bridges cross the Danube �the international bridge connecting
Giurgiu with Ruse, Bulgaria, and the Romanian bridge
at Cernavoda. Of an estimated 130 tunnels, totaling
about 139,000 feet in length, the 14,334 -foot structure
northeast of Brasov is the longest on the network.
The track structure is in moderately good condition
and is being improved constantly (Figure 15). Some
secondary lines remain in poor condition because of
inferior ballast and worn rails. Rails are the standard
T section, mostly weighing from 75 ti 99 pounds per
yard. During the 1957 -67 period the CFR laid approximately
1,000 miles of continuously welded rail, and it planned
to add from 180 to 220 miles annually between I%
and 1970. Wooden ties, primarily of treated beech, are
being gradually replaced by prestressed, reinforced concrete
ties. Most track has crushed -rock ballast. On several
FIGURE 15. Double -track railroad
section between Ploi"ti and Bu:8u.
Newly renovated track with welded
rail, prestressed reinforced concrete
ties, and crushed rock ballast along-
side older track (right) with wooden
ties. (C)
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The network density is 0.52 mile of highway per square
mile of area. This is a slightly higher ratio than that
of neighboring Hungary. Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria. The
ratio in the Soviet Union is considerably lower, near
0.12. Romania is serviced by international highway
connections with all adjacent countries.
The Iota! highway mileage is approximately 48,000.
About 7,200 stiles are classified as national highways,
most of which are bituminous surfaced. The national
highways Include principal through routes, connecting
roads between the national and regional capitals, and
access roads to important economic centers. The network
also has about 5,000 miles classified as regional roads,
1, 700 miles as district roads, and 14,100 miles of amel>_csified
or local roads.
About 16% of the highways (7,600 miles) are paved.
Most of these tare hituminous surfaced anti are classified
as national highways. Some 34%, or 16,300 miles, are
crushed stone or gravel roads. The remaining 24,100
miles (50%) are earth.
Road surface widths range from 12 to 36 feet, but
most paved roads (Figure 17) have a minimum width
of 18 feet, and only a few are wider than 22 feet. Base
construction is generally of sand and gravel and ranges
in thickness from 6 to 26 inches. Shoulder widths are
as great as 10 feet, but generally there are less than
6 feet. The condition of the paved national highways
varies from fair to good. about 65% of them being in
good condition. Highways through the mountains are
narrow and have numerous steep grades and sharp curves.
Many of the wont fottlenecks are being eliminated
gradually by the highway modernization program.
The highway system has an estimated 1,100 bridges.
Most bridges on more irnprortant highways are of steel,
reinforced concrete. or masonry. The few timber bridges
still in uw� are being replaced gradually by reinforced
concrete structures. Most of the older long -span bridges
are of steel; those of intermediate length are of masonry.
Most new bridges have a minimum horizontal clearance
of 16 to 20 feet. a minimum vertical clearance of 12
feet. and, on main roads, a capacity of 40 to 60 tons.
The significant highways have no tunnels or fords.
The most important ferries cross the Danube, which
18
has only one highway bridge crossing �that between
Ciurgiu and Ruse, Bulgaria. Consequently, the Danube
ferries are potentially a critical transportation factor.
Traffic in mountainous areas is impeded by washouts
caused by heavy rains during the period May- August
and by steep grades, sharp curves, narrow passes, anti
landslides. Rainfall in conjunction with melting snow
in the spring may cause highway flooding in lowland
areas, and heavy snow (November- March) may restrict
traffic thimugh the mountains.
Highway transixrt services are provided by transportation
agencies under the control of the M Inistry of Transport's
General Directorate of Automobile Transport. The larger,
more important state -owned industrial enterprises operate
their own motor transport fleets, and buslines operate
between population centers.
In 1968 some 401.5 million short tons of freight were
carried and 3.7 billion short -ton -miles were produced.
Among the principal goods shipped by highway are
construction materials, lumber, foodstuffs, and light industrial
products. The traffic volume is greatest on the national
highways radiating from Bucharest.
Precise motor vehicle inventory statistics are not available
for Romania. It is estimated that close to 120,000 motor
vehicles are in use, including some 73,000 trucks, 11,000
buses, and 35,000 or more passenger cars. Trends in
truck production indicate that trucks of 5 -ton capacity
or more will soon dominate the truck fleet. A relatively
large percentage of the motor vehicles are of recent
manufacture, and most are probably in fairly good
condition.
Romania produces trucks, buses, and passenger cars.
Until (quite recently Romania imported passenger cars
from the U.S.S.R. and some Eastern European Communist
aauntrics; however, by recent agreements Westem European
auto companies have established assembly plants in the
country, and Romania is no longer totally dependent
on importation for passenger cars. Renault, of France,
has built a plant in Coliba$i which eventually is to
have a capacity to produce 50.000 vehicles yearly. MAN
(11aschinenjabrik Augsburg- Nflmberg A.G.), of Nest
German%. has agreed to traduce utility vehicles in Romania.
Romania has recently begun to export tractors, buses,
and small trucks to other East European Communist
countries and the U.S.S.R.
The Ministry of Transport is responsible for carrying
out the government's highway construction policies and
providing the guidance for highway construction,
modernization, repair, and maintenance. Construction
and maintenance work is performed by both civilian
and military personnel.
The major problems of construction and upkeep arise
primarily from adverse topography and weather�rugged
terrain and snow in the mountains and periods of flooding
in the lowlands. Maintenance is a constant problem
because road bases anti surfaces. in many cases. are
not strong enough to withstand traffic during the winter.
and by spring they are generally in need of repair. Romania
fxnsesses adr(ltrate supplies of construction materials such
as gravel, bitumen. and cement.
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FIGURE 17. Two -lane, bituminous surfaced road. This type
is the kind most prevalent among national highway
routes. (U /OU)

main lines the axleload limit is 21 short tons, and on
the Bucha rest Bra �ov line, 23 short tons. Other principal
lines have axleload litnits of 20 short tons; on secondary
lines the limit is generally 17 short tons but as low
as 13.
More than 500 miles of lines are equipped with an
autornutic block system; however, most train operations
continue to be controlled by manual block systems. Within
the CFR network 120 main railroad yards are equipped
with light signals and locking installations, which permit
eltxtrical operation of approximately 4 ,000 switches. Train
movements over manual block sections are probably
controlled by the countrywide CFR telephone system,
or by telegraph. Radio contact between railroad stations
and locomotives was scheduled to begin in 1968.
Diesel nil, the chief source of locornotive power, is
available in ample domestic supply. Water is plentiful
throughout the year in most areas, and it is used with
treatment only in the larger yards and rail centers. Water
consumption declines as greater use is made of diesel
and electric locomotives.
In 1968 the railroads, which employed about 159,000
persons, carried 162.3 million short tons of freight and
produced 27.6 billion short ton miles. During the same
year they carried 303 million passengers and produced
10.0 billion passenger miles. In 1968 diesel and electric
traction accounted for 681 of the total traffic, and the
average gross weight of freight trains on the network
was more than 1,300 short tons. The principal immmo di ties
carried %were quarry and wood products, coal, construction
materials, and petroleum.
Steam locomotives production ceased in 1959, and
the locomotive fleet is being modernized rapidly through
the acquisition of diesel and electric locomotives. Through
liceicsing agreements with Westem European manufacturers,
Ronamia obtains the benefit of advanced designs, production
techniques. and methods of operation. Under Swiss license,
2,100 horsepower diesel electrics (Figure 16) have been
in continuous production since 1960 by the Electroputere
Works in Craiova, where a finished locomotive is now
turned out every 3 clays. Of 800 built by June 1969,
560 were turned over to the CFR, and the others were
exported mainly to Bulgaria and Poland. Since 1967,
diesel- hydraulic locomotives have been produced under
West German and Swiss license at Bucharest. The Swedish
licensed production of 5,100 kilowatt electric locomotives
c�ontimie at Craiova, following the purchase of 10 units
from Sv(q(4.1m in 1965-67. As of November 1969 Romania
had an cstunated 2,400 steam, 650 diesel, and 30 electric
locomotives.
v
In January 1069 the freight car inventory totaled about
79,500, predominantly two -axle cars with screw couplers.
The Arad Railroad Car Plant accounts for 72% of the
annual domestic production and builds nearly all types
of railroad curs. 'File two other builders are the Crivita
Rosie Works of Bucharest, the leading producer of tank
cars, and the Mechanical Works of Turnu Severin, a
key producer of gondola and bulk cement cars. About
50% of the freight cars produced are exported �the recipient
countries totaling 14.
Passenger cars, all four -axle first second and third
class coaches, are manufactured at the Arad Railroad
Car Plant.
Most of the major repairs to locomotives and rolling
stock are accomplishe:l at the manufacturing plants.
The Craiova Diesel Electric Repair Plant, under construction
near the Electroputere Works, is expected to perform
general and /or major repairs on 115 locomotives per
year. A new repair facility for diesel locomotives was
opened in 1967 at la �i. Additional large repair plants
are at Constanla and Calali. Shops for minor repairs
are at railroad junctions and major yards.
The Deva Regional Railroad Directorate, one of eight
CFR directorates, offers a 13 -week course for yard engineers,
switchmen, and brakemen and a 27 -week course for
mainline engineers, conductors, and guards.
Maintenance and modernization of the existing rail
network, rather than new construction, continues to be
implemented on principal lines; short industrial feeder
lines and bypass lines have been constructed to alleviate
heavv traffic bottlenecks. The major emphasis is on renovation
of the track bed and structures and the laying of welded
and heavier rails and concrete ties.
The current 5 -year plan (1971 -75) continues some of
the programs of previous plans� reducing steam traction
to the point where it will account for only 2G;: of all
rail haulage, extending dieselization to secondary lines,
electrifying the 164 -mile Craiova- Caransebe Cilnic line,
and raising the production of diesel and electric locomotives
to more than 200 units annually. Additional programs
call for extending the use of automatic block signaling
and the installation of centralized traffic control (CTC)
on main lines.
C. Highways (S)
Highway transport, the principal carrier of freight
in Romania, is used primarily for short hauls, serving
as a feeder system for the railroads and meeting local
transportation needs. The 48,000 -mile network is adequate
for present requirements, but rugged mountainous terrain
and seasonally adverse weather factors would restrict
the movement and supply of large military forces by
road.
With the exception of mountainous areas, the road
net is fairiv evenly distributed, the densest portion being
in the southeast around Bucharest. Several important
through routes radiate from Bucharest to the borders,
and others extend along the country's perimeter. They
are generally good bituminous surfaced roads at least
two lanes in width.
17
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FIGURE 16. 2,100 -h.p. diesel electric locomotive. The units
have a maximum axleload of 21 short tons and are in
wide use on many main lines. (U /OU)

A greater supply of construction and maintenance
equipment will he required to fully implement the highway
modernization program. Domestic production provides
some of the basic equipment such as bulldozers and
graders, but the more advanced machinery is imported
principally from East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and
the U.S. S. R.
The highway modernization program, incorporated
in the 6 -year plan (1960 -65) and continued in the 5-
year plans for 1966 -70 and 1971 -75, emphasizes work
on improvement of existing highways rather than on
new c onstnction. Improvements generally consist of widening,
resurfacing, anc) realigning roads and replacing low capacity
bridges. By 1969 about 20% of the entire road network
had been modernized. Most efforts were expended on
the national route system, where 75% of the roads (5,475
miles) have been improved. Major projects under construction
include a highway bridge across the Danube between
Giurgeni and Paola Oii, the \'adu Oii- Constanfa Expressway,
and a limited- access highway between Bucharest and
Pite �ti. The Sibiu circumferential highway was recently
completed. The Giurgeni -Nadu Oii bridge is scheduled
to be opened for traffic by 1971.
D. Inland waterways (C)
Romanian waterways transport a relatively small volume
of the national traffic. Domestically, they afford effective
routes for exporting hulk cargo, mostly carried via the
Danube. Internationally, the Danube provides an important
through route in southeast Europe and forms a major
part of the Romanian boundary with Bulgaria; it also
gives Romania it dependable connection northwestward
to countries in central and .western Europe. There are
1.445 miles of navigable waterways, 932 of which are
nn the Danube and its anabranches and delta
distributaries.
In and bordering Romania the Danube is suitable
for lengthy east -west movements of military supplies
and equipment. Tactically it remains a formidable harrier
to rapid land movement, either northward to or soutimard
from the country.
The Danube. provides a 1,608 -mile international navigable
route between the Black Sea and Ulm, West Germany.
Via the Bralul Sulina. the nuin delta navigational channel,
the lower Danube is navigable by 6,500 -ton oceangoing
vessels to Braila, 106 miles above Sulina, and by 2,500-
ton river craft to Turnu Severin, 578 miles above Sulina.
The Iron Gate (gorge), and the middle Danube from
"Turnu Severin to the limit of Romanian territory at
Bazia are navigable by fully loaded 1,000 -ton barges.
The Pnrt, a Danube tributary forming most of Romania's
eastern houndary with the U.S.S.R., is the only other
waterway of significance. Entering the Danube east of
G:alali, the river is nsed primarily for transporting agricultural
products and timber rafting. The Prot is navigable at
low water by 300- to 500 -ton barges for 248 miles above
its month to Ungheni -Prot (Ungeny. U.S.S.R.), and at
high water for 275 miles upstream to Sculeni.
'1'ho� numerous ports on the Danube range in size
and importance from those v.ith quays and basins, direct
rail and road clearance, and mechanical handliig ernipment
to small improvised installations using the natural riverbank.
The main inland waterway ports are: Salina, primarily
a river -to -ocean transshipment point for grain, ores,
manufactures. sulfur, and cement; Galati, important for
timber floated clown the Siretul and as a river -to -rail
transshipment port; Braila, a grain handling center and
the upstream terminus of navigation for maritime vessels;
Giurgiu, a transshipment point for Ploie �ti petroleum;
Turnu Severin, a river -to -rail transshipment point and
the upstream limit of navigation for 2,500 -ton barges;
and Orsova, a regrouping point for barge trains operating
through the Iron Gate and a transshipment point of
raw materials destined for the industrial complex at Resila.
There are no Romanian ports of significance on the
PruI.
The Danube is spanned by only two fixed structures,
the rail bridge at Cernavoda and the rail /highway bridge
connecting Giurgin with Buse, Bulgaria. Additional crossing
sites include highway ferries, and the important railroad
car ferry between Calafat and N'idin, Bulgaria. At the
Iron Gate clam construction site the first of two planned
lock installations was recently put into operation. The
installation (Figure 18) is situated on the Romanian
(left) bank and has two tandem chambers, each measuring
112 feet in width and 1,017 feet in length. The lock,
coupled with closure of the river at the damsite and
the beginning of water retention above it, has probably
rendered unnecessary the continued use of locomotives
and other towing aids heretofore required for the upstream
passage of vessels.
Freezing is a major traffic interruption factor, and
river navigation may be impeded by seasonal water
level fluctuations. Each year ice conditions stop Danube
traffic for 30 to 40 clays, and the traffic on other waterways
for 47 to 90 clays. The Iron Gate section of the Danube
is vulnerable, and through navigation would be seriously
handicapped or halted by extensive damage to the lock
and dam complex or by breakdowns 4 craft in the
navigational channel.
lu
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FIGURE 18. Iron Gate project. Near site of recently opened
lock on Romanian shore of Danube. (U /OU)

In 1968 the inland waterways carried about 4.0 million
short tons of freight and :accounted for 855 million short
ton- miles. Total inland waterway traffic, most of which
is international trade, represented slightly less than 1
of the total freight carried in Romanian surface transport
and about 3% of the national performance in ton- miles.
Principal commodities carried are crude oil and petroleum
products, coal, grain, and lumber.
In 1967 the Romanian Danube fleet, with over 95%
of all waterway craft in the country, consisted of four
self propelled barges, 807 dumb barges, and 240 tugs.
The barges, mostly bulk cargo units, supplied a total
capacity of 436,071 short tons, and the tugs and self
propelled barges provided a total of 75,721 horsepower.
The fleet is generally adequate in numbers and condition
for meeting current traffic demands. Since 1960 the tempo
of vessel construction, conversion, and rate of retirement
has increased steadily.
Romanian waterways are controlled by the General
Directorate of Civil Navigation in the Ministry of Transport.
The principal inland waterway carrier, the government
owned Romanian Sea and River Navigation Organization
(NAVROM) is subordinate to the ministry and operates
all Romanian maritime and river cargo and passenger
vessels. International Danube navigation between Austria
and the Black Sea is regulated by the Danube Commission.
The commission, established in 1948 at the U.S.S.R.-
sponsored Belgrade Convention, represents all riparian
states except West Germany. Principal functions are the
planning of waterway improvement projects; promulgation
of operating regulations; coordination of maintenance
procedures, regulations, and services; and publication
of navigation information.
Maintenance activities consist largely of efforts to overcome
silting in the Br4tul Sulina, prevention of damage during
the spring ice breakup, and general improvement of
the waterways. On the Danube bordering Bulgaria most
of the navigation channel is in Romanian waters, with
routine maintenance largely performed by the latter.
The most significant waterway development underway
is the Iron Gate project, on which major construction
commenced in 1964 and which is scheduled for completion
in 1971. A joint Romanian Yugoslav endeavor, the project
includes damming the Danube about 585 miles from
the mouth, and constructing navigation locks and
hydroelectric powerplants. The reservoir b,-hind the dam
Will eliminate strong crosscurrents and shallows in the
Iron Cate section, and ,Mow unhindered, two -way, day
and night traffic by fully loaded 1,000 -ton barges through
the section. The reservoir is to eventually increase the
controlling depth upstream to Belgrade from 6.2 to 11.5
feet, thus rendering the Yugoslav capital accessible to
5,000 -ton river seagoing vessels. A lock installation identical
to that now operating on the left bank is planned for
the opposite (Yugoslav) bank.
Other important developments underway are expansion
of port facilities at Galati and Turnu M?igurcle and
construction of new port facilities at Orsova, the relocation
of which was made necessary by the Iron Gate project.
At Galati work is continuing on a new industrial port
20
basin and a 5 -mile canal connecting the basin to the
Danube; the project is scheduled for completion in 1971.
The new facilities at Turnu Milgurele are expected to
have a capacity of more than 2.5 million tons by 1975.
E. Pipelines (S)
Romania has an extensive pipeline network located
principally in the central and southeastern sections of
the country. The crude -oil and refined- products pipelines
have a total length of about 2,200 miles. Romania also
has an extensive natural -gas pipeline network estimated
to be 2,500 miles long; this network extends throughout
the country and to other Communist countries of Eastern
Europe.
Romania has two major crude -oil pipeline systems.
The longer extends from the Oltenia oilfields region
of southwestern Romania to a pipeline distribution system
encircling the Ploie �ti area. Including the feeder lines
in the oilfields and the distribution pipelines to the refineries
at Ploie �ti, the total length of this system is about 1,600
miles. The other major system originates in the Moldavian
oilfields and carries crude oil south to Gheorghe Gheorghiu-
Dej.
There are four major refined products pipeline systems.
One system consists of two parallel lines extending from
Bdicoi through Ploie �ti to F .Aurei. A third parallel pipeline
is proposed for this system. A second major s istem carries
refined products from FAurei through Galati to Reni
in the U.S.S.R. The third major system extends from
FAurei to Constanta. Various sections of this system reportedly
have dual lines. Future plans include an additional parallel
line from FAurei to Constanta. A 240 -mile product pipeline
from the Gheorghe Gheorghiu -Dej refinery to Constanta
is believed still under construction. The fourth system
consists of two parallel lines from Cfmpina to Bucharest,
where one line terminates. The other continues to Giurgiu
on the Bulgaria border.
The largest natural -gas pipeline network originates
at Noul- S5sesc gasfield in central Romania and extends
to Bucharest. A second major system originates at the
Z1u de Cfmpie gasfield and connects with the Hungarian
terminal at Dio:gyor. About 14Z mites of the line are
in Romania. A third major system extends from the
Nade� gasfield to Gheorghe Gheorghiu -Dej.
Details of selected existing and planned pipelines are
summarized in Figure 19.
F. Ports (S)
Romania has one principal, three secondary, and four
minor ports. Constanta, the principal port, and Mangalia,
a secondary port of naval importance only, are on the
Black Sea coast. The secondary ports of Galati and Braila
and the minor ports of Sulina, Tuleca, Chilia Veche,
and Isaccea are on the Danube.
Constanta can accommodate oceangoing ships with
drafts of up to 32 feet and is considered the port most
adaptable to military use. It handles two- thirds of the
total maritime trade and will handle an increasingly
higher proportion as the various stages of the extensive
port d,velopment program underway are completed.
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FIGURE 19. SELECTED EXISTING AND PLANNED PIPELINES (S)
TERMINALS
DIAM-
PRODUCTS
FROM
TO
LENGTH
ETER
TRANSPORTED
CAPACITY
REMARKS
Miles
Incises
BbOday
Oltenia oilfields
Ploiegti.............
120
2 -8
Crude..........
no
Pumping station at BAicoi.
Moldavian oilfields...........
Gheorghe Gheorghiu-
62
2 -10
....do.........
no
Dej.
BAicoi
Fliurei
81
9 -10
Refined
na
Pumping stations at Ploiegti,
BuzAn.
Do
....do.............
81
10
....do.........
na
Do.
D o
....do.............
81
na
....do.........
na
Planned.
FAurei
Constanta..........
106
10
....do.........
20,000
Pumping stations at Ilagieni,
CernavodA, Palas.
Do
....do.............
106
na
....do.........
na
Planned.
Do
Reni, U.S.S.R.......
68
10
....do
14,000
Pumping station at Galati.
Cimpina
Giurgitl............
99
5
....do.........
na
Pumping station at Ploiegti.
Do
fitivatrest..........
55
5
....do.........
no
Do.
Ploiegti
....do.............
37
10
....do.........
na
Do
Consitanta..........
176
10
....do.........
*20,000
Planned.
Gheorghe Gheorghiu- Dej......
....do
*240
na
....do.........
na
Believed still under construc-
tion.
Milnegti gasfield
Bucharest..........
40
na
Natural gas.....
na
Gura $utii gasfield
do
47
no
do
na
Sitrmslgel gasfield
Aiud...............
81
na
....do.........
na
*ineai gasfield
ZSu de Cimpie
12
na
....do
na
ZAu de Cimpie gasfield........
Hungarian border...
143
no
....do.........
na
Singeorgiu de PAdure gasfield..
Tirgu Mureg........
25
na
....do.........
na
Nadeg gasfield
Gheorghe Gheorghiu-
118
no
....do.........
sea
Dej.
*arog gasfield
Tirgu Mureg........
25
na
....do.........
na
Cetatea de BaltA gasfield......
*arog
19
na
....do.........
na
Bazna gasfield
IIunedoara.........
87
na
....do.........
no
CopgaWei
Avrig..............
62
na
....do.........
na
Noul- SAsesc
Bucharest..........
220
no
....do.........
na
Includes 102 miles of dual line.
Boldegti oilfield
Ploiegti.............
6
no
....do.........
no
Morelli oilfield
Gura Ocnitei oilfield..........
Cimpina, Ploiegti....
75
na
....do.........
na
Aricegti- Rahtiva,nii oilfield.....
Ticleni
AD Paroseni........
47
no
....do.........
na
Nloinegti oilfield group........
DArminegti.........
47
no
....do.........
no
na Data not available.
*Estimated.
Practically all of remaining maritime trade is handled
at Galati, Brlila, Tulcea, and Sulina.
Tile Romanian Black Sea coast is fairly regular and
lacks natural harbors; those at Constanta and Mangalia
are artificial. The Danube ports have natural harbors
that have been improved by dredging; the harbors at
Galati and Brlila have been augmented by construction
of artificial basins. Oceangoing ships can proceed 92
nautical miles upstream as far as Brlila. Maritime shipping
on the Danube is hindered by: 1) a controlling depth
of 24 feet over the bar at the entrance; 2) a considerable
seasonal variation in the river water level, normally amounting
to 9 feet; and 3) ice conditions, with ships seldom venturing
above the river mouth in January and February because
of the clanger of becoming icebound. The lack of direct
alongside berthing facilities in the river ports also causes
difficulties; ships in most instances have to berth at
offshore pontons or breast off with the aid of poles,
barges, or fenders, and transfer cargo over gangways
and catwalks.
Ports are under the control and management of NAVROM,
the state agency subordinate to the Ministry of Transport.
Operational aspects are administered b) regional maritime
directorates, offices of which are found in the more
important ports.
Constanta, about 25 miles north of the Romania
Bulgaria border, is a terminus of highway and rail lines
that lead to all parts of the country. Petroleum pipelines
connect the port with the Ploie �ti oilfields. The port
has extensive facilities for storing and handling general
cargo, petroleum, and grain, and it is the site of the
largest Romanian ship- repair yard. Annual trade volume
is about 7,000,000 tons; principal shipments are petroleum,
lumber, wood, processed food products, ores, chemicals,
and cement; principal receipts are iron ore, coal, manufactured
goods, cotton, hides, rice, and citrus fruits. The harbor,
which is protected by the configuration of the land
and by two breakwaters, consists of seven basins, has
a total water area of 165 acres, and general depths
of 20 to 36 feet. Some 20,000 feet of wharfage provide
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alongside berths for five large, 19 standard, and seven
small ocean -type cargo vessels four standard and two
small coaster -type cargo vessels, six lighters, and three
standard and five small ocean -type tankers. The roadstead
outside the port provides numerous anchorage berths
for all classes of vessels. Estimated military port capacity
is 20,400 long tons. The largest drydocking facility is
floating drydock with a lifting capacity of 15,000
long tons. The first stages of an ambitious long -range
program to extend the port southward and more than
double it in size are well under way, with the eventual
goal of adding more than 5 miles of new wharfage.
Immediate plans call for adding a new quay for unloading
iron ore, grain silos, warehouses, cranes, vegetable -oil
tanks, a cold- storage building, new access rail lines and
paved roads, and more stacking space for general cargo.
Some of the new wharfage to be built will have depths
of up to 43 feet alongside and will have specialized
terminals for petroleum and ores.
Details of the secondary ports are summarized in Figure
20.
G. Merchant marine (C)
In late 1969 the Romanian merchant fleet comprised
49 ships of 1,000 gross register tons (g.r.t.) or over, totaling
343,192 g.r.t. and 497,416 deadweight tons (d.w.t.). This
is an increase since 30 June 1966 of 36% in the dumber
FIGURE 20. SECONDARY PORTS (S)
NAME; LOCATION; ESTIMATED
MILITARY PORT CAPACITY'
Britila........................
45 0 16 1 N., 27 on Danube
92 nautical miles from mouth.
3,500
Galati........................
45 28 �03 on Danube
80 nautical miles from mouth.
4,100
Mangalia
43 28 on Black
Sea coast 4 miles N. of Bul-
garian border.
3,000
ACTIVITIES
Head of maritime navigation on
Danube; important transship-
ment port and industrial center.
Principal receipts: construction
material, wood and wood prod-
ucts, grain. Principal shipments:
metal, processed goods, wood
and wood products, grain. Three
shipyards construct and repair
various types of river vessels.
Important transshipment port and
industrial center; site of largest
shipbuilding yard, capable of
constructing vessels up to 12,500
d.w.t.; emergency ship repairs
only; largest drydocking facility,
marine railway with hauling
capacity of 2,000 tons; shipyard
to be expanded and wharfage to
be added to serve timber, coal,
and ore storage depots; small
basin to be constructed to serve
new metallurgical combine.
Principal receipts: metals, tex-
tiles, iron ore, coal, grain, lum-
ber, wood products, machinery.
Principal shipments: lumber and
wood products, slag, ores, grain,
foodstuffs.
Headquarters and principal operw!
ing base of Romanian naval
forces; landing, shipyard, sup-
ply, ordnance, communications,
training, housing, and medical
facilities; numerous material
storage buildings and under-
ground storage areas for ord-
nance and petroleum products;
ship repairs effected at either of
2 yards; largest drydocking fa-
cility, sidehaul marine railway
with capacity of 200 to 300 tons;
no commercial activities.
HARBOR"
Well- protected river harbor with
2 divisions: river section 3
miles long, 1,000 ft. wide,
depths 19 to 100 ft.; basin
1,800 ft. long, 450 ft. wide,
lasst depth 19 ft. Port ap-
proached from Black Sea
through main branch of Dan-
ube, limiting depth 24 ft.
BERTHS
Alongside For 17 small ocean
type cargo vessels, 7 standard
coaster -type cargo vessels, 2
lighters, 3 standard coaster
type tankers.
Mooring berths �For 8 standard
ocean -type cargo vessels.
Well- protected river harbor with
3 divisions: river section 3
miles long, 1 /4 to 1 /2 mile wide,
depth 27 ft.; timber basin
1,800 ft. long, 250 to 800 ft.
wide, depth 16 ft.; dock basin,
length 1,730 ft., width 340 to
1,000 ft., depth 15 ft.; port
approached from Black Sea
through main branch of Dan-
ube, limiting depth 24 ft.
Two harbor divisions: break-
water- protected Old Port, 45
acres, depth 30 ft. in fairway,
shallow elsewhere; Lacul
Mangalia, 4 miles long, I/s to
1 /4 mile wide, depths 7 to 120
ft.; entrance dredged to 30 ft.
Alongside For 2 standard and
20 small ocean -type cargo
vessels, 17 small coaster -type
cargo vessels; and 7 lighters.
Anchorage For several vessels
at fixed positions along N.
river bank.
Mooring berths� Several buoys.
Alongside �For 2 destroyer es-
corts, 1 submarine, 7 mine-
sweepers, 10 motor torpedo
boats and 3 standard coaster
type tankers.
Anchorage Exposed, temporary
anchorage outside of port in
Black Sea for all classes of
vessels.
Mooring berths Several Med-
iterranean- mooring berths for
small craft.
*The estimated military port capacity is the maximum amount of general cargo expressed in long tons �that can be unloaded onto the
wharves and cleared from the wharf aprons during a period of one 24 -hour day (20 effective cargo working hours). The estimate is based on
static cargo transfer facilities of the port existing at the time the estimate is prepared and is designed for comparison rather than for opera-
tional purposes; it cannot be projected beyond a single day by straight multiplication.
"Depths at Galati and Britila refer to low river stage.
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of ships, 112% in g.r.t., and 120% in d.w.t. The composition
of the fleet on 30 November 1969 was as follows:
TYPE
No.
C.R.'I'.
D.W.T.
Dry cargo...........
33
111,919
155,052
Bulk cargo..........
10
153,798
228,400
Tanker
�1
69,313
110,5(;
Passenger
1
6,850
2.300
'training ship........
1
1 ,312
500
Total 49 343,192 497,416
The fleet is relatively young, and 43 ships less than
10 years old represent 90Cv of the total d.w.t. Four dry
cargo ships, 10 bulk cargo ships, and four tankers are
each over 12,500 d.w.t. and with a total of 394,192
d.w.t. account for 79% of the fleet's total. With the
exception of one oil -fired steamship, all units are diesel
powered. Speeds range from 9.0 to 22.0 knots.
Augmenting the oceangoing ships are five dry ships
(under 1,000 g.r.t.) totaling 3,017 g.r.t. and 3,342 d.w.t.
and four fish factory trawlers (over 1,000 g.r.t.) totaling
13,146 g. r. t. and 7,853 d.w.t.
The significant growth of the merchant fleet is attributed
mainly to an expanding ship production capability of
the domestic shipbuilding industry, and of 49 ships in
the fleet, 29 are Romanian built. However, during the
period l January 1966 to 30 November 1969 the significant
increase in the fleet tonnage is attributed primarily to
the purchase from Japan of eight bulk cargo ships totaling
203,400 d.w.t. and two tankers totaling 72,220 d.w.t.,
which represent 55% of the total fleet tonnage. During
the same period two dry cargo ships totaling 29,435
d.w.t. were built to Romanian order in the United Kingdom,
and domestic shipyards constructed eight dry cargo ships
totaling 33,115 d.w.t. and two bulk ore carriers totaling
25,000 d.w.t.; only three dry cargo ships were withdrawn
from service, including one laid up (final disposition
is unknown) and two sold to Communist China.
Romania's 5 -year plan (1966 -70) called for a merchant
marine of 70 ships totaling 570,000 d.w.t. by the end
of 1970, an increase of nearly 200% over the fleet tonnage
n 1 January 1966. As of 30 November 1969 nearly
90% of the tonnage goal h A been met. Domestic shipyards
should be able to add another 60,000 d.w.t. by 1971,
thus fulfilling 98% of the tonnage goal.
The importance of the domestic shipbuilding indtl
has increased substantially since 1960, when the Galati
shipyard completed a 4,500- d.w.t. dry cargo ship -the
first Romanian- built, oceangoing merchant vessel. In
ensuing years domestic shipyards have constructed 61
1.000- to 12,500- d.w.t. olry cargo ships and timber and
bulk carriers, with 23 exported to the U.S.S.R., eight
exported to Communist China, and the remaining 30
delivered to the Romanian fleet. The main shipyard,
at Galati, was greatly expanded and rebuilt to permit
application of the latest shipbuilding techniques, and
its a result Romania is now building 12,500- d.w.t. ships.
A vast expansion and development program is currently
underway at Constanka, which also has a large ship
repair capability. It is planned to build ships of 35,000
d.w.t. %%hen the new building ways are completed in
1971. As of December 1969 Romanian shipyards were
building or had orders to build 41 ships as foliows:
UNIT ToTAL
TYPr.
D.W.T.
No.
D.W.T.
RF.CIPIF.NT
Bulk carrier
12,500
3
37,500
Romania
Timber carrier.....
3,750
$5
18,750
U.S. S. It.
Dry cargo
12,500
1
12,500
Communist
China
Do
4 ,500
2
9,00o
Do.
Do
4,500
2
0,000
India
Bulk carrier
14,000
10
140,000
Do.
Refrigerated cargo..
1 ,000
6
9,000
Iron
Do
1 ,990
12
23,880
Poland
*It is believed the
U.S.S. R.
has placed it new order for an
additional 23 timber carriers.
Romania's seaborne foreign trade is predominantly
with countries of Western Europe and those bordering
the Mediterranean Sea. In 1968 the volume of trade
reached an estimated 14.4 million short tons, 18% of
which was carried in domestic ships. Assuming continued
and rapid growth, the fleet should be able to carry
30% of the trade by the end of 1970, when the volume
is expected to exceed 15.4 million short tons. Romanian
merchant ships are mostly employed on scheduled and
nonscheduled routes from the Black Sea to Mediterranean
and Western European ports, but a few make extended
voyages to Asia and to North and South America. In
1968 ships of the merchant fleet made 850 calls at 160
ports. The one passenger vessel is employed as a cruise
ship to ports in the Black and Mediterranean Sea areas.
The Romanian merchant marine would be able to
provide only limited logistic support and very limited
troop transport for any military operation. Thirty -three
dry cargo and 10 bulk cargo ships have a combined
lift capability of about 384,000 long tons of cargo. The
capability could be supplemented by units of the small
coastal fleet. None of the vessels has a large hatch (over
50 feet in length), and only one 1ms a heavy -lift capability
of 60 tons. The four tankers can transport about 97,000
tons 739,000 barrels) of petroleum products. The passenger
ship would he able to transport about 1,760 troops under
emergency conditions.
The state -owned Romanian merchant marine is under
the control and m4nagement of NAVROM, the Romanian
Sea and River Navigation Organization, an agency
subordinate to the Ministry of Transport. Operational
control of the merchant marine is delegated to the Maritime
Directorate at Constanja; NAVROM controls training
and licensing of personnel and administers maritime
training schools.
The merchant marine employs an estimated 2,500
persons, all Romanian nationals. To overcome difficulties
in obtaining sufficient shipboard personnel, the authorities
recruit seamen from the army and navy and reportedl
are offering salaries reasonably comparable to those in
European maritime countries. Ali personnel may he required
to affiliate with a Bucharest headquartered trade union
known as the Sindicatul Port Transport, the functions
of which are to promote labor discipline, and administer
the social insurance system, training programs, and the
various safety, health, and welfare plans.
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Political indoctrination of nmritine Personnel is the
function of Communist Party representatives aboard ship.
The political officer has no authority in overall ship
operations; however, his adverse reports may result in
the dismissal of personnel by the shipping company.
Currently, membership in the Romanian Communist
Party is not required for employment, and it is no longer
mandatory that a shipmaster be a party member.
The Marine Technical School at Constanja, established
in 1949, offers a 4 -year course covering navigation,
engineering, and naval construction. Admission is based
cut eorrpetitive examination and the nortnad enrollment
is 180 students, all of whoa attend under a scholarship
program. In 1966 in officers' maritime academy was
opened in Bucharest. The first full 4 -year terra commenced
in 1967.
H. Civil air (S)
Romanian civil aviation is directed and controlled
by the government. All aircraft belong to the state, and
Vith the exception of a small air fleet operated by the
Security Police under the Ministry of Internal Affairs,
all civil aviation activities are conducted by the Directorate
General of Civil Aviation (D(;CA) under the jurisdiction
of the Ministry of 1'ransport. At the operational level,
two DGCA elements provide civil air transportation.
One. the Air Work Enterprise (1AU), provides miscellaneous
air`vork scr ices for the ministries respxmsible for agriculture,
forests, and health. 'These operations encompass mainly
crop dusting and spraying, and the air movement of
medical patients and supplies. The second element is
Romanian Air Transport ('f ARONI the country's single
flag carrier, which is responsible for almost all passenger
and cargo transport operations �both domestic and
international. TAROM's main base of operations has
been Bucharest /Baneasa airport, but by mid -1970 it will
transfer to the greatly improved Bucharest /Otopeni airpxtrt.
The latter will handle almost all international flights,
and Bucharest /Baneasa will probably retain only domestic
operations.
By 19681'ARONI ttnnsptirted nearly 670,M) Passengers,
more than 505 4 whom traveled on international routes.
IAriug the summer, the peak period of operations, scheduled
domestic passenger services offer about 155 round trip
flights weekly between Bucharest and 15 other cities
and towns. In winter the same ntuntber of points are
served, but the number of flights, especially those to
Black Sea and mountain resort areas, is reduced to about
120 round trips per week. Most points are served at
least once daily throughout the year. Scheduled international
passenger services total about 25 round trip flights weekly
to 19 Points, including Moscow; the Eastern European
Communist capitals of Bodapest, Warsaw, East Berlin,
Sofia, and Prague; eight Western European capitals;
and five Middle Eastern capitals. In addition '1'AROM
operates nonscheduled transport flights and domestic
and international cargo services and administers and
operates the Romanian civil airfields, including the nine
operated jointly with the Romanian Air Force.
TAROM's major transport fleet is estimated at 37
Soviet manufactured aircraft, including 14 COOT (II-
18), three CAKE (An -24), 14 (.HATE (11 -14), and Six
(,All's (Li -2); the fleet also includes four new British
manufactured BAC One Eleven aircraft. The BAC One
Eleven (Figure 21) represents Romania's first Purchase
of transport aircraft from the West, and 'I'AROM, was
expected to operate six of the aircraft by early 1970.
All of the 41 major transports are based at Bucharest /Baneasa
and are used in scheduled and nonscheduled transport
operations. In addition, there are about 130 light aircraft,
principally of Romanian or"gin but including some of
Soviet, Polish. Czech, and World War fI German manufacture.
These are based at airfields throughout the country,
and almost all are assigned to the IAU for agricultural
air-work or air ambulance service.
With the exception of the CooT's which are returned
to the U.S.S.R. for major overhaul, TARONI's engineering
department accomplishes most aircraft maintenance and
overhaul at its principal facility at Bucharest /Baneasa,
and at routine maintenance facilities throughout the
YR -ACA4
s
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FIGURE 21. The BAC- One Eleven, TAROM's first Western manufactured aircraft. (C)

country. TA. ROM's dependence on the U.S.S.R. for spare
parts has proved satisfactory in the past. However, because
of ReAnania's purchase of Western aircraft, the Soviet
Union may not be as accommodating, and the repair
and maintenance of the Soviet- manufactured aircraft
may hec�oine more difficult: The purchase agreement
for the new BAC One Elevens includes a supply of spare
parts, and presumably TAROM has or is developing
a capability to maintain these aircraft. Rornania produces
the aviation fuels and petroleum products necessary to
satisfy TAROM's repu*ksements, making TAROM less
dependent on U.S.S.R. imports than the other Eastern
European Communist carriers.
DAROM employs alxnit 160 nmltiengine- qualified translxrt
pilots and cop, ;lots, IM pilots for light aircraft, and
117 other aircrewmen among a staff of approximately
1,000 persons. Most of the transport pilots are Former
Romanian Air Force Command pilots, but some have
been recruited from the ranks of experienced single-
engine pilots engaged in airwork. The latter have had
basic training with the aeroclubs and then have been
further trained by TAROM in rnultiengine aircraft.
The avr(whibs in Romania provide basic aviation training
and sports flying under the authority of the Voluntary
Association for the Support and Defense of the Fatherland
(A \'SAP), the national paramilitary youth organization.
Regional and local aeroclubs provide pilot training in
gliders and single engine aircraft. TAROM maintains
no formal pilot training institution but provides operational
pilot aril navigator training for most aircraft types by
its instnic �tor- tlualifiml personnei. This includes transition
training for the Coo i's, which was initially carried out
in the U.S.S.R. 'Draining of pilots and technical crews
for the BAC One Eleven's is probably being conducted
in the United Kingdom. Flight engineers and flight radio
operators undergo formal courses of instruction at
Bucharest /Baneasa airport. Croundcrews receive on -the-
joh training.
With the purchase of British aircraft, combined with
Roma vial s international aviation dynamism and developnxnt
of at, increasingly sophisticated training and maintenance
capability, the role played by the U.S.S.R. in Romanian
civil air transportation is gradually declining. TAROM
is party to the "Six -Pool Agreement,' a multilateral
ac�c�ord with the air carriers of Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, and East Germany, which encourages,
among these Communist carriers, the pxling of revenues
on parallel air services and a u utual exchange of supporting
services. On :30 May 1963 Romania became a member
of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO),
having be(imi signatory on 30 April 1965 to the Cotuwention
on International Civil Aviation (1944 Chicago 0mvention),
the latter a prerequisite to membership in ICAO. The
Chicago Convention established a framework for the
orclerlc and standardized development of international
civil air transportation. Romania is also signatory to
the 1929 Warsaw Convention, %Aiic�h primarily concerns
the liability of carriers fey: damages incurred in aircraft
accidents.
Romania has antcluded bilateral air transport agreements
and arrang(IIXIAs with the U.S.S.R. all the Fastern Fumpean
C:omintinist countries except Albania, and about 17 non
Conrnunist nations. It is under the terns of some of
these agreements and arrangements that TAROM operates
its servi,.. abroad, and that six Communist carriers and
the national flag carriers of the Netherlands, Italy, France,
Switzerland, Belgium, West Germany, Israel, and Austria
operate sc�hedticd services to Bucharest.
The organizational structure of Romania's civil aviation
enterprise and a close association with the air force render
it readily available for military operations in a national
emergency. Many ker personnel are former military officers,
and most of the transport pilots have reserve military
status. In addition, almost all other flight and ground
personnel have had some military training. It is believed,
however, that the military reservists do not have mobilization
assignments. TAROM's major transports, combined with
a fairly effective capability to operate and maintain
there, could provide considerable airlift assistance. The
significant number of light aircraft in the country could
provide support in such areas as recon naissa rice, training,
aril maintenance of domestic air services.
I. Airfields
The Romaniae air facilities system consists of 66 operational
airfields with lengths ranging from 2,000 to 11,999 feet.
Nine of the airfields are military, nine are jointly military
:ind civil, and 48 are exclusively civil.
Of the 66 airfields, 21 are classed as major facilities
with runways 6,000 feet or more in length; 17 of these
have hard surfaced runways, three are of improved graded
earth, and one is grass surfaced. One airfield is capable
of supporting jet heavy bombers on a sustained basis,
four can accommodate jet medium bomber operations,
six can sustain jet light bombers, and each of the 21
major facilities can support regular jet fighter operations,
assuming the use of mobile support equipment in some
instances.
The Romanian Air Force Command controls both
the nine military air bases and the nine joint usage
airfields. Five airfields are operated by A\'SAP in premilitan
flight training, soaring, and parachuting. The remaining
43 airfields are under the control of TAROM, being
used in scheduled) and charter services or in utility functions.
Thirteen of the civil airfields, .chile not classed as major
facilities, possess cxmerete or graded -earth runways measuring
between 4,200 and 5,999 feet and could I,e used by
military aviation with little advance preparation under
emergency conditions.
The heaviest concentration of airfields is in the south,
with Bucharest serving as the fecal point for lxth military
and civil aviation. Over 40 of the airfields, including
eight of the nine military facilities, are located within
a 100 nautical mile radius of the capital.
International civil air service centers on Bucharest /Otopeni
and Bucha rest/ Baneasa; Constanta /Mihail Kogalniceanu
and Arad /Ceala are also international airports. Over
'IA�tailevl information on indi%idual Romanian ai. idds is contained
in volume 15. Airfields and Seaplane Stations of the World. published
he the� befeme hitelligewr Agenc).
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the past 4 years Buc; �vt /Otopeni has been virtually
rebuilt. The concrete n.m.'�ay has been strengthened and
extended to 11,500 Seel and additional taxiways and
aircraft parking areas hu' L been constructed. Other new
facilities include passenger and freight terminals, airfield
lighting, navigational /landing aids, and fuel storage.
When the airfield is opened to regular service, probably
around mid -1970, it is to handle all of Bucharest's
international civil air traffic. Bucharest /Baneasa probably
will continue as the headquarters for TAROM's domestic
air services.
In 1965 Romania embarked on a program of modernizing
eight of its civil airfields. In the ensuing 5 years concrete
runways measuring from 4,400 to 6,200 feet were constructed
on Baia Mare /Tautii Maghenls, Cluj /Somese.ni, Iasi North,
Oradea, Succava /Salcea, and Tirgu Mures /Vidrasau. At
the two remaining airfields, Deva /Saulesti and Sibiu /Tumisor,
construction of concrete runways has begun. Each of
the airfields has been equipped with a concrete aircraft
parking apron and concrete link taxiways, a combination
tower /terminal, a weather station, a new fuel storage
facility, and new navigational /landing aids. The
improvements are significant, since they provide the air
force with additional facilities for emergency operations
in areas away from the congested southern portion.
The airfield system is adequate for military requirements.
The military and joint usage facilities are well maintained.
Aside from the Bucharest airfields, however, the civil
airports are less well maintained. Although steady progress
has been made in the past few years in the areas of
flight control, navigational /landing facilities, and support
services, the continued lack of adequate mobile support
equipment tends to tie the air force to operations from
established bases.
In line with developments in the other Warsaw Pact
countries, during the last 2 years the air force has constructed
earthen aircraft revetments at airfields containing tactical
type planes. Although antiaircraft artillery is present
at some of these airfields, there has as yet been no
evidence of stepped -up active defenses to coincide with
the improved passive defenses.
Details of I1 of the most important airfields are summarized
in Figure 22.
FIGURE 22. SELECTED AIRFIELDS (S)
LONGEST RUNWAY:
SVRTACC; DIMENSIONS;
ELEVATION ABOVE SEA LARGEST AIRCRAWT
NAME AND LOCATION LEVEL NORMALLY SVPPORTED
REMARKS
Feet
Arad,Ceala Concrete.............. II -18 (COOT) Civil. International airport capable of jet
46 11 21 16'E. 6,600 x 200 fighter use.
360
Bucharest /Baneasa Concrete.............. II -18 (COOT) Civil. International airport capable of jet light
44 30 26'06'E. 7,200 x 200 bomber use.
295
Bucharest /Otopeni Concrete.............. Tu -104 (CAMEL)
44 26 06 1 E. 11,500 x 300
300
Caracal New Concrete.............. MiG -19 (FARMER)
44 *05'N., 24 8,200 x 280
275
Cocargeaua Concrete.............. 11 -28 (BEAGLE)
44 27'44'E. 8,200 x 260
185
Constanta /Afihail Kogalniecanu... Concrete CAMEL................
4.1 22 28 29'E. 8,200 x 260
320
Craiova Concrete.............. FRESCO...............
44 23 0 53'E. 6,600 x 200
625
Air force, civil. International airport capable of
jet heavy bomber use. Air force transport
base; 11 -14 (CRATE), Li -2 (CAB), Mi -4
(HOUND).
Air force. Major all- weather fighter base;
MiG -21 (FISHBED), FARMER, MiG -17
(FRESCO). Could support jet medium bomb-
ers.
Air force. Major reconnaissance, fighter base;
BEAGLE, FIsuBED, FARMER, FRESCO. Could
support jet medium bombers.
Air force, civil. Major all- weather fighter base;
Fuu=D, FRESCO. International airport.
Could support jet medium bombers.
Air force, civil. Day fighter base, FRESCO.
Regular TAROM domestic stop.
lanca Concret.e.............. Faraco............... Air force. Day fighter base, FRESCO. Could
45 10'N., 27 8,200 x 260 support jet light bombers.
140
Luisi Calugara Concrete.............. BEAGLE...............
46 31'N., 26 8,200%200
590
Timisoara Northeast Concrete.............. COOT.................
45 21 0 20'E. 8,200 x 200
330
Zilisteanea C:oncrete.............. FRESCO...............
45 13 1 N., 26 59 1 E. 7,900 x 260
365
26
Air force, civil. Major air force depot for air-
craft maintenance. Could support jet light
bombers. Regular TAROM domestic stop.
Air force, civil. Major all- weather fighter base;
FISHBED, FARMER, FRESCO. Could support
jet light bombers. Regular TA ROM domestic
stop.
Air force. Advanced flight training base; L -29
(MAYA), MiG -15 (FAGOT), FRr.8co. Could
support jet light bombers.
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J. Telecommunications (S)
The telecommunications (Olecom) system in Romania
Li designed to meet government, commercial, and military
requirements, but service available to the general public
is limited. 'rite system is less developed than systems
of most other Eastern European Communist countries,
surpassing only those of Albania and Bulgaria. Domestic
services include facilities for the public telephone and
telegraph systems, network facilities for some special
purpose systems, and facilities for distributing radio, TV,
and wired broadcast programs. Open -wire lines extend
to all sections of the country and are the predominant
transmission means in the telecorn network. in some
densely populated areas these lines are supplemented
by low- capacity underground cables, radio -relay links,
and radiocommuncation stations. Multiconductor cables
are used primarily in eastern Romania. Carrier equipment
is used extensively on both open -wire lines and multiconductor
cables. The major trunk routes radiate from Bucharest.
A separate radio -relay network provides channels for
the distribution of domestic TV programs and the exchange
of TV programs with other Eastern European Communist
countries.
All telecom facilities are owned by the government
and controlled through the Ministry of Posts and
Telecommunicaiions. Important special- purpose systems
are operated by government and military organizations
for meteorological, press, maritime, and aeronautical
communications. Romania participates in international
telecom activities through its membership in the International
Telecommunication Union, the Organization for
Telecormunication Cooperation, and the International
Radio and Television Organization.
The more important switching centers for telephone
service are Arad, BaCAu, Bralov, Bucharest, Chij, Cr>nstanla,
Craiova, Galaf i, Ia�i, Oradea, Ploie�ti, Sibiu, and 'i imisoara.
Service in large urban areas is expedited by automatic
and semiautomatic switching facilities. In June 1,969
the estimated number of telephones was 550,000 instruments,
or about 2.7 telephones per 100 population.
Domestic broadcast services are provided by 15 AM,
eight FM, and 20 TV broadcast facilities and by a
wired- broadcast network. The most powerful AM broadcast
stations are at Bra �ov, Bucharest, and Timisoara.
Radiobroadcast and TV programs, originating from studios
in Bucharest, are transmitted to stations in all sections
of the country by a radio -relay network and circuits
in the domestic intercity wire network. Bucharest is linked
with Eurovision by a radio -relay network. From Bucharest
the network extends northward to lai and then over
two western legs via Timi;oara and Oradea to Yugoslavia.
lytaurvision programs are transmitted over radio -relay links
from lard to Kishinev, U.S.S.R., and from Bucharest
to Ruse, Bulgaria. As of January 1969, approximately
3,000,000 radio receivers were registered, and in January
1968 there were about 1,115,000 TV receivers in use.
An extensive wired broadcast network provides service
to most urban areas and to a large part of the rural
population. Radiobroadcast programs and locally produced
programs are distributed to loudspeakers in homes, public
buildings, and parks.
The manufacture of telecom equipment is of minor
importance and ranks behind that of most other Eastern
European Communist countries. Radio and T`' receivers
and some telephone equipment are assembled locally,
but production is heavily dependent upon imported
components. Complex equipment, such as autor"atio
telephctte exchanges and multichannel radio-relay egidpmett`
is imported.
Courses in telecommunications are offered by institutions
of higher education, and most of the schools are in
the metropolitan area of Bucharest.
Mountains in the central and north central parts of
Romania restrict the use of wire networks but are well
suited for radio -relay facilities. The terrain and climate
of Romania do not cause any great difficulty in construction,
operation, and maintenance of telecom facilities, but
the marshy areas of the southeast make laying of underground
cable impractical. Heavy snows retard access by maintenance
crews to some radio -relay sites and open-wire lines in
the higher elevations.
International telecom services to distant countries are
provided by radiocommunication circuits. Wire lines and
radio -relay links are used for telecom traffic to adjacent
countries. The main international telecom center is Bucharest.
Extensions of the domestic intercity wire network provide
the basic international connections between Romania
and other Eastern European Communist countries. Submarine
cables cross the Danube into Bulgaria and from Tulcea
to Izmail, U.S.S.R. A Gentex (automatic telegraph) system
extends into neighboring countries.
Security guards are posted at many of the more important
facilities. To reduce the possibility of disruption of
telecommunications, alternate means are provided training
routing messages by radio and wire. The capital and
nine other major cities have ring cables constructed around
them. These cables, equipped with reserve automatic
switching centers, provide a bypass for intercity and
international traffic in case the main facilities are inoperative
or destroyed.
The major priorities in the country's telecom developments
are focused on constructing new automatic exchanges,
expanding existing installations in larger cities, and
modernizing the interurban telephone network.
27
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4. Sociological
A. General (S)
Geographically and historically Romania has often
served as a crossroads between East and West, and
ethnographically the Latinized Romanians have found
themselves hemmed in and overrun by numerous other
peoples, mostly Slays. Since the conquest of the area
in the second century by the Roman legions of Trajan,
the Romanian plains have witnessed the onslaught of
successive hordes of Mongols, Turks, Germans, and Slays.
The struggle of the Romanian people for national identity
has been long and harsh, and they have succeeded primarily
because of geo raphic contiguity and linguistic identity.
The Romaniul r?4uage with its Latin roots has survived
through th e 4 pies reasonably intact and is spoken
throughrno 'ia with only minor differences in
w intense feeling
p_nf nationalism has also played its
jAl III the mnesion of ti'Romanian people. The Romanians
'0001' of being distinct Illifferent from the surrounding
1'( f)Ies� intensified ,,the rediscovery of the Greco
Lat
I mots of their vnguage and culture in the 18th
century I, t �u greatly to Romanian nationalism.
Moreover,'lifi liafural linguistic ties of the Romanians
to the West were reinforced by carefully fostered political
and cultural ties during the 19th and the first half of
the 20th centuries.
Until Romania became a state in 1878, the people
had only been members of a folk nation. Subsequently,
symbols such as the monarchy, parliament, elections,
the army, treaties in the name of the Romanian nation
and people, and the barrage of political slogans together
served to coalesce ethnic Romanians. Such symbols also
contributed to a sometimes militant nationalism and
the estrangement of minority groups. It was to this nationalism
that Romania's pre -World War II rulers made their appeal
for support, and it is this same nationalism which Romania's
Communist regime has both moderately stimulated and
exploited in recent years.
After the Communists gained control of Romania in
19.15, Romanian nationalism was severely criticized and
repressed by regime leaders, who emphasized "proletarian
internationalism" �that is, allegiance to Moscow.
Nationalism, however, reemerged as a powerful unifying
factor not long after the death of Stalin in 1953. The
rcvime of Romanian party chief Nicolae Ceausescu continues
to play on the nationalistic propensities of the people
to gain support for its policies.
Although Communist control of the cou-try has altered
the composition of Romanian social classes, it has not
significantly influenced traditional values. Romanians
continue to place considerable emphasis on family ties,
even though urbanization, industrialization, and the regime
collectively act to weaken these ties. Anti- Semitism and
other ethnic hostilities (for example, distrust of Magyars
and Gypsies) remain divisive forces, but the regime has
made a concerted effort to lessen divisive ethnic consciousness
and has declared that the country is a national stftte
and not a multinational one.
Despite the harsh manner in which communism was
imposed on Romania, Communist regimes have gained
a certain amount of popular acceptance because of specific
domestic programs. Educational opportunities have been
extensively broadened over their prewar levels, even though
the regime still lacks a sufficiently large number of educated
personnel for its labor force. Enlarged educational
opportunities have in turn contributed to greater social
mobility; the country, however, rernains largely peasant
in character.
Medical care also has been significantly expanded,
although its quality is inconsistent and medical facilities
are heavily concentrated in the cities to the disadvantage
of rural dwellers. The regime also has been successful
in providing a slowly improving level of living for a
larger proportion of the population, despite the fact
that Romanians, by Western standards, continue to lead
a rather austere existence. The regime's programs for
maternity leave, social insurance, and social security
have proved acceptable to the population.
In cultural affairs the Ceausescu regime has somewhat
loosened censorship and other restrictions on artistic activities,
primarily in an effort to gain further popular support.
Emphasis has been on a rehabilitation of earlier Romanian
history, literature, and art and on a renewal of access
to certain Western literature and art. The regime insists,
however, that contemporary creative efforts must remain
clearly identified with orthodox Communist ideology
and support state goals. Nevertheless, even this small
relaxation marks the sharpest overt departure from the
repressive domestic measures of the period from 1945
until the early 1960's, and it has been well received
by the Romanian public. It remains to he seen how
far this cultural thaw will be permitted to develop; the
regime has made clear that, for political and ideological
reasons, it is not prepared to relinquish any meaningful
control over cultural matters.
B. Population (U /OU)
1. General
Compared with the other Eastern European
countries4Romania is second only to Poland in area
In this section. Eastern European countries refers to Fast Germany.
Poland. Ilungary. Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria. and, unlrss othemise
specified, excludes Albania and Yugoslavia.
29
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and population- 20,283,000 persons as of 1 July 1970.
Romania's attainment of 20 million In population places
It ninth in Europe and 27th in the world population
list. According to U.S. Census Bureau estimates, Romania's
population is growing at an annual rate of 0.6 The
Romanians, however, claim a growth rate of 1.80, based
on the dramatic increase in live births since late 1967,
when the regime decreed measures on abortion, divorce,
and taxes designed to encourage population growth. Since
1950, Romania's population has increased by 20.6
which compares with a decline of 7.1 for East Geifflany
and an increase of 30.7% for Poland, figures which represeit
the Eastern European extremes over the period.
According to Romanian sources, the total population
of Romania in 1859� within its present borders �was
approximately 8.2 million. By 1891 it had reached 10
million; 78 years later this figure had doubled. The
highest rates of growth in the population occurred during
the periods 1930 -41 and 1948 -56. The following tabulation
based on Romanian data shows the vicissitudes in the
growth of the population resulting from rapid natural
growth interrupted by the devastations of the two World
Wars:
AVERAGE
ANNUAL
RATE OF
AVERAGE. OROWTR,
*The figures for Transilvania Transivania), Banat, and
northern Moldavia date back to 1910.
The impact of World War II was se on 'host
of the countries in Eastern Europe, but Romania did
not fare as badly as other areas, especially Poland. Despite
460,000 war- related deaths and a net loss of about 350,000
persons resulting from population exchanges and other
movements, Romania's population registered a slight
gain between 1938 and 1950. War deaths consisted of
300,000 military casualties and 160,000 Jews executed.
The wartime migratory picture is extremely cloudy, but
it appears that the major outward movements were to
Hungary, Israel, and what is now the territory of the
Federal Republic of Germany. These flows were
counterbalanced to a small extent by the net gain in
population exchanges with Bulgaria, and as a result
of the flight to Romania of some persons living in areas
ceded to the U.S. S. R.
Emigration has had negligible effects in Romania since
the late 1940's, and it has never been as devastating
as was the case in East Germany. The implied emigration
of 241,000 persons from Romania during the years 1950-
67 was largely accounted for by the movement of Jews
to Israel. Israeli data show that 88,700 Romanian Jews
emigrated in the 3 years immediately following the war,
30
but a restrictive emigration policy has been in effect
in Romania since 1953. Population estimates which take
account of births and deaths imply a net emigration
of from 10,000 to 25,000 for each year between 1958
and 1965, and again most of them apparently were
Jewish emigrants.
2. Distribution
Romania has an area of 91,700 square miles �about
the size of France �which means a population density
of 221 persons per square mile. Eastern Europe as a
whole (excluding Albania) has a population density of
266 people per square mile; only Bulgaria, with a figure
of 195, has fewer persons per square mile than Romania.
The population density in Eastern Europe is significantly
higher than that for Western Europe, mainly because
of the very high concentration of people in East Germany
409 per square mile.
The population of Romania is divided into two major
aggregations by the Carpathian Mountain range, .which
extends from the north central border southward into
the heart of the country, then tarns westward and crosses
the border into Yugoslavia. The heaviest population settlement
is in the are of plains along the southern and eastern
borders in the traditional regions of Walachia and Nl(t 4tviu
(Population inset, Summary Map, Figure 108). The second
area of dense settlement is north and west of the Carpathians
in the Some Plateau of Transilvania, along the Some;
River to the Hungarian Plain, and in the westernmost
part of the Banat. The most sparsely settled parts of
the country are in and along the curve of the Carpathians
and in the lowlands of Dobruja. The average number
of persons per square mile of arable land (44% of total
land area) is approximately 507.
Bucharest, the capital and largest city, is located in
Walachia, directly to the south of the curve in the mountain
range where the Moldavian Carpathians turn sharply
to the west to become the Translyvanian Alps. In 1967
Bucharest Municipality comprised a total population
of almost 1.5 million, according to Romanian statistics
based on the March 1966 census. Thirteen other urban
centers in Romania have populations of 100,000 or more,
but Bucharest has more than six times the population
of the next largest city (Figure 23).
Romania has witnessed a striking increase of 73%
in its urban population since the end of World War
II, despite a net gain of 451,000 in its rural population
since 1949, according to U.S. Bureau of the Census
data. The Romanians claim that about 40% of the
population resides in urban areas. The primary cause
of the increase in numbers and size of cities has been
the strong emphasis on rapid industrialization and the
resulting internal migration.
However, like Bulgaria, Romania has pursued a conscious
policy of locating industrial activities throughout the
country rather than in the large established cities. Some
urban centers, such as Baia Marc, have developed from
S Romanian data show a decline in Waal population, probably accounted
for by different criteria for defining "urban� and "rural."
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'DOTAL
ANIMAL
tN
DATE OF CENSUS
POPULATION
INCRFASF.
PERCENT
19 December 1912'.
12 ,768 ,399
0
0
9 December 1930..
14 ,280 ,729
84,0 �Rg
N
6 April 1941..
1 '.126,063
167 rnv)
31i
�2.2
25 January 1943..
I5 ,872 ,624
,'200
21 February 1956...
17 :.189,450
202,000
1.21
15 March 1:166.....
19 ,103 ,163
160,000
0.88
*The figures for Transilvania Transivania), Banat, and
northern Moldavia date back to 1910.
The impact of World War II was se on 'host
of the countries in Eastern Europe, but Romania did
not fare as badly as other areas, especially Poland. Despite
460,000 war- related deaths and a net loss of about 350,000
persons resulting from population exchanges and other
movements, Romania's population registered a slight
gain between 1938 and 1950. War deaths consisted of
300,000 military casualties and 160,000 Jews executed.
The wartime migratory picture is extremely cloudy, but
it appears that the major outward movements were to
Hungary, Israel, and what is now the territory of the
Federal Republic of Germany. These flows were
counterbalanced to a small extent by the net gain in
population exchanges with Bulgaria, and as a result
of the flight to Romania of some persons living in areas
ceded to the U.S. S. R.
Emigration has had negligible effects in Romania since
the late 1940's, and it has never been as devastating
as was the case in East Germany. The implied emigration
of 241,000 persons from Romania during the years 1950-
67 was largely accounted for by the movement of Jews
to Israel. Israeli data show that 88,700 Romanian Jews
emigrated in the 3 years immediately following the war,
30
but a restrictive emigration policy has been in effect
in Romania since 1953. Population estimates which take
account of births and deaths imply a net emigration
of from 10,000 to 25,000 for each year between 1958
and 1965, and again most of them apparently were
Jewish emigrants.
2. Distribution
Romania has an area of 91,700 square miles �about
the size of France �which means a population density
of 221 persons per square mile. Eastern Europe as a
whole (excluding Albania) has a population density of
266 people per square mile; only Bulgaria, with a figure
of 195, has fewer persons per square mile than Romania.
The population density in Eastern Europe is significantly
higher than that for Western Europe, mainly because
of the very high concentration of people in East Germany
409 per square mile.
The population of Romania is divided into two major
aggregations by the Carpathian Mountain range, .which
extends from the north central border southward into
the heart of the country, then tarns westward and crosses
the border into Yugoslavia. The heaviest population settlement
is in the are of plains along the southern and eastern
borders in the traditional regions of Walachia and Nl(t 4tviu
(Population inset, Summary Map, Figure 108). The second
area of dense settlement is north and west of the Carpathians
in the Some Plateau of Transilvania, along the Some;
River to the Hungarian Plain, and in the westernmost
part of the Banat. The most sparsely settled parts of
the country are in and along the curve of the Carpathians
and in the lowlands of Dobruja. The average number
of persons per square mile of arable land (44% of total
land area) is approximately 507.
Bucharest, the capital and largest city, is located in
Walachia, directly to the south of the curve in the mountain
range where the Moldavian Carpathians turn sharply
to the west to become the Translyvanian Alps. In 1967
Bucharest Municipality comprised a total population
of almost 1.5 million, according to Romanian statistics
based on the March 1966 census. Thirteen other urban
centers in Romania have populations of 100,000 or more,
but Bucharest has more than six times the population
of the next largest city (Figure 23).
Romania has witnessed a striking increase of 73%
in its urban population since the end of World War
II, despite a net gain of 451,000 in its rural population
since 1949, according to U.S. Bureau of the Census
data. The Romanians claim that about 40% of the
population resides in urban areas. The primary cause
of the increase in numbers and size of cities has been
the strong emphasis on rapid industrialization and the
resulting internal migration.
However, like Bulgaria, Romania has pursued a conscious
policy of locating industrial activities throughout the
country rather than in the large established cities. Some
urban centers, such as Baia Marc, have developed from
S Romanian data show a decline in Waal population, probably accounted
for by different criteria for defining "urban� and "rural."
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FIGURE 23. URBAN CENTERS WITH A POPULATION
EXCEEDING 100,000 (1966 CENSUS) (U /OU)
*Population or designation of the metropolitan area including
suburbs.
large villages in 20 years' time. The ratio of rural to
urban population in 1967 was somewhat less than 3
to 2, whereas in 1930 it was approximately 11 to 3.
The urban population appears, therefore, to be growing
at a much faster rate than the rural population; from
February 1956 to July 1965 the number of urban dwellers
increased by 17%, while the rural population grew by
only 5 In four other East European countries the
rural population actually declined by varying percentages
during the same period. F trr Q.4 shows a breakdown
of the urban and rural poq;:aation in Romania by
county.
3. Composition and trends
As in neighboring Eastern European countries, Romania's
population, traditionally relatively has aged markedly
in more recent decades. This reflects primarily a decline
in the death rate as a result of improved living conditions
and medical care and, until 1967, a steady decline in
the birth rate. Thus, the median age has risen from
22.6 years in 1930, to 30.2 years in 1965, and to 30.8
years as projected for 1969 by the U.S. Bureau of the
Census. The working -age group �ages 15 through 64�
increased from 8.8 million in 1930 to an estimated 12.5
million in July 1965. As a percentage of the total population,
however, this group has increased from only 61.5% in
1930 to a calculated 65.6 in 1969. Projections indicate
that because of a declining birth rate in the past, the
population's working -age group will continue to grow
in absolute numbers but at a declining rate, at least
through 1990. The median age will also decline, in contrast
to the past trend, largely because of the effects of the
dramatic rise in the birth rate beginning in 1967.
The age -sex pyramid of the Romanian population
!Figure 25) shows a somewhat greater regularity than
those for many other Eastern European countries, where
war casualties and emigration have had more traumatic
effects. The relatively smaller numbers of persons in
(IT 24. POPULATION BY COUNTY: URBAN
AND RURAL AREAS, 1967� (U /OU)
URBAN RURAL
TOTAL AREAS AREAS
MUNICIPALITY,
WITHIN
COMMUNE,
134
CITY LIMITS
OR DISTRICT
Arad
126,000
136,900
Britila
136,00
144,300
Bragov
103,300
263,200
Bucharest (1,511,400
1,365,900
Bihor
Cluj
185,800
222,700
Constanta (199,4000
150,400
50
Craiova
148,800
173,300
Galati
151,300
BrAila
lfunedoara
68,300
101,000
Iagi
160,000
194,800
Oradea
122.500
134,900
Ploic4ti (190,700*).. I
147,000
Carag- Severin
Regita
50,700
121,500
Sibiu
109,500
321
Timigoara
174,400
193,000
Tirgu Mureg (104,9000........
86,500
Covasna
*Population or designation of the metropolitan area including
suburbs.
large villages in 20 years' time. The ratio of rural to
urban population in 1967 was somewhat less than 3
to 2, whereas in 1930 it was approximately 11 to 3.
The urban population appears, therefore, to be growing
at a much faster rate than the rural population; from
February 1956 to July 1965 the number of urban dwellers
increased by 17%, while the rural population grew by
only 5 In four other East European countries the
rural population actually declined by varying percentages
during the same period. F trr Q.4 shows a breakdown
of the urban and rural poq;:aation in Romania by
county.
3. Composition and trends
As in neighboring Eastern European countries, Romania's
population, traditionally relatively has aged markedly
in more recent decades. This reflects primarily a decline
in the death rate as a result of improved living conditions
and medical care and, until 1967, a steady decline in
the birth rate. Thus, the median age has risen from
22.6 years in 1930, to 30.2 years in 1965, and to 30.8
years as projected for 1969 by the U.S. Bureau of the
Census. The working -age group �ages 15 through 64�
increased from 8.8 million in 1930 to an estimated 12.5
million in July 1965. As a percentage of the total population,
however, this group has increased from only 61.5% in
1930 to a calculated 65.6 in 1969. Projections indicate
that because of a declining birth rate in the past, the
population's working -age group will continue to grow
in absolute numbers but at a declining rate, at least
through 1990. The median age will also decline, in contrast
to the past trend, largely because of the effects of the
dramatic rise in the birth rate beginning in 1967.
The age -sex pyramid of the Romanian population
!Figure 25) shows a somewhat greater regularity than
those for many other Eastern European countries, where
war casualties and emigration have had more traumatic
effects. The relatively smaller numbers of persons in
(IT 24. POPULATION BY COUNTY: URBAN
AND RURAL AREAS, 1967� (U /OU)
URBAN RURAL
TOTAL AREAS AREAS
Thousands
Alba
381
134
247
Arad
481
190
291
Argeg
555
140
415
Bac$u
609
208
401
Bihor
589
257
332
Bistrita- NilsAud
267
50
217
Boloxani
455
52
403
BrAila
342
142
200
Bragov
451
307
144
Buzitu
485
94
391
Carag- Severin
360
156
204
Cluj
636
321
315
Constanta
478
246
232
Covasna
177
56
121
Dimbovita
406
131
275
Dolt'
692
203
489
Galati
481
184
297
Gorj........................
299
71
228
Ifarghita
284
91
193
IIunedoara
483
332
151
Ialomita
364
77
287
tagi
631
185
446
Ilfov
753
78
675
Maramureg
435
189
246
M ehedinti
310
78
232
Mureg
571
189
382
Neamt
477
139
338
Olt
479
70
409
Prahova
707
399
308
Satu Mare
361
109
252
Sglaj
263
51
212
Sibiu
420
254
166
Suceava
582
150
432
Teleorman
522
93
429
Timig
616
279
337
Tulcea
238
68
170
Vaslui
436
81
355
Vilcea
373
82
291
Vrancea
354
70
284
Bucharest Municipality.......
1,484
1,461
23
Total
19,287
7,467
11,820
*Computed on basis of March 1966 census.
the age groups 21 to 28 and 49 to 54 reflect lower
birth rates during the two World Wars. In other respects,
the present population structure reflects a long -range
decline in the death rate and a relatively recent but
rapid decline in the birth rate, until 1967 when the
birth rate shot up.
Figure 26 compares Romania's vital rates with those
of selected other countries in the Western world for
1967, the latest year available. The extremely high live
birth rate of 27.1 per 1,000 persons �of those countries
selected only Albania's is higher �is misleading. Since
1938, when Romania's birth rate was 29.5, at that time
one of the highest in Europe, the rate has declined
sharply. In 1965 it was 14.6, which was just slightly
less than the Eastern European average (excluding Albania).
The high birth rate for 1967, however, appears to be
a sharp departure from the long -term trend, the result
31
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Births per 1,000 population
40
Age
75
NATURAL
and over
BIRTHS
70-74
INCREASE
65-69
30
60-64
25.4
55 -59
15.0
50-54
6.0
45 -49
17.4
4n-44
20
35 -39
17.9
30-34
8.5
25 -29
19.5
20-74
10.8
15 -19
10
10-14
8.6
5 -9
17.4
0-4
4.4
MALE Percent FEMALE
FIGURE 25. Age -sex pyramid comparing Romania and
United States (U /OU)
FIGURE 20. VITAL, RATES, SELECTED
COUNTRIES, 1967 (U /OU)
(Per 1,000 persons)
of a drastic change in the abortion laws. Figure 27
plots the monthly birth rate for 1965 -69 and shows the
rate again declining and leveling off in 1968 -69, although
apparently not clown to the previous low level.
In Romania, as in Eastern Europe generally, the decline
of the crude birth rate between 1955 and 1966 has
been essentially clue to decreases in age- specific fertility
rates and not to changes in age structure. That is, the
childbearing population has limited the size of families
voluntarily as a result of adverse social conditions; it
does not mean that there are fewer women of childbearing
age. Crowded living conditions, the prevalence of working
wives, and, in the past, liberal abortion and divorce
laws, have all contributed to the low birth rate. Changes
in the marriage rate apparently are not responsible for
the declining birth rate, since the former was stable
in Romania until 1958, then dropped sharply. The low
marital rate persisted through the period from 1966 and
1967, when the birth rate doubled.
The decline in fertility is indirectly related to the
reduction in infant mortality throughout Eastern Europe,
which in Romania's case has been striking. With improved
medical care in the cities, couples apparently do not
feel the compunction to produce large families to compensate
1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
FIGURE 27, Birth rate, by month, 1965 -69 (U /OU)
for the feared infant deaths. In three decades Romania's
infant mortality rate has declined from 179 deaths per
1,000 live births (1938) to 47 (1967), a net reduction
of 74
Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that although
the latter figure is in line with similar percentage reductions�
in the other five East European countries over the same
period, Romania has always had and still has one of
the highest infant mortality rates in Europe. In .1967
only Portugal had a higher rate. As an indicator of
social well- being, the infant mortality rate points to
the fact that Romania's standard of living is really more
comparable to most of the European Mediterranean
countries than to its northern socialist fraternal allies.
East Germany, for example, with the lowest rate in
Eastern Europe, registered 21 infant deaths per 1,000
in 1967; even the average for the southern European
states along the Mediterranean is slightly less than Romania's.
Romania compares quite unfavorably, of course, with
the northwestern European area, which had an average
rate of 19 babies die per 1.000 live births in 1967. Fit;nre
28 compares infant mortality .n Romania with five
other East European countries.
As Inight he expected, the crude death rate also has
dropped sharply in Eastern Europe, with thi% exception
of East Germany where the rate was wire d% re).atively
low. Romania's has been cut almost in half, dropping
from 19.1 per 1,000 persons in 1938 "o 9.3 in 1967,
despite an actual increase of 7% in the crude death
rate between 1960 and 1967. According to the U.S.
Bureau of the Census, this general decline is not peculiar
to Romania or Eastern Europe but part of a postwar
decline throughout the world, resulting from the introduction
of antibiotics and insecticides, improved sanitation practices
and nutrition, and the extension of public health
facilities.
These same factors have produced a phenomenal 26-
year gain in life expectancy in Romania since 1932.
On an annual average basis this increase amounted to
about three fourths of a year. Romanian official data
give the average life expectancy of a newborn infant
in 1932 as 42 years; in 1963 it was 68.3 years. As in
most other countries of the world, mortality of females
32
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6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
NATURAL
BIRTHS
DEATHS
INCREASE
Albania
34.0
8.0
25.4
Bulgaria
15.0
9.0
6.0
U.S.S.R
17.4
7.6
9.8
United States
17.9
9.4
8.5
Yugoslavia
19.5
8.7
10.8
Poland
16.3
7.7
8.6
Austria
17.4
13.0
4.4
Sweden
15.5
10.1
5.4
ROMANIA
27.1
9.3
17.8
Hungary
14.5
10.7
3.8
of a drastic change in the abortion laws. Figure 27
plots the monthly birth rate for 1965 -69 and shows the
rate again declining and leveling off in 1968 -69, although
apparently not clown to the previous low level.
In Romania, as in Eastern Europe generally, the decline
of the crude birth rate between 1955 and 1966 has
been essentially clue to decreases in age- specific fertility
rates and not to changes in age structure. That is, the
childbearing population has limited the size of families
voluntarily as a result of adverse social conditions; it
does not mean that there are fewer women of childbearing
age. Crowded living conditions, the prevalence of working
wives, and, in the past, liberal abortion and divorce
laws, have all contributed to the low birth rate. Changes
in the marriage rate apparently are not responsible for
the declining birth rate, since the former was stable
in Romania until 1958, then dropped sharply. The low
marital rate persisted through the period from 1966 and
1967, when the birth rate doubled.
The decline in fertility is indirectly related to the
reduction in infant mortality throughout Eastern Europe,
which in Romania's case has been striking. With improved
medical care in the cities, couples apparently do not
feel the compunction to produce large families to compensate
1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
FIGURE 27, Birth rate, by month, 1965 -69 (U /OU)
for the feared infant deaths. In three decades Romania's
infant mortality rate has declined from 179 deaths per
1,000 live births (1938) to 47 (1967), a net reduction
of 74
Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that although
the latter figure is in line with similar percentage reductions�
in the other five East European countries over the same
period, Romania has always had and still has one of
the highest infant mortality rates in Europe. In .1967
only Portugal had a higher rate. As an indicator of
social well- being, the infant mortality rate points to
the fact that Romania's standard of living is really more
comparable to most of the European Mediterranean
countries than to its northern socialist fraternal allies.
East Germany, for example, with the lowest rate in
Eastern Europe, registered 21 infant deaths per 1,000
in 1967; even the average for the southern European
states along the Mediterranean is slightly less than Romania's.
Romania compares quite unfavorably, of course, with
the northwestern European area, which had an average
rate of 19 babies die per 1.000 live births in 1967. Fit;nre
28 compares infant mortality .n Romania with five
other East European countries.
As Inight he expected, the crude death rate also has
dropped sharply in Eastern Europe, with thi% exception
of East Germany where the rate was wire d% re).atively
low. Romania's has been cut almost in half, dropping
from 19.1 per 1,000 persons in 1938 "o 9.3 in 1967,
despite an actual increase of 7% in the crude death
rate between 1960 and 1967. According to the U.S.
Bureau of the Census, this general decline is not peculiar
to Romania or Eastern Europe but part of a postwar
decline throughout the world, resulting from the introduction
of antibiotics and insecticides, improved sanitation practices
and nutrition, and the extension of public health
facilities.
These same factors have produced a phenomenal 26-
year gain in life expectancy in Romania since 1932.
On an annual average basis this increase amounted to
about three fourths of a year. Romanian official data
give the average life expectancy of a newborn infant
in 1932 as 42 years; in 1963 it was 68.3 years. As in
most other countries of the world, mortality of females
32
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6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

INFANT OEATH5 PER
1.000 LIVE BIRTHS
40
HUNGARY
EAST GERMANY-
I*&%
1950
FIGURE 28. Infant mortality rates, six Eastern European countries, 1950.67 (U /OU)
in Eastern Europe has declined more rapidly than that
of males. Thus in 1956, the earliest year for which a
breakdown is available, life expectancy for males was
61.5 wars and for females 65 years. By 1963 these figures
had increased to 65.4 years and 70.3 years, respectively,
an increase of slightly less than 4 years for males but
more than 5 years for females.
Marriage and divorce ratios remained fairly stable
for the decade following 1930. The marriage rate varied
from 8.1 to 9.5 per 1,000 population annually and the
divorce rate never rose above 0.75 per 1,000. Statistics
are not available for the war years, but from 1946 through
1960 the marriage rate stayed around I per 1,000;
since 1961 it has fallen back to the prewar level. In
1967, eight Romanians for every 1,000 persons got married.
The divorce rate, on the other hand, has generally increased
since the end of the war, although during the 1960's
the ratios varied considerably, the highest occurring in
1962 -2.04 persons per 1,000.
4. Population policies and problems
Romania has only recently begun consciously to influence
changes in its population. As was the ca in other East
European countries, Romania liberalized its abortion
laws in 1956, but this was merely a case of following
the leader. In November 1955 the U.S.S.R. had enacted
pioneer legislation in this field by repealing restrictive
legislation on abortions which had been enacted in 1936.
Shortly thereafter, in Romania, as in Bulgaria and Hungary,
abortions became available upon request of pregnant
women. During the next decade Romanians apparently
took full advantage of this policy, thereby reinforcing
the steady downward trend in natality.
Statistics on abortions in Romania are fragmentary.
About 112,000 abortions were reportedly performed in
1958, the first full year after abortions were legalized,
and 219,000 in 1959. After that, no data appeared until
the startling figure of 1,115,000 was announced for 1965
a total of four abortions for each live birth, the highest
incidence of abortion ever reported. In the absence of
other data, it is impossible of course to evaluate the
validity of this extraordinary figure.
The Romanian Government certainly was alarmed
over this very low birth rate. In October 1966 severe
measures were adopted "to regulate abortions and promote
the birth rate," and a press campaign was started lauding
the virtues of large families. The regime also decreed
restrictions on divorce, increased taxes on persons over
age 25 without children, provided subsidies to families
with three or more children, granted housing priorities
to families with the largest numbers of children, and
prohibited abortions in all but exceptional circumstances.
The result, as already noted, was a dramatic jump in
the birth rate (Figure 27), from 12.1 per 1,000 in December
1966 to a high of 39.9 in September 1967.
The Romanian situation is a clear -cut case of a population
i:aving been almost completely dependent on abortion
as its means of birth control. The regime's policy of
discouraging abortions to raise the birth rate has certainly
been effective in the short run, but it is too early to
tell %%bether it will be equally successful over the long
run. Presumably the childbearing population will resort
increasingly to contraceptive devices� sometimes available
on the black market �or illegal abortion; the gradual
decline in birth rates following the peak in September
1967 probably indicates that this is already happening.
The crux of the matter is simply that Romanians
do not want large or even moderately sized (by American
standards) families. It is generally agreed among demographers
that the underlying reason for increasingly low fertility
rates has been the incorporation of the small- family
ideal among a large proportion of the population and
the availability of the means to attain this ideal. The
desired family size in Eastern Europe is exceptionally
33
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small, especially in Romania. The average desired family
size in Bucharest is only 1.3 children, and among the
professional classes the number falls to 0.7� figures without
parallel elsewhere in the world. The omnipresent housing
shortage undoubtedly contributes to this disinterest in
children, but probably more important is the socioeconomic
situation. A Polish writer, speaking of Eastern Europe
generally, summed it up this way:
People earning above average incomes can live decently
even with two childron, but to them 'decently' means
something more. They do not want to lower their stand-
ards and would rather buy an automobile or take a trip
abroad than have children. And this is what they do.
People in those countries which had a hard time during
the war, after the war, and during the ascetic Stalinist
period, give full rein to their appetites now that there
is stability.
The standard of living in Romania has improved over
previous levels, but it is still not up to the comfortable
level enjoyed in much of Western Europe, nor even
as high as that in most of Eastern Europe. The average
urban Romanian couple has just tasted these comforts;
the only way to attain the amenities of life is for both
to work and to avoid or put off having children. The
government has flatly declared its intention to raise the
birth rate to ease its worries about the future labor force.
Most high -level government officials, in fact, take the
tack "the more Romanians the better" and are not in
the least swayed by social and economic arguments expressing
concern over the quality of life or the general danger
caused by the world's burgeoning population. The resentment
of the Romanian people against the new policy, however,
may bode ill for the government's long -range plans.
5. Population projections
Assuming that fertility remains essentially at the 1968
level, Romania's population is expected to number more
than 27 million by 1990, an increase of 37% (Figure
29). Even if fertility declines, however, the total population
may be expected to increase by 17 to 27 over the
same time period. The number of children under age
15 is expected to increase by 62% over the projection
period and to make up 30.4 of the total population
in 1990. Babies born during the 1967 -68 boom will double
the kindergarten age group between 1970 and 1975 and
increase by 44% the number of children of primary
school age between 1975 and 1980. These figures could
be reduced by as much as half if fertility declines, but
in any case the educational system is likely to be severely
strained during the 1970's.
The working -age group �those between 15 and 64
years of age �can be expected to expand about 26%
in absolute terms, if fertility rates remair. at 1968 -69
levels. In relative terms however, the size of the working-
age group is declining. In 1990, when the "baby boom"
of 1967 (and after) will have begun to affect the labor
market significantly, the working -age group will encompass
60.2% of the total population, compared with an estimated
65.6 in 1969. These data justify somewhat the regime's
concern over declining manpower in the future, especially
since the social security system is likely to be overtaxed
34
RUMANIA
1969 1990 ORMTRIA112.421,
FIGURE 29. Population projection to 1990, by age
and sex (U /OU)
by an expected increase of 48.9% in the number of
nonproductive citizens �those 65 years and over. As a
result, Romania may expect to have a high dependency
ratio: 660 persons under age 15 and over age 64 per
1,000 persons in the middle age bracket, the same ratio
as Poland's in 1965.
tiomania is the only country in Eastern Europe (excluding
Albania) which is expected to acquire an excess of males
over females, though admittedly slight �in percentage
terms, 100.7% in 1990. In the working -age group the
breakdown between males and females will be roughly
equal, with a slight edge enjoyed by the former.
C. Structure and characteristics of the society
1. Ethnic composition (S)
Approximately 87% of the total population is ethnically
Romanian. The remainder is made up of various ethnic
minorities, giving Romania one of the largest national
minority populations of any East European country.
The distinct Latin background of the Rom. nians distinguishes
them from these minority populations and also from
their Slavic and Finno -Ugric neighbors in surrounding
countries. Romanians are proud of their descent from
the ancient Dacians, who were subjugated and civilized
by the Romans in the second century A.D. When the
Roman legions withdrew from Dacia 175 years later,
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PERCENT MCENT

the Latinized Dacians remaining behind survived to
puss on their I-atin language and heritage through successive
generations to modern Romanians.
The ethnic characteristics of Romanians vary according
to the different geographic areas of the country. Natives
of the 'Transilvania region and the Carpathian Mountains
area have the typical Dinaric stature (averaging 5 feet,
8 inches), accentmted broad head, slender build, actuiline
nose, dark brown Nair, and blue -gray eves. At the same
titne, distinctive Latin types are found in these as well
as in other areas of the country.
Slavic characteristics are much more common, though
not predominant, particularly among the Romanians
of Moldavia where th^ people have been strongly marked
by centuries of Slav migration and interbreeding. Their
shorter stature, longer narrower head, and other physical
characteristics show a great similarity to the inhabitants
of the Slavic countries to the north, but Latin influences
are nevertheless often evident in their oval face, medium
body build, and (lark hair and eyes.
The brunet type in the Banat in western Romania
attests to large -scale migration from Mediterranean areas,
while one of the most ethnically mixed populations of
Europe lives in Dobruja in the southeast. The ethnic
heterogeneity in the latter region, strategically I ated
between the Danube and the Black Sea, is attributable
to its occupation in the past by Bulgarians, Turks, Russians,
and Creeks.
The present minority population of Romania is only
about half that of the prewar period, but it is still the
largest in Eltsterrt Europe larger, in fact, than the combined
minority populations of East Germany, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. The 1930 census
recognized 17 separate national minorities totaling over
5 million people. During World War 11, deaths, territorial
lenses (Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and southem Dobruja),
and transfers of population greatly reduced the size of
nearly all the prewar minorities. The 1956 census �the
last one to conmt minorities its such� identified 15 minorities
totaling under 2.5 million people. Thu principal reductions
between 1930 and 1956 were among tile C-ruiatis (from
63.1,000 to 385,000), the Jews (from 452,000 to i4G.000),
and the Gypsies (from 243,000 to 104,000). Of the major
prewar minorities, only the Hungarians maintained their
relative and absolute numerical strength into the postwar
period -1 423,000 in 1930 and 1,588,000 in 1956.
By far the largest part of Romania's postwar minority
pxwpulation (87.551 in 1(156) is concentrated in Transilvania.
Within this region the various minorities account for
nearly one -third of the population, and in some sections
non Romanians may be in the majority. In the historic
pro%inc�es of Moldavia and Walachia, however, minorities
comprise only 25; or 3Si of the population, and over
%%ide areas non- Ronamians may Ix entirely alncnit. Somewhat
larger proportions, 10% to 135 are found in the Dobruja
and southern Bukovina.
According to officials who participated in the 1966
census. the Ilungarian minority in Romania numbers
over 1.7 .iillion �the largest single minority group in
Eastern Europe Nearly all these Hungarians are settled
in 'Transilvania, where they account for about one fourth
of the population, a proportion that has retrained essentially
the same over a period of several decades.
The Ilongarians in 'Transilvania arc concentrated in
two areas of settlement that are separated by a zone
in which Ilongarians are more widely dispersed among
the dominant Romanian population. The largest and
most distinctive Hungarian group in Romania lives in
ania which is more than 100
a part of eastern Transilv
miles front the Hungarian border. '['his group of about
675,000 Szeklers fortes die largest bloc of Ilongarians
outside Hungary. In 1956 most of them were in the
ltegiw:� Mur(I- Antonom3 Maghiar5 (Autonomous Magyar
Region), where they constituted over 75% of the population.
In 1968, however, as a result of the redistricting of the
entire country, this whole region was gerrymandered
for political reasons �to enhance the regime's control
over the minorities