NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 13A; EAST GERMANY; THE SOCIETY

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• Collection: NIS
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WARNING
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CONTENTS
This chanter supersedes Ilse sociological cover-
age in the General Survey dated February 1970.
A. Historical background 1
B. Structure and characteristics of the society 3
1. Ethnic and linguistic composition
3
2. Class structure
4
3.'amily and communal ties
5
4. r.ttitudes
7
C. Popuiation
S
U. Societal aspects of labor
14
1. Manpower resources
14
2. Characteristics of the labor force
16
3. Labor productivity and working
conditions
1$
4. Income
19
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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Page
I. Artistic and cultural expression 36
U
M
J. Public information media
Page
E. Living conditions and social problems
20
1. Diet, clothing, housing, and consumer
42
goods.............................
21
2. Social insurance
23
3. Social problems
24
F. Health
25
1. Medical facilities
25
2. Incidence of disease
26
3. Pharmaceuticals
27
4. Environment, diet, and sanitation
27
G. Religion
28
H Education
31
1. Organization
32
2. University reform
34
3. Language study
35
4. Communist indoctrination
35
5. Teachers
35
Page
I. Artistic and cultural expression 36
U
M
J. Public information media
40
1. The press
40
2. Books and libraries
42
3. Radio and television
42
4. Cinema and theater
44
K. Selected bibliography 44
1. General and historical 44
2. Geography, demography, and sociology 45
3. Religion, education, mass media, and
culture 46
4. Statistical and other reference
documents 46
Glossary 47
FIGURES
0
0
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Fig. 1
German dialects map)
4
Fig. 2
Major mass organizations (table)
6
Fig. 3
Population density map)
9
Fig. 4
Population data by Bezirk (table)
10
Fig. 5
Urban -rural distribution (chart)
11
Fig. 6
Urban renewal in Halle photos)
12
Fig. 7
Vital statistics, East and West:
German) (chart)
13
Fig. 8
Vital rates (table)
13
Fig. 9
Age -sex distribution, East Germany
32
Fig. 26
and the United States (chart)
14
Fig. 10
Age -sex distribution, East and West
33
Fig. 27
Germany (chart)
14
Fig. 11
Working -age population chart)
15
Fig. 12
Distribution.of labor chart)
16
Fig. 13
Composition of labor force chart)
17
Fig. 14
Ownership of selected consumer
goods (table)
21
Fig. 15
Daily food consumption (table)
21
Fig. 16
Cost of consumer goods and services
40
Fig. 31
in work hours (table)
22
Fig. 17
Comparison in levels of living chart)
22
Fig. 18
Leisure -time facilities photo)
23
0
0
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Fig. 19
Infant mortality rates and life
expectancy (table)
25
Fig. 20
Medical facilities (photos)
26
Fig. 21
Availability of physicians and hospital
beds (table)
27
Fig. 22
Religious affiliation table)
28
Fig. 23
Regime exploitation of the church
(photo)
30
Fig. 24
The educational system chart)
32
Fig. 25
Educational data (table)
32
Fig. 26
Weekly program of a comprehensive
polytechnical school (table)
33
Fig. 27
Leading East German universities
(table)
34
Fig. 28
Regime exploitation of higher
education (photo)
36
Fig. 29
Examples of postwar architecture
(photos)
37
Fig. 30
Regime exploitation of the theater
(photo)
40
Fig. 31
Major newspapers table)
41
Fig. 32
View of East Berlin television tower
(photo)
43
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r y
t
The Society
A. Historical background
The German Democratic Republic (GDR) was
established in 1949 out of the zone of defeated
Germany that had been occupied by the U.S.S.R. after
r World War II. Its people are thus the inheritors of a
Western European culture despite their government's
close ties with the Soviet Union and the Communist
controlled Eastern European states. Before this
development, the East Germans participated with
their western Lrothers in shaping a culture comparable
to those of the French and the Italians in terms of its
significant and varied contributions to the develop
ment of Western civilization. Indeed, if the Germ;ntccinv
incicll,ncc of chra�nic ch.Itrcicr�. mid I7.t..ilik mmw
tn.11111vcnn>; Mid li%po iomdria I�..t.I (:crimin.
tncchc.il I wr, n iirl wporif-d Illli h million clm.ult.1-
linn. in I'Ni4. 4 kith h; 1 nnlhtnt in 14N71. ,1
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X
FIGURE 21. Ratio of population to hospital beds and
physicians, selected countries
rise of 59% while lit(. population declined by about
0.2%. Among the most prevalent diseases are scarlet
fever (16.0 cases per 10,000 inhabitants in 1970),
infectious hepatitis (10.9 cases per 10,(00 in 1970),
active respiratory tuberculosis (5.1 cases per 10,000 in
1969), salmonella food poisoning (3.2 cases per 10,000
in 1970), and dysentery (3.0 cases per 10,000 in 1970).
In addition. the number of tlewly reported cases of all
types of cancer has risen steadily from 39.700 in 19-33
to 60,100 (or 35.2 cases per 10,000 inhabitants) in
1970. The leading causes of death in 1969 were
circulatory ailments (64.7 deaths per 100)
inhabitants), malignant neoplasms (22.0 deaths per
10,000 inhabitants), and cerebrovascular ailments (9.6
deaths per 10,000 inhabitants).
Hygiene and epidemic control is exercised by the
Ministry for Health's State Hygiene Inspectorate, with
subordinate inspectorates in each of the 15 districts
(Bezirke) which control lower level inspectorates in the
218 counties (Krelse). In the last 15 years the medical
service has virtually eliminated or drastically reduced
the incidence of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers,
diphtheria, poliomyelitis, active tuberculosis, and
r�philis. At the same time, however, it has been unable
to do much with other diseases. such as anichWis,
shigellosis, scarlet fever, salmonellos;s, viral
encephalitis, influenza, infectious hepatitis, and
gonorrhea. In 1962 and 1964 there were serious
epidemics of amehiasis and shigellosis. There have also
been serious outbreaks of influenza, scarlet fever, and
h -patitis.
3. Pharmaceuticals
There are recurrent shortages of pharmaceutical.
Although many drugs are manufactured locally and
arc up to world standards, the Iopulation generally
suspects the quality and effectiveness of sonic East
Gerinan- produced pharmaceuticals, and prefers
Western produced products when available. Importa-
tion of Western pharmaceuticals has long been
discouraged, although some continue to be received.
For example, West German church organizations have
sent pharmaceuticals in exchange for the release of
prisoners in East Germany, and some have been sent
throe h private mailings.
4. Environment, diet, and sanitation
There are few cm ironmental factors adversely
affecting health in East Germany. The temperate
climate and usually adequate rainfall favor healthful
living. Toxic plants include mushrooms and other
fungi. The two Ix)isonous reptiles of note in East
Germany are the European N5p (Vlpera amts), found
in the southern part of the country, and the Common
European Viper or Common Gross Adder (V. berm
hers), commonly known as the Kreu otter, found
countrywide. Troublesome insects include types of
mosquitoes, flies, lice, fleas, ticks, and mites.
The level of nutrition is generally satisfactory.
Cereals and potatoes provide the major part of daily
caloric intake; consumption of meat and dairy
products is low by Western European standards but
high by Eastern European standards. Inadequate food
supplies during the unusually difficult wittier of 1962
63 reportedly resulted in cases of malnutrition in some
urban areas, but this exceptional situation has not
been repeated. Diets are presumed to be adequate on
the basis of the generally satisfacton� level of health of
the population.
Water supplies, though quantitatively adequate,
arc for the most part qualitatively poor except in
important urban areas. Treatment of urban water
supplies was begun in the 1950's, and several cities
fluoridate drinking water. Because nearly all ground
water in the northern plain contains iron and
frequently manganese and hydrogen sulfide, water
from individual wells is often unpalatable. Also, the
construction and location of wells frequently subjects
the water to contamination. Food d sanitation is poor by
West German standards and has born the primars
cause of the high incidence of amei .cis, shigellosis,
salmonellosis, and other forms of food poisoning.
Deficient sewerage systems and poor sanitation
practices exist in some areas, even in the vicinity of
large cities. Waste is seldom treated. Night soil is used
as fertilizer in rural areas.
The government maintains a network of health
offices, veterinary clinics, and service stations to
combat livestock diseases. Although the authorities are
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POPVLATIION'
HORPITAL
POPULATION/
"an
PHri11CIAN
Sweden (1968)
70
800
FAST GERMANY (1969)...
80
620
Austria (1968)
90
560
West Germany (1968)
90
580
Switzerland (1968)
9(1
00 650
Czechoslovakia (1969)
1(K)
480
United Kingdom (1968)
I
�860
U.S.S.R. (1969)
107
433
United States (1964)
120
0 650
Ilungary (1969)
120
520
Poland (1969)
130
690
France (1968)
150
0 770
�1967.
��1969.
rise of 59% while lit(. population declined by about
0.2%. Among the most prevalent diseases are scarlet
fever (16.0 cases per 10,000 inhabitants in 1970),
infectious hepatitis (10.9 cases per 10,(00 in 1970),
active respiratory tuberculosis (5.1 cases per 10,000 in
1969), salmonella food poisoning (3.2 cases per 10,000
in 1970), and dysentery (3.0 cases per 10,000 in 1970).
In addition. the number of tlewly reported cases of all
types of cancer has risen steadily from 39.700 in 19-33
to 60,100 (or 35.2 cases per 10,000 inhabitants) in
1970. The leading causes of death in 1969 were
circulatory ailments (64.7 deaths per 100)
inhabitants), malignant neoplasms (22.0 deaths per
10,000 inhabitants), and cerebrovascular ailments (9.6
deaths per 10,000 inhabitants).
Hygiene and epidemic control is exercised by the
Ministry for Health's State Hygiene Inspectorate, with
subordinate inspectorates in each of the 15 districts
(Bezirke) which control lower level inspectorates in the
218 counties (Krelse). In the last 15 years the medical
service has virtually eliminated or drastically reduced
the incidence of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers,
diphtheria, poliomyelitis, active tuberculosis, and
r�philis. At the same time, however, it has been unable
to do much with other diseases. such as anichWis,
shigellosis, scarlet fever, salmonellos;s, viral
encephalitis, influenza, infectious hepatitis, and
gonorrhea. In 1962 and 1964 there were serious
epidemics of amehiasis and shigellosis. There have also
been serious outbreaks of influenza, scarlet fever, and
h -patitis.
3. Pharmaceuticals
There are recurrent shortages of pharmaceutical.
Although many drugs are manufactured locally and
arc up to world standards, the Iopulation generally
suspects the quality and effectiveness of sonic East
Gerinan- produced pharmaceuticals, and prefers
Western produced products when available. Importa-
tion of Western pharmaceuticals has long been
discouraged, although some continue to be received.
For example, West German church organizations have
sent pharmaceuticals in exchange for the release of
prisoners in East Germany, and some have been sent
throe h private mailings.
4. Environment, diet, and sanitation
There are few cm ironmental factors adversely
affecting health in East Germany. The temperate
climate and usually adequate rainfall favor healthful
living. Toxic plants include mushrooms and other
fungi. The two Ix)isonous reptiles of note in East
Germany are the European N5p (Vlpera amts), found
in the southern part of the country, and the Common
European Viper or Common Gross Adder (V. berm
hers), commonly known as the Kreu otter, found
countrywide. Troublesome insects include types of
mosquitoes, flies, lice, fleas, ticks, and mites.
The level of nutrition is generally satisfactory.
Cereals and potatoes provide the major part of daily
caloric intake; consumption of meat and dairy
products is low by Western European standards but
high by Eastern European standards. Inadequate food
supplies during the unusually difficult wittier of 1962
63 reportedly resulted in cases of malnutrition in some
urban areas, but this exceptional situation has not
been repeated. Diets are presumed to be adequate on
the basis of the generally satisfacton� level of health of
the population.
Water supplies, though quantitatively adequate,
arc for the most part qualitatively poor except in
important urban areas. Treatment of urban water
supplies was begun in the 1950's, and several cities
fluoridate drinking water. Because nearly all ground
water in the northern plain contains iron and
frequently manganese and hydrogen sulfide, water
from individual wells is often unpalatable. Also, the
construction and location of wells frequently subjects
the water to contamination. Food d sanitation is poor by
West German standards and has born the primars
cause of the high incidence of amei .cis, shigellosis,
salmonellosis, and other forms of food poisoning.
Deficient sewerage systems and poor sanitation
practices exist in some areas, even in the vicinity of
large cities. Waste is seldom treated. Night soil is used
as fertilizer in rural areas.
The government maintains a network of health
offices, veterinary clinics, and service stations to
combat livestock diseases. Although the authorities are
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reticent about providing data, the seriousness of
animal disease is indicated by the imposition of strh1
controls over the movement of animals and humans
and the virtual ynarantine of many rural areas each
year. The leading diseases are foot and -mouth disease
and hop, cholera. Other common livestock diseases are
fever, erysipelas, and hog salmoneilosis, and pest,
plague, and pip in poultry. A serious outbreak of foot
and disease in 1967 caused the East Germans
to initiate stringent controls over animals and animal
products entering or leaving the country. Persons
crossing the border during the epidemic were required
to step into trays of disinfectant before being allowed
to proceed across the border. These and other
measures, which lasted several months, eventually
succeeded in controlling the disease.
Q Religion
Since the Reformation the area comprising East
Germany has been predominantly Protestant in its
religions convictions. According to the 1964 census
39.31 of the xvilation claimed affiliation with the
Protestant Evangelical churches of Germany (Figure
22). The Roman Catholics, despite postwar
immigration from heavily Catholic areas in Silesia,
now under Polish administration, constituted only
about 8% of the population. Nearly one -third of the
population in 1964 professed no religious affiliation.
Regime efforts to suppress religion have resulted in a
sharp drop in church membership and an even greater
decline in active participation by those claiming
affiliation. Only alxut 23% of the Catholics and an
estimated Sri of the Protestants actually attend church
on a regular basis.
The predominance of Protestantism in East
Germany dates back to the Peace of Augsburg (1555)
and the Peace of Westphalia (1648), tinder whn'h local
German princes were allowed to determine whether
the Catholic or Lutheran confession would be the
established church in their respective domains. This
settlement was modified slightly by the Prussian state's
union in 1817 of Lutheran and Calvinist churches
within its lxrders into a single established church. On
FIGURE 22. Census data on religious affiliation,
1939 -64, in percent
�Lees than .05 percent
the eve of World War 11 there were eight established
territorial churches (Landeskirchen) in what was to
become East Germany. 'Three of the Landeskirchen
(Saxony, Thuringia, and Mecklenburg) subscribe to
an undiluted Lutheran doctrine. The other five
l,ande,rkirchen� Brandenburg, Anhalt Province of
Saxony, Pomerania (Greifswald), and Silesia ((;ocrlitz)
are the heirs to the Prussian sponsored Evangelical
Church of the Union, which includes Lutheran as well
as Reformed traditions. Each Landeskirche enjoys a
wide degree of autonomy in dogma and liturgy. The
eight Landeskirchen are subdivided into a total of
about 7,5(X) parishes. Pastors are paid by funds
granted to the churches by the state. Approximately
60X) clergymen and 13,(XX) other church officials
work in the parishes. The Evangelical churches
maintain hospitals, homes for the elderly, children's
homes, and infirmaries. In addition the churches have
their own newspapers and publishing houses, but the
content of the output is carefully screened by the state.
Until 1969, all eight were associated with similar
Landeskirchcn in West Cermany in the Evangelical
Church of Germain (EKD). Formed in 1945, the EKD
was organized to represent the member churches in
their dealings with their respective governments and
international church organizations, and to coordinate
missionary and welfare work, theological training,
eccieslastical law, church music, and general
administration. The regime opposed the all German
aspect of the organization for years as part of its
advocacy of a separate East German state. The regime
in 1958 refused to deal officially with any EKD
official who was not an East German citizen, and since
1961 it has refused to allow representatives to attend
the annual EKD synod in West Germany. On the
other hand, the regime permitted the EKD in West
Germany to funnel financial aid to the East German
churches and also used the EKD channel to negotiate
secretly with the Bonn government on such sensitive
matters as the ransoming of prisoners from East
German jail. In 1969, all eight Landeskirchen yielded
to pressure by the regime and afire d to establish a
separate organization called the League of Evan-
gelical Churches (BEX) in East (;errnanv. Parallel
steps were taken in 1968 against the three Evangelical
Lutheran Landeskirchen, forcing there to sever their
ties with the United Evangelical- Lutheran Church of
Ccrmany (%'EI.KD) and form a separate East Gentian
organization. In 1972 the five union Landeskirchen
followed suit, severing their ties with the Evangelical
Church of the Union and forming a strictly East
German ho dy, the East Syn(xl, under the leadership of
Bishop Albrecht Sc�hoenherr.
Although the majority of Protestant clergymen in
East Cermany are believed to have had reservations
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1939
1946
19.SU
1964
Evangelical
8,5.r
80.9
80.5
59.3
Roman Catholic.........
6.6
12.1
11.0
8.1
Other
0.9
1.0
X7.7
0.7
Not stated
0.2
0.2
0.3
Not affiliated..........
7.3
5.8
7.6
31.6
�Lees than .05 percent
the eve of World War 11 there were eight established
territorial churches (Landeskirchen) in what was to
become East Germany. 'Three of the Landeskirchen
(Saxony, Thuringia, and Mecklenburg) subscribe to
an undiluted Lutheran doctrine. The other five
l,ande,rkirchen� Brandenburg, Anhalt Province of
Saxony, Pomerania (Greifswald), and Silesia ((;ocrlitz)
are the heirs to the Prussian sponsored Evangelical
Church of the Union, which includes Lutheran as well
as Reformed traditions. Each Landeskirche enjoys a
wide degree of autonomy in dogma and liturgy. The
eight Landeskirchen are subdivided into a total of
about 7,5(X) parishes. Pastors are paid by funds
granted to the churches by the state. Approximately
60X) clergymen and 13,(XX) other church officials
work in the parishes. The Evangelical churches
maintain hospitals, homes for the elderly, children's
homes, and infirmaries. In addition the churches have
their own newspapers and publishing houses, but the
content of the output is carefully screened by the state.
Until 1969, all eight were associated with similar
Landeskirchcn in West Cermany in the Evangelical
Church of Germain (EKD). Formed in 1945, the EKD
was organized to represent the member churches in
their dealings with their respective governments and
international church organizations, and to coordinate
missionary and welfare work, theological training,
eccieslastical law, church music, and general
administration. The regime opposed the all German
aspect of the organization for years as part of its
advocacy of a separate East German state. The regime
in 1958 refused to deal officially with any EKD
official who was not an East German citizen, and since
1961 it has refused to allow representatives to attend
the annual EKD synod in West Germany. On the
other hand, the regime permitted the EKD in West
Germany to funnel financial aid to the East German
churches and also used the EKD channel to negotiate
secretly with the Bonn government on such sensitive
matters as the ransoming of prisoners from East
German jail. In 1969, all eight Landeskirchen yielded
to pressure by the regime and afire d to establish a
separate organization called the League of Evan-
gelical Churches (BEX) in East (;errnanv. Parallel
steps were taken in 1968 against the three Evangelical
Lutheran Landeskirchen, forcing there to sever their
ties with the United Evangelical- Lutheran Church of
Ccrmany (%'EI.KD) and form a separate East Gentian
organization. In 1972 the five union Landeskirchen
followed suit, severing their ties with the Evangelical
Church of the Union and forming a strictly East
German ho dy, the East Syn(xl, under the leadership of
Bishop Albrecht Sc�hoenherr.
Although the majority of Protestant clergymen in
East Cermany are believed to have had reservations
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about the formation of the BEK, wveral high ranking
church leaders, including the powerful bishop
Schovidivu, then administrator of Brandenburg, and
the prvoreginrc Bishop Moritz Mitzenhcim of
Thuringia, expressed support for the idea. The only
remaining link with the West German churches is the
statement in the BE:K's constitution which stresses the
all aspect of the E: ungelical church. Even
this slender ;bread between tht two parts of the church
is irritating to the regime, and it probably will provide
no tangible benefits for the Protestant faithful in East
Germany
The Roman Catholic Church in Germany has
maintained its prewar de Jure structure despite the
political division of Germany at the end of World War
II. It staffed those dioceses and portions of dioceses
cast of the Oder- Neisse line with Polish capitular
vicars subordinate to the Polish episcopate. It is
uncertain whether the Papal recognition of full Polish
control of the areas cast of the Oder- Neisse will lead to
reorganization of the German controlled dioceses.
East and West Germany are divided into 23 dioceses
and archdioceses, and eight of these have jurisdiction
over areas of East Germany. Of these eight, only one
Mcissen�is wholly within East Germany; the Diocese
of Berlin lies mainly in East Germany but includes
both East and West Berlin; and the other six are
portions of dioceses whose sees are located in West
Germany or Poland. The East German portions of the
five West German dioceses (Osnabr neck, Ilildesheim,
Paderborn, Fulda, and Wucrzburg) are organized into
commissariats or vicariates general with scats in
Schwerin, Magdeburg, Erfurt, and Meiningen and are
led by episcopal commissioners with the rank of
aeaxiliary bishop. The one diocesan fragment formally
responsible to a Polish sec (Wroclaw) is organized
under the Archepiscvopal Office of Goerlitz. All of these
major jurisdictions arc divided into deaneries, which
in turn are subdivided into 930 parishes. Led by
Cardinal Bengsch of Berlin (resident in Fast Berlin),
the prelates meet periodically in the Berlin Conference
of Ordinaries to deal with East German church
problems. Except for three small areas, the Roman
Catholics are dispersed throughout East Germany.
Like the Protestants, the Catholics maintain their own
charitable institutions, newspapers, and publishing
houses. Over 1,400 priest and 2,700 nuns serve the
church in East Germany.
In addition to the Lutheran, the United
Fvangelical, and the Roman Catholic churches, there
arc 27 other religk)us denominations, including
Methodists, Baptists, Mennonites, Quakers, Old
Catholic Eastern Othodox, and some Evangelical
churches not cpre%cnted in the BEK. There are also
small, militant sects such as the Jehovah's Witnesses
who have been persecuted and outlawed because of
their refusal t take the oath of allegiance to the state.
The situation of the Jews is rood when compared to
the tormented communities -if Poland and Czecho.
Slovakia. Even so there are only about 1,5(X) Jews heft
in Fast Germany, down from the postwar high of
46,000 in 1916, reflecting losses resulting from
emigration and intermarriage; this is of course only a
miniscule fraction of the 1750N) living there in 1933.
Although the regime does not encourage the practice
of the Jewish religion any more than others, there is no
evidence of systematic economic or political
harassment of Jews. The plight of the dwindling
Jewish community in attempting to preserve its
identity was revealed in 1965 when the last remaining
�abbi in East Berlin died, and there was no qualified
s5!cccssor. A rabbi from Ilungary was eventually called
to Berlin to lead the .,mall congregation, but he
returne horns in 1969. The Jews are now forced to
rely ou lay leadership, with occasional visits by clergy
from Ilungary, West Berlin, and Czechoslovakia.
There arc seven congregations struggling to exist
besides the one in East Berlin; they are all members of
the Federation of Jewish Congregations in the German
Democratic Reps blic, currently headquartered in
Dresden.
Although both the old and the new East German
constitutions guarantee freedom of religion, the
regime has from time to time imposed restrictions on
the churches. The basic aim of the government has
been to sevrvi tics between the churches in East
Germany and th ose in the Federal Republic and to
force the East German churches to support the
political, social, and economic policies of the regime
(Figure 23).
In its drive to weaken the influence of the churches,
the government has sought to supplant various
traditional religious ceremonies with secular rites
glorifying the state. In addition to the antireligious
Jugendweihe ceremony �a kind of secular confir-
mation �the state has also established rituals to take
the place of Christian baptisms, weddings, and
funerals. The ceremony comparable to baptism, called
Numenweihe, is very simple and consists of declaring
the child's name and it pledge by the parents to rear
the child in it "socialist tradition." The state wedding
ceremony is showy and elaborate, however, and often
includes officials and members of state sanctioned
organizations to which the cimple is affiliated, such as
the FDJ. FDGB, or the SED, if the bride or groom
belongs to the party. In the case of funerals, cremation
is offered by the state at it price lower than the price
for a coffin and grave together.
Perhaps the regime's greatest effort has been
diwcted toward alienating youth from religion. The
29
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chief weapon, aside from disc�rirnivation ill
rduc:ltioual sled employllivnt oPlx If[ uoities. Ims lien
the secular de�dicatiau of %oillh Urtgendwelhe). In
195.1 lhl, (:enunnaisis ri wived this ritual. which Imd
arigivalh� li eu instituted ill the 10th ceidim Iw
fr�etllinhera as :ui ultcnl;Itiwc to cv+uiirrrlation. 'I'ht,
preparltion for the jugerndweihe consists of 11) hour. of
eaIvellism," which curislitutes iudowirinution ill
alheistic� and sci ialist (Imtrine, ulme of which is
openly anti Christian. The f ugeudrrrorlhe itself is ;t
evremony in which lilt- ymith take at solemn vow to
serve tilt stale. Fast CmIl ny is the only GmtmLill IW
stale to have at sceular (Imlic�atioil. (11ireh and state
have connlHated for gars to extend their idlisetwe with
yallill, will hiked results. The regi ?nc claimed that in
year some 879r' of all ehillreu w.whirtg the age of 1.1
11,141 registered for [Ile cledicalion. At the same time.
however, church authorities Have ieeii ahle lei keep
religious ceonfinnation alive.
PA911 I'aitest;lllt :1ud Catholic rhurchcs suffer frollt
shortages of clergymen as there is little incenlive to
ehcxrse :,I clerical career; rn:uly Evangelical pastomtt-s
are filled by laivnien. All eleigymen are rcgalired to
take an oath of allegioli a to t state. The regime Im"
prohibited clergymen trained ;ibnxlcl, nlaiuly in West
M
Cerimitly. from asstuuing paslorltes or serving parishes
is Fast Gertmat.. Maur l ?ast German universities
Illaiu4uin Proteslanl theeelligieal sections. and the
ehure�h operates. thane� seminaries in Ix-Imig.
NaumFitem, and Fist Ill,rlin. The theological sections
c�laimee)i ;In vimellmetil of 5111 students in 1970, mid
the three se-minaries ro- Imrted1% had .347 sludew'. in
IW7. A 11mi nit (,.itholic m-mivarw wilts all enrolbuelll
Of $tit) is nlaitltairled al Erfurt wilhoul stale slelllx+rl.
In addition to the seminar% at Erfud, three tier .mall
theological vente ht East Ceriiwit :list) art e11ga`14l
ill training 11mium (:Itholie elergyttieu.
Coulrol of elmrch finances h the mginle� has 1wele
the primar. me;ins of har;lssillg the vImr6o
Allhough entille it In slate subsidies umle�r the old KIM
Gerllau cYmslittltiom au public law corporaetions.
churches neviv received euoligh state lissislanct to
maintain propertt and (mrr cm cli irelk affairs. The
new coustitlititm adople d ill 1968 refers to religious
freedom in very general tens stibivel to various
ilitenrretatiesits :Ind dens Ilnt me�ntiou the status o f
churches or whether the qualify for state nssishatice�.
The cbumbes ore restricted and clost,h .upervisect in
solicitilig funds frnit till failliftll, and lilt n1girue
limits donations and gifts from outside Fuss Cvrmiamw,
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FIGURE 23. Exploitation of the church by the regime. During a heavily publkized visit in
fate 1971 by Amrkan clergyman and civil righh leader Ralph'Abernothy as a quest
of the GDR Noce t oundl, East Berlin's largest Pretestani edifice was made q forwn for
attacks on U.S. foreign and domestic policy. left to right: Rev. Abernathy, Berlin Bishop
Albrecht Sdxmmherr, Mrs. Abernathy, GDR Peace Council President Prof. Guenter Drefahl.

Only in cases where church buildings have been
designated as national monuments does the state
readily provide for renovation and maintenance.
Thus, in 1967 during the 450th anniversary of the
Protestant Reformation, the state refurbished several
religious landmarks closely associated with Luther,
whom the regime claims was an early German
progressive thinker.
Church -state relations were relaxed somewhat in
1964 and 1965. The regime permitted eight leading
East German Catholic prelates to attend the Second
Vatican Council in Rome, and it praised the" realism"
of some of the council's results. The regime also
instituted special labor service battalions for
conscientious objectors �the only Communist
government to allow this concession to religious
conscience. In an rhvious gesture to the Protestants,
the regime in 1964 instituted a program under which.
East Germans of pensionable age could visit relatives
in West Germany and West Berlin once a year. This
was presented publicly as the result of a meeting
between proregime Bishop Mitzenheim of the
Thuringian Landeskirche and SED chief Ulbricht.
The election in November 1972 of Albrecht
Schoenherr to head the Evangelical Church in East
Germany, and his elevation to bishop, places a
progressive Protestant churchman in one of the most
impoalant church positions in East Germany.
Schoenherr is a disciple of Dietrich Bonhoeffer, the
Evangelical theologian martyred by Hitler, and some
observers maintain that Schoenherr believes that if the
church is to be effective it must first demonstrate that
it is riot a threat to the regime. The formation of the
separate East German Evangelical church organiza-
tion in 1969, as well as the separate GDR Lutheran
and Union Churches in 1968 and 1972, however, has
not elicited from the regime more freedom for the
clergy in the conduct of domestic church activities. In
March 1971 the regime stated that eburches must
report all "non- religious" functions to the police, and
has since levied new requirements for university
admissions which discriminate against those students
who acknowledge Christian affiliation.
H. Education
The school system which the East German
Communists inherited in 1945 was primarily the
product of educational reforms carried out in Prussia
during the 19th century. The system consisted of three
types of schools: 1) primary schools which were free to
all the population (most Germans did not continue
further); 2) intermediate schools which charged a
small fee and were utilized mainly by the middle class;
and 3) secondary schools (Gymnasien) �whoa�
classical curriculum was it prerequisite for university
training �which commanded a higher fee and were
attended mostly by upper class children. The
academic standing of such institutions as the
University of Berlin ranked with the world's highest.
The educational system provided such a good basic
education that after 1914 literacy was dropped as a
subject of statistical inquiry. Elements of the German
educational system were adopted elsewhere in Europe,
and the German university influenced the develop-
ment of U.S. gradwite education in the late 19th
century. Teachers traditionally held it respected place
in German society, and holders of university degrees
belonged to the social elite.
The East German Communists swept away much of
the trr- litional educational system. All education is
under state control, and is free up to and including the
university level for all who can obtain admittance.
Education officials make much of the fact that class
distinctions have been eliminated from the school
system and that the possibility of university -level
education is within reach for everyone. In practice
they have favored those elements which they thought
could most readily he molded into loyal supporters of
the Communist system. Indoctrination in Communist
dogma begins in kindergarten and continues through
all the higher levels. Students from politically reliable
families and, where practical, children of workers and
farmers are given preferred treatment in applying to
institutions of higher learning.
Since 1958 the educational system has been altered
further f,y three important innovations. In that year,
responding to developments in Soviet educational
theory, the East German regime introduced
polytechnical training throughout the educational
system. Important decrees in 19.59 and 1965 further
refined the system. Curriculums have been extensively
overhauled so as to emphasize vocational and
technical training to meet tl:e demands of an
expanding industrialized economy. The marked
technological orientation of the schools is evident at
all levels, starting with courses in the manual arts in
the early elementary classes. Even higher education
has become increasingly devoted to advanced
technical or specialized training. The second major
decision was to extend compulsory education to 10
years, which meant converting the nation's combined
elementary and secondary schools from 8 -vcar to 10-
year institutions. The conversior_ was completed in
1962 in East Berlin, but not until 1965 throughout all
of East Germany. In 1967, East Germany launched a
university reform intended to bring the system mace
closely into line with the needs of the economy.
Another ho ost to this program was the opening of 10
new engineering colleges in 1969. The result of this
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r
Universities, colleges and Institutions
Technical schools
Faclmhulen
School year
Kindergarten
Nursery
FIGURE 24. Structure of the educational system
Age
third innovation has been the training of numi)ers of
scientists and technicians and a neglect of the liberal
a rts.
The Honecker regime does not subscribe to
Ulbricht's faith in the efficacy of higher education for
several reasons. The continuing labor shortage makes
it difficult to justify large contingents of young people
being held off the labor market in schools. Also, the
regime has begun to experience surpluses in
academically trained personnel, and is appalled at the
waste of resources involved in placing these persons in
positions inappropriate to their training. Finally,
Honecker has taken to extolling the dignity of labor
and the virtue of the working class in an effort to slow
down the growth and influence of the white collar
technical- bureaucratic elite.
1. Organization
At the lowest level in the system (Figure 24) are the
nurseries maintained by schools, enterprises, and
cooperatives tinder the supervision of the Ministry for
Health. Children whose mothers are workiug or
studying are placed in day nurseries from the time
they are a few weel.s old until their third birthday.
Parents may elect to send their children to
kindergarten from the third through the sixth year.
There are kindergartens sponsored by enterprises,
cooperatives, and churches as well as public
kindergartens operated by local governments. All
kindergartens, however, must be licensed by the state
and are under the general supervision of the Ministry
for Education. In 1970 about 50% of all children
between 3 and 7 years of age attended kindergartens
(Figure 25); those who did not attend received special
preparation during afternoons in their sixth year,
before entering the compulsory public school system.
The core of the educational system is the 10 -year
comprehensive polytechnical school (allgemeinbilden-
de polytechnische Oberschule), which is controlled by
the Ministry for Education and the local governments.
Classes are coeducational throughout and are
nondepartmental for the first three grades, referred to
as the basic group. The curri-nlum for the basic group
centers on German language, arithmetic, manual
training, gardening, drawing, music, and sports. The
variety of subjects studied is sharply increased in
grades 4 through 6, referred to as the middle group,
with the introduction of Russian, physics, biology,
geography, and history, with an optional class in
needlework. Parents and teachers at this stage must
start to determine the occupations for which the
children are best fitted. The e,pper group (grades 7
through 10) continues study on previous subjects with
instruction at more advanced levels and is introduced
to astronomy, chemistry, and civics, with an option to
FIGURE 25. Number of schools, teachers and students, 1970
TYPE
SCHOOLS TEACHERS STUDENTS
Nurseries
berufachule" I
with Abitar berufachulen
VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS
Extended
polytechnical
schools
Vocational
Kindergartens
11,087
and further
820,158
Comprehensive polytechnical schools
genersl
Upper level
eduation
308
137,983
54,854
Ten -grade
Intermcdiote level
comprehensive
Vocational schools
1,10F
polywchnial
430,934
Technical Schools
schools
na
184,571
Universities and colleges
Lover level
School year
Kindergarten
Nursery
FIGURE 24. Structure of the educational system
Age
third innovation has been the training of numi)ers of
scientists and technicians and a neglect of the liberal
a rts.
The Honecker regime does not subscribe to
Ulbricht's faith in the efficacy of higher education for
several reasons. The continuing labor shortage makes
it difficult to justify large contingents of young people
being held off the labor market in schools. Also, the
regime has begun to experience surpluses in
academically trained personnel, and is appalled at the
waste of resources involved in placing these persons in
positions inappropriate to their training. Finally,
Honecker has taken to extolling the dignity of labor
and the virtue of the working class in an effort to slow
down the growth and influence of the white collar
technical- bureaucratic elite.
1. Organization
At the lowest level in the system (Figure 24) are the
nurseries maintained by schools, enterprises, and
cooperatives tinder the supervision of the Ministry for
Health. Children whose mothers are workiug or
studying are placed in day nurseries from the time
they are a few weel.s old until their third birthday.
Parents may elect to send their children to
kindergarten from the third through the sixth year.
There are kindergartens sponsored by enterprises,
cooperatives, and churches as well as public
kindergartens operated by local governments. All
kindergartens, however, must be licensed by the state
and are under the general supervision of the Ministry
for Education. In 1970 about 50% of all children
between 3 and 7 years of age attended kindergartens
(Figure 25); those who did not attend received special
preparation during afternoons in their sixth year,
before entering the compulsory public school system.
The core of the educational system is the 10 -year
comprehensive polytechnical school (allgemeinbilden-
de polytechnische Oberschule), which is controlled by
the Ministry for Education and the local governments.
Classes are coeducational throughout and are
nondepartmental for the first three grades, referred to
as the basic group. The curri-nlum for the basic group
centers on German language, arithmetic, manual
training, gardening, drawing, music, and sports. The
variety of subjects studied is sharply increased in
grades 4 through 6, referred to as the middle group,
with the introduction of Russian, physics, biology,
geography, and history, with an optional class in
needlework. Parents and teachers at this stage must
start to determine the occupations for which the
children are best fitted. The e,pper group (grades 7
through 10) continues study on previous subjects with
instruction at more advanced levels and is introduced
to astronomy, chemistry, and civics, with an option to
FIGURE 25. Number of schools, teachers and students, 1970
TYPE
SCHOOLS TEACHERS STUDENTS
Nurseries
4,482
no
174,219
Kindergartens
11,087
41,874
820,158
Comprehensive polytechnical schools
8,035
2,534,077
Extended polytechnical schools
308
137,983
54,854
Special schools
537
78,585
Vocational schools
1,10F
14,785
430,934
Technical Schools
189
na
184,571
Universities and colleges
54
no
138,888
na Data not available.
32
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ern In if@I ro
i
FIGURE 26. Class hours per week by subject and grade at a comprehensive polytechnical
school, 1971 -72
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9
German 11 12 14 14 7 6 5 5 3
Russian 6 5 3 3 3
Mathematics 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 5
Phy sics 3 2 2 3
A stronomy
Chemistry 2 4 2
Biology 2 2 1 2 2
Geography 2 2 2 2 1
Manual training 1 1 1 2 2 2
Schoolgarden 1 1 1 1
Polytechnicalinstruction..... 4 4 5
History 1 2 2 2 2
Civics 1 1 1
Drawing 1 i 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
Music 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sports 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2
Hours per week........... 21 24 27 29 32 33 32 33 31
Optional:
Needlework
2d foreign language
Total hours 21 24 27
Not pertinent.
*Generally English or French.
take a second foreign language. Beginning in grade 7
(age 13) students must work a short period each week
in factories and on farms; after grade 9 this period is
increased. Figure 26 details the curriculum of a typical
comprehensive polytechnical school.
There are also special schools at the primary and
secondary level for the mentally or physically
handicapped. These schools are organized according
to the nature of the handicap but are so structured
that when appropriate a child may be transferred to
the corresponding grade in a comprehensive
polytechnical school.
The extended polytechnical school provides
education most closely approximating that formerly
provided by the classical German Gymnasium. With
stricter entrance requirements and a more highly
qualified teaching staff, these schools prepare
academically oriented students for university study.
Students who plan to pursue higher education take
special classes in grades 9 and 10 of the comprehensive
schools and then transfer to a 2 -year extended
polytechnical school. Successful work there leads to
the Abitur, the end -of- school examination which is
necessary for entrance into institutions of higher
learning. Although specific data are lacking, probably
about 80% of the students at East German universities
graduated from the extended polytechnical schools.
10
4
3
4
3
1
2
2
2
5
2
2
1
2
33
3 3 3 2
30 33 33 35 36 34 35
Most youths, however, do not prepare for
university -level studies. After completing the
comprehensive polytechnical school, the majority take
specialized training at one of several types of
vocational schools (Berufsschulen) which are
compulsory for 2 years or until the students rc_:ch age
18. Some of the schools are attached to government
owned enterprises or, where there are no large
enterprises in the locality, are operated directly by the
local government. These 2- or 2 -year schools offer a
comb;nation o! academic studies and an appren-
ticeship in a trade, craft, or industry. Normally, these
schools are terminal but graduales are eligible for
adrr,- .,sion to a technical school after 1 year of practical
work experience. Growing in importance are the
vocational schools which offer the Abitur as well as a
skilled worker's certificate. These schools provide a 3-
year full -time academic and vocational course which
qualifies students upon the successful completion of
their work for entrance into technical schools or
institutions of higher learning or for employment as
skilled workers. The vocational school system produces
the bulk of East Germany's skilled manpower.
Some young people who have completed the 2 or 3
years of vocational training, as well as experienced
workers who wish to improve their abilities, may opt to
attend a tee finical school (Fachschule). These schools
33
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1a n uin I. &&fro
v
FIGURE 27. leading universities
NAME
LOCATION
FOUNDED
STAFF
ENROLLMENT
Humboldt University
Switzerland
621
1969- 70
Karl Marx University
East Berlin..................
1809
3,020
17,560
Martin Luther University***.........
Leipzig
Halle/Wittenberg
1409
9,560
12,200
Friedrich Schiller University
B����������...
Jena........................
1817
240
6,000
University of Rostock
Rostock.....................
1557
1,320
4,720
Ernst Morita Arndt University
Greifswald...................
1419
1,2F0
5,800
Technical University
Dresden.....................
1456
130
3,000
1961
2,200
18,500
'Until 1949 Friedrich Wilhelm University.
"Until 1953 University of Leipzig.
'*'University of Halle (founded 1694) merged with University of Wittenberg (founded 1502) is 1817. Received present name
in 1933.
offer full -time, evening, and correspondence courses,
and have curriculums ranging from 1 to 4 years'
duration. Each Fachschule teaches one basic subject,
ranging from technical fields such as machine
construction to social subjects such as finance.
At the apex of the educational system stand the 54
universities and institutions of higher education. The
latter include technical, agricultural, art, and
pedagogical colleges. There are several channels
leading to enrollment in these institutions. In addition
to accepting candidates from the extended polytechni-
cal schools, universities are open to persons who pass
special entrance examinations offered by the
Berufssehulen and Fachschulen. Workers raay also
attend special part -time or evening courses, or take
correspondence courses, which permit them to take
special entrance examinations. Figure 27 describes in
summary form the leading universities.
2. University reform
In 1967, after 2 years of research and discussion, the
State Secretary for Higher Education unveiled a plan
for educational reform of the universities and
technical colleges. Unlike West Germany and other
Western countries where the clamor for reform has
come largely from the students, in East Germany
change has been directed from above and spearheaded
by the state's leading educators and economists. Some
student comment was permitted, however, during the
discussion period prior to inauguration of the reforms.
The reform was intended to bring up the enrollment
of East German universities, which by comparison
with other developed countries was remarkably low, as
illustrated by the following tabulation comparing the
number of students per 100,000 inhabitants in 1968:
United States 3,737
U.S.S.R 1,880
Sweden 1,460
France 1,247
Czechoslovakia 958
Poland 946
34
West Germany
716
United Kingdom
716
Austria
715
Switzerland
621
Hungary
508
East Germany
458
The new program also put East Germany ahead of
West Germany and other developed countries of
Western Europe in tying higher education more
closely to the needs of an advanced, highly
technological society. Primary emphasis has been
placed on technical and scientific fields at the expense
of the liberal arts which have been deemphasized. In
recent years, however, this emphasis has come under
some criticism. The Honecker regime has shown
considerable distrust of the scientific community, and
there are indications that he would like to cut back
enrollments in scientific subjects in the higher schools.
Both curriculum and faculty administration have
undergone drastic changes as a result of the university
reform. College study has been trimmed to 4 years in
contrast to the former 5 or 6, and is now broken up
into four phases called Studien. The first phase,
Grundstudium, includes basic concepts in natural
science, Marxist- Leninist doctrine, and instruction in
the use of foreign language texts. It is during this
period that students perform compulsory military
training (not active service). The Fachstudium, or
second phase, exposes the student to theoretical bases
in mathematics, natural science, sociology, en-
gineering, and economics in his area of specialization.
In the third phase, called the Specialstudium, the
student concentrates entirely on his particular field.
To complete the Specialstudium the student must
prepare a satisfactory dissertation and pass both an
oral and written examination before he can graduate
and receive a diploma.
A postgraduate fourth phase, called the Forschungs-
studium, is similar to U.S. postgraduate schools.
ter� }r 5 ..x.,
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a
1
A
.i
(1
Contrary to past East German educational practice,
research+ is concentrated to a very large extent on
actual problems of industry and agriculture. Stress is
placed on the close relationship between theoretical
and applied research, and the regime is relying upon
Forschungsstudium graduates to become the real
experts and leaders in the economy and society.
University organization and faculty administration
have also undergone drastic changes. The traditional
units of faculty� institute and division �have been
discarded in favor of a single administrative unit
called the section. All subdivisions of a major field are
grouped together in one section; for example,
biochemistry and organic chemistry are now in the
chemistry section rather than having separate,
administratively independent institutes of their own.
About 900 institutes have been merged into some 170
sections. Under the section, related teaching and
research facilities have been combined in an effort to
end the fragmentation, jurisdictional disputes, and
petty jealousies of the old system.
Each university is headed by a rector who is advised
by a council of representatives composed of members
of the faculty, economic managers, and leading
citizens of the region. Each section is headed by a
chairman directly responsible to the rector. The
chairman is advised by a council composed of
students, workers, teachers, and university employees.
As part of the reform, the much maligned traditional
German professorial system has been abolished. The
standard five grades of teaching personnel have been
replaced by two categories of full -time professors and
instructors called Dozenten. Supplementing this is a
subsidiary system of "honorary" instructors and
professors that allows outstanding individuals from
science and industry to serve as guest lecturers in their
areas of specialization.
3. Language study
Along with technical and vocational training the
East German educational systems, like the Soviet and
other European systems, stresses the study of foreign
languages. Russian is introduced at grade 5 (age 11),
and a second language, usually English, is optional
beginning at grade 7 (age 13). Those students who
have enrolled in Berufschulen and Fachschulen also
study Russian and may elect another foreign
language. Students in the extended polytechnical
schools pursuing a modern language or classics
curriculum must study two foreign languages in
addition to Russian.
4. Communist indoctrination
The regime makes no effort to disguise the fact that
it regards the Marxist content of the school curriculum
as an important means for indoctrinating youth.
Deutsche Lehrer Zeitung, a teacher's journal, has said
for example, that the entire school system is
responsible "for making socialist military training an
educational principle." The paper suggested that this
can be achieved by stressing military traditions in
history classes, by comparing Warsaw Pact forces in
mathematics classes, and by pointing out the "evils of
U.S. chemical warfare" in chemistry classes.
In addition, much of the students' social activity
outside school is centered on the Communist
sponsored Free German Youth (FDJ) organization for
young people aged 14 to 26, and the Ernst Thaelmann
Pioneers, named after one of the leaders of the prewar
German Communist Party, for younger children aged
6 to 14. Although membership in these organizations is
theoretically voluntary, it is in fact difficult for young
people to avoid joining.
Despite the pervasiveness of indoctrination, it is
apparent that the Communist authorities have had
only mixed success in developing a uniform,
disciplined, ideologically motivated youth. Although
the regime's statistics do not report crimes perpetrated
by youth, public complaints and various reports
indicate that juvenile delinquency is a significant
problem in East Germany. The attraction that
Western fads such as rock music and long hair have
had for East German youth, while not always j
classifiable as a crime by the authorities, is usually
considered evidence of failure in indoctrination. There
are also reports that views politically divergent from
the official line have apps ed at institutions of higher j
learning. The regime placed the cumulative blame for
such manifestations in 1965 at the feet of the FDJ, and
it ordered the FDJ to deemphasize the social aspects of
i
its meetings in favor of more lectures. These strictures
went unheeded to some extent, and it was only after
the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 led to
restlessness among the students that the regime
instituted stringent controls over their activities. The
regime's campaign in behalf of university reform in
1967 and its continued participation in popular issues
are probably intended to deflect student discussions
into a relatively safe channel (Figure 28). With the
exception of scattered antiregime demonstrations by
students and young people during the crisis in
Czechoslovakia, East German students have not posed
a serious threat to the regime.
5. Teachers
A key educational problem for the Communist
authorities has been the teaching fcree. In 1945 Soviet
authorities allowed only about 20% of the former
teaching staff to resume their positions. To increase
the staff, a large number of people considered
35
4.c}:x�.t r .v.. ._.,..lf....fah .:i^2. iYeN.e...i.. r.
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lxlitically reliable but with questionable educational
qualifications w:cre assigned to leach under lite
stgmervision of the few prufessionul teachers. Crash
teacher training programs prcmiucing teacht'. 1 of
dubious quality, distaste aiming ninny teachers for
teaching Marxism, the lure of higher salaries ill
indurtrv, a1141 [lie ease of defecliott to Wo. "t Curntanv
resuitcd in continuing leacher crisis until the Ikrhil
Nall was built ill 1961. It is c-slintated that until 1961
tfte rate of teacher ions ("no all causes was 12% Ix-r
year.
Denied the opportunity to flee ;o the Wesl, the
teaching force. stabiliml after 1961. and teacher
training requirernents, lung ignored, becarne nuore
stri e Nurse school and kindergarten
teachers an now re quiwA to qualify at Ix- dugogic
schools (Paedagugfschec 5c:huten) in 2 -y ear c terser.
Teachers for the first finer grader of the comprehensive
lwlylechnical school must cammillete a 3 -year ceur5a at
a teacher training inslihtte (lnstflnl jeer J ehrrrr-
hildesmg). Teachers ill the 51h to the ltlth grades must
Pass d year courses a' one of the universities, at the
Potsdam Pedagogic College, at Ae German College of
Phvsicel Culture, at the Weimar Music College, or at
one of seve-al pedagogic institutes. In order to attract
Workers into teaching the technical courses, the
peclagcogic institutes alsoo offer a 1 -year prelimaietary
course and a 2 year degree course, folinweei by it 3-
yearcrorrespcondence comse for Well qualified workers.
Teachers in lite extended comprehensive rmolytechnical
scluxtl must pass 4 -year course at lots lain Pedagogic
Gillege, at the Plev.%Iwl Culture College, or net a
univetsiti'.
36
,elGURE 28. Regime expioitalion of
h1gW z;krcation. Officially approved
daaronstraftons cod metings, ;.arch as
this ir7 of Iw :,Iola Davis in late
1971, jointly sponsored by the FDA
and llumbOldt University in East
lemon, are on accepted part of the
sknwi life.
I. Artistic and cultural expression
EAkst German cultural and artistic life, althimeyh
nuxlifiel I,y Ctturlaunist influences, remains limited in
the German tradition. The molding of the German
itatcllectual and ;"tistic heritage Was influenced by the
nation's late development of lxlilicai cohesivcncss
and by imlxmant foreign influence+, ixarticularly
llaliau, French, and 1ngdish. Since 1915 Nest
Germany has claimed the role of sole trustee cif these
tra(diti0ms. For its part Fast Gernany claims that it is
the only legitimate continuator of German cultural
herilaRe. Conternporary last German cultural
cxprcwsion inflects With 0111V slight 1110dificati011s anti
Nome delay the trends set in the (Vest in archilectural
design (Figure ?9). city planning, and dress. and to a
lesser extent music, art. and literature. However, the
cautitniirag insistcuM by the regime th:al artistic and
intellectual aelivilies c;dorm to ideological guidelines
sel by the lxarty has Mailed creativ innovation.
The teverm side 0f the Coin is that lite F -Ist Genn:w
reginoe has striven to preserve file artistic and cultural
heritage hands -A dipwrt front pre- Comrnunist limes.
'Thus the great museums in PkAin-- anmong them [lie
pergumon Muscuut and the National Gallery-
founded under Prussian royal and German imperial
auspices. anti in Dresden notably the Saxon Dings
jewellike Zwinger ---as well as trite various royal and
ducal palams (e.g.. Potsdam. Weimar), numerous late
enelicval cathedrals, aetd homes of great Inert (e.g.,
Gcoethe, Schiller) have linden faithfully restored and
er.iiinlained for the stream of vkitors passing throaglh
their halls. The preservationist instinct extends to the
A
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V"
ri
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FIGURE 29. Examples of postwar architecture. (Top) The newly rebuilt center of
Karl- Marx -Stadt (formerly Chemnitz) on the occasion of the unveiling of a heroic bust of
Karl Marx, 1971. (Bottom) New resort hotel in Warnemuende. The great bulk of postwar
architecture is in the international style, with little or no locui adaptation.

great symphony orchestras of Berlin, Dresden, and
Leipzig, embalmed in their 19th century repertoires,
the 18th century boys choirs of Leipzig and Dresden,
and the world renowned festivals honoring Bach
(Leipzig), Handel (Halle) and Schumann (Zwickau).
Even the theater, whose world impact is much more
recent in time, has become a living museum, with
Felsenstein's Comic Opera, the State Opera, and
Brecht's Berliner Ensemble rating high with students
of the art visiting East Berlin, and the theaters in
Leipzig, Dresden, Rostock, Halle and Weimar
faithfully reproducing to full houses the classics of the
pre- Communist era.
The Communist authorities consider the content of
all cultural activity a "transmission belt" for
indoctrinating the people. The primary restriction the
authorities place on the creative artist is organiza-
tional. All creative artists are organized according to
their disciplines into officially sponsored unions or
groups which in turn are associated with the Deutscher
Kulturbund (German Cultural Union), which work
hand in hand with the Ministry for Cultural Affairs
and the Cultural Department of the Central
Committee of the SED. Control within these groups is
exercised where possible by a proregime majority;
where this is not possible, control is given over to the
group's officers or special emissaries from the SED
Central Committee. If persuasion by the majority or
the orders of the authorities do not suffice to bring an
errant artist around to the regime's point of view, the
organization's controls over disseminating creative
works publication, performance, and exhibition
are effectively used. The creative artist is not
permitted to work independently because this is
considered antisocial.
Many German intellectuals of the prewar and war
periods who were Communists or had leftwing
sympathies naturally gravitated toward East Germany
after the war. The playwright Bertolt Brecht (1898-
1956) returned from the United States; the poet
Johannes Becher (1891 -1958) and novelists Theodor
Plievier (1892 -1955) and Willi Bredel (1901 -64) came
back from the U.S.S.R.; novelists Anna Seghers (1900-
and Ludwig Renn (1889�� returned from Mexico,
and Arnold Zweig (1887 -1968) from Palestine. Many
of their better works, which the East German regime
claims to its credit, were actually written during the
1920's or their period of subsequent exile. The regime
encouraged the return of such intellectuals by soft
pedaling Communist principles in favor of the broader
"anti- Fascist" front in which democrats and socialists,
the middle and left of the political spectrum, could
participate in good conscience.
By 1950, however, the regime adjusted its approach
toward the intellectuals closer to the narrow
Zhdanovist principles then constraining artistic and
intellectual expression in the Soviet Union. Many of
the intellectual collaborators of the early postwar
period fell silent or fled to West Germany. As the dull
uniformity of "socialist realism" settled over East
German arts and letters, vitality waned and the public
became more and more uninterested. The artistic
merit of new works by the recognized writers, for
example, proved mari.edly inferior to their earlier
works. Communist officials, taking their cue from the
doctrines announced at the 1959 Ritterfeld Conference
"Bitterfeld Way urged creative artists to draw
inspiration from the working masses while they
condemned "formalism" and "schematism," defined
as excessive attention to style at the expense of clarity
in content.
By the early 1960's East Germany was out of step
with the Soviet Union and several of the Eastern
Eur-)pean countries in which varying degrees of
innovation had been permitted. East German
deleg .'2s to Communist conferences in the various
creative disciplines found themselves criticized and
ridiculed for the old- fashioned, Stalinist approaches to
the arts which continued to be enforced in East
Germany. Under pressure from its Communist
colleagues, the regime in 1963 permitted a certain
degree of "thaw" on the East German scene. A few
plays, novels, and paintings appeared which were
daring by East German standards, and they quickly
led to controversy for exceeding the implicit limits of
regime permissiveness. Perhaps the most controversial
works of the early 1960's were the play Die Sorgen and
the Macht (Problems and Power), written in 1958 by
Peter Hack (1928- and first performed in 1960; the
1963 novel Der geteilte Himmel (Divided Heaven) by
Christa Wolf (1929- a motion picture based on the
novel Das Kaninchen bin Ich (I am the Rabbit) of
Manfred Bieler (1934- produced in 1966 by Kurt
Maetzig (1911- but never shown publicly; and the
1966 film version of a 1964 novel Die Spur der Steine
(The Trail of Stones) by Erik Neutsch (1931-
In early 1968, the state controlled Deutsche Film
AG (DEFA) produced what Western observers termed
its best picture since the unfettered early postwar
period. The film, Ich war Neunzehn (I Was Nineteen),
is a skillful and surprisingly honest account of a few
days in the life of a 19- year -old Russian propaganda
officer of German emigrant parents who returned to
Germany with the Soviet occupation forces following
World War II. The film poses such issues as the appeal
of Nazism to many Germans, their reverence for
military traditions, and the dilemma of a divided
38
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Germany and its fuhtre. In addition, there were scenes
in the film which depicted the Soviets in an
unfavorable light. The regime may have felt that the
film would counteract complaints that East
Germany's unquestioning loyalty to Moscow went too
far. At any rate, /ch war Neunzehn appeared to be
DEFA's first attempt to satisfy the critics and public
alike and still maintain the favor of the SED
leadership.
Christa Wolf drew additional acclaim and criticism
in early 1969 for her novel Nachdenken uher Christa T
(Reflections about christa T). The book, which is
probably autobiographical, depicts a )4I11114 East
German woman's search for meaning in life. She
rejects socialism as "inapplicable" and in despair
chooses to remain outside the life of the society in
which she has been placed. The novel was regarded
with disapproval by the regime and the author was
severely criticized at the 1969 East German Writers
Congress. Only with the Honecker regime was the
novel published in sufficient numbers to be available
to the general public.
The appearance of works considered by party
officials to be disrespectful of socialism, decadent, or
pornographic became an issue in the early 1960's and
coincided with the rise of a popular young poet and
ballad singer, Wolf Biermann (1936- whose songs
were outspokenly critical of the system. Simultaneous-
ly, rock music groups proliferated, which the orthodox
saw as a contributing factor in the increase of juvenile
delinquency. For the first time in almost a decade,
philosophical dissent from the system was posed when
Humboldt University's Prof. Robert Havemann gave
a series of lectures at the end of 1963 and in early 1964
arguing for greater freedom of intellectual inquiry.
Conservative forces, which in 1964 succeeded in
having Havemann dismissed from the university, the
party, and the Academy of Sciences, won a major
victory at the SED Central Committee's l 1 th plenum
in December 1965. Following a harsh speech by Erich
Honecker denouncing "old and new liberal and
revisionist tendencies," the Central Committee
ordered a return to stricter orthodoxy, blaming many
of the responsible organizations for failing to exercise
better control over the cultural scene. The Minister for
Cultural Affairs was made the scapegoat and was
replaced. DEFA, the film monopoly, was pinged, and
several of the more prominent writers were forced to
admit their errors. Perhaps most noteworthy in this
otherwise oppressive exercise was the failure of a few
writers to recant and the spirited defense of these few
by still other writers.
East Germany's position in support of the Arabs
during the Arab Israeli war in June 1967 further
strained relations between the regime and prominent
Jewish intellectuals. The Czechoslovak crisis in the
summer of 1968 and the resulting dissidence
particularly among youth �led the regime to place
much of the blame on intellectuals and cultural
leaders for their alleged ideological laxity. The State
Secretary in the Ministry for Cultural Affairs, Horst
Brasch, whose son was sentenced to prison for taking
part in a pro- Dubeek rally, was dismissed from his
post. Maverick Prof. Robert Havemann, already
ostracized by the regime, came in for further criticism
as a result of the activities of his two young sons who
were involved in antiregime demonstrations protesting
the occupation of Czechoslovakia. The regime
criticized East German scientists in general for their
penchant for rejecting Soviet scientific theory in favor
of some of the more pragmatic Western thinking.
On the popular level the regime's youth
organization, the Free German Youth (FDJ), was
blamed for not properly combating the rise of juvenile
delinquency, and new controls were placed over" beat
bands," which the authorities considered the core of
the problem. Bands are now required to register and
pass examination before receiving a license.
Authorities are thus able to weed out groups that they
consider offensive. Nevertheless, young people
continue to reject many of the modern East German
compositions played by the state approved orchestras
and bands, claiming they are too difficult and
involved. Instead, youths prefer popular Western
music which can be performed by small groups of
amateurs.
With the change in regime leadership from Ulbricht
to Honecker there has been a shift in emphasis in
cultural policy. Honecker has urged the cultural
community to promote class consciousness among
individuals as well as the mass, and reviving the slogan
of the Bitterfeld Conference he has stressed that their
work should be created "not only for the people, but
with the people." At the same time he has
acknowledged the stodginess of East German arts and
letters and has called for more originality, humor, and
critical insight. Accompanying Honecker s exhorta-
tions have been a small number of releases of literary
and film works held up by the Ulbricht regime as too
controversial.
The theater continues to convey Communist dogma
with a rather heavy hand (Figure 30), and perhaps
only the cabaret theaters, a distinctly German form of
entertainment employing political satire, can profit by
the new trend toward relaxation. Naturally the
performances of East German cabaret groups have
been more restrained than those by West Germans,
but occasionally a cabaret has featured a few skits
39
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niI)ini at Ih1' rr�t;ituc. On(� I;t111OII crilharet. IIic
PcIgwrini11 in I�cilviti;, r( to,rI -(II% Icaturcd it nunthcr
of nnl Iii ltcriit; conu11enk it )oot the 1�:a.l
Stem itIld i1. lem1cr 'tiller II) rich I in 1)crforinanceN
clurint; the ciI\ international lair in Ilic Ialj i)I ISMS).
'111iN tn;t\ h:nc I)ccn c.IrccialI\ IwriniIIcd it the linen.
It( )\\c\er, to i tit prc,. Iurcit;n \i itiid conk% the
iitiprc Ihat no imiI re-train( c\i \lol
cal)ari-k cmdino their pro t;r;um to c�riIicim of Ww4crn
I)olilic., vinph) ititz onl\ ;tit oc�ca mild rebukv
about Font(� ltorlc(intint; of FiM (Grimm ocicl.
(:al)arct Ihculcr i, IIr;rc�li(-i I)rofc.ionall\ in lour
l P( ;iIvN Fii Iierli11. I,riI)zig I)n�ulen. and Ilallc.
D(c,pitc it lii.htenint, of the ret0nicN ncizali\c
c11llural lmlic\. Nliwn:ilion continme, In per%ade Fast
;crin:ut arts :tnd 'Fliv (:onununitit attlhoritic.
cannot he c\pcc�ted I() al) :rtt(lon their riL;Iil to .1't
t;ui(IcIint� in the cullnraI licl(I: V; 1"I -TI tit t
intcIlech tit l,. h\ Irulition 11hnti to nulhoriI
Ititw� nil NIri\cn In 1)r( itec1 their intct;riI\ mid lack
It it cr it roun(I hick (n co:deuc. 'Fliv hi0orical
piM, heiniz Ics, contro%cr,ial than Ih1' prctivnl.
continue. lu he a rcfni.c into \)hich FaO ;crmiin
crcati\c rtrli can \silhdra%% I n.ible to crealc
culliir.tll\ cdil\ini \cork \\Itich al the ,aniv time kill
ali.h the authorilie.. intellecto :il. Irv(IucnlI\ retreat
to Iti.lorical theme \%hicli ill not lead them inlo
diIIictllt 'Flic cla.sic.- 114ctho\(-n and Brahnt
11\ 1nI)ho11ic. \Ioiart and SI olmra. I landel and
Bach cantAiln �:ue cerliliccl a. cdil\in>; and :ire
p(q)idiir. and work. of (;octht�. Schiller and 1 or
of such hm-ioi inatcrti a Shakv pcare and (;ork_\. are
Irc(Iucnik perfortned. 'I'hc SI�:I) vncourmt v1' Imr
A f
1
FIGURE 30. Lxploitation of the theater
by the regime. Scene from a "pro-
gressive" play adapted from a
Brazilian work depicting the mis-
guided efforts of a youth gang "to
correct imperialist conditions" by re-
sorting to crime. The young people
subsequently realize their error and
join working class organizations.
i
1;)rmances of earlier maNter,.:t the prc"cr\Akin (if
(worm to c�ultnral tradition i i t of the
rcti;i 1111'.
J. Public information media
\II nn�diri of ntas cnnrimmicutirrn in h.a.t Gcrm;in\
are cfircctk or indireclk c�nntrnlled 1).\ Ilw rcginn�.
hick \ic%\N Ihcnt uti a printan ineam of indOclrin;tt-
iiig Ihr Imintlalion. At the mnc tine� Iu)I)ular ac�cc�," to
imconlri)Iled or o11ticic mmrccti of information i
harl)I% litnilvd in ureter to tnu\irnizc the irnpiicl of the
rv,girnc 1'11urh. \lthout;h the I�.a Gerin :in
cmiNtitution t,iiaranlcc frc1'dom of the prcti and
o independent (irt;imizatio11v, arc allm%ed to
Imbli0h. all Iuiblicaliom ntmt he lic�cmcd I)\ the Pre..
Oflic�c of the (:Itainnan ul tlu� (:ounc�il oI \lntititcr..:u1
adjuncl of the SVI) (:cntral (:)tit iniItec'N IVI)artincnt"
of :\tJIitIi)it it Pro lxtgati it. 'I'It i, (thee al. cwrci.c�
control IIt rrniti;h it form of I)rior c�en r.ItiI) it id
;tlloc�alinn of 11(-\\I)rinl. Had o and IvIc\i,ion it r
indircclI\ controlled h% the \t;i11)r(q) IVI)artnu�nl
Iitn)ut;lI I\)o mclr.iratc conIitIksion of the StitIv
firoacica. tint, (:onunitlec. 'I'hc piddication of Ihook
it the 1)rocluction of tit()% arc aI,) tate nr()itOIu)1i1'
mider the lmr\i1'%c ul the \lini for :tilt nral \hair..
I. "I'he press
Of the 11 daily nc\\spapers piddislied in 1�;aa
German.\ in 19 42. II) \ccrc piibli.hcd in Fiia Berlin
tI-)L;IIr :il 1. 'I'hc rctit were publi in %aritm"
capital and other large 'I'hc a\cria;c of the
F
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V
FIGURE 31. Major newspapers
NAME
O
i
Berlin press:
BAUaRN- ECHO
BE RLINER ZEITUNo
BZ AM ABRND
DEUTscimsSPORT- ECHO
JUNOa WELT
DER MoROEN
NATIONAL- ZEITUNO
N EuE ZErr
N nuza D EUTBCIILAND
TRIBUNE
Provincial press:
FRomarr Halle)
LAuarrzzR RuNDecHAU (Cottbus)
LEIPf1aaR VOLKasErruNo (Leipzig)
MAiRKIBCHR VOLKaaTIMMK (Potsdam)
NOWA DONA Bautsen
Oerams; Zzrrumo (Rostuck)
SAECHaIBCHE ZzrruNO (Dresden)
VOLKSWIMME Magdeburg
rREQUENCY1
FOUNDED RPONROR WEEK CIRCULATION
1948
DB D
6
150,000
1945
BED
7
500,000
1949
....do
6
175,000
1947
DTSB
5
na
1947
FDJ
6
150,000
1945
LDPD
6
45,000
1948
N DPD
6
60,000
1945
C DU
6
43,000
1946
BED
7
800,000
1945
FDC B
5
250,000
1946
BED
6
360,000
1952
....do
6
160,000
1946
....do
7
352,000
1946
....do
6
240,000
1947
Domowina............
6
5,000
1952
BED
6
256,000
1946
....do
6
280,000
1947
....do
6
320,000
na Data not available.
dailies was 4 to 6 pages, with the exception of the 15
dailies sponsored by the SED, which average 6 to 8
pages. As in other European countries, the papers
published in the capital generally have the greatest
prestige and largest circulation. Some of these papers
are published in as many as 23 editions, each edition
carrying a separate section devoted to news about a
particular area for regional distribution.
In contrast to the declining fortunes of the printed
media in the West, the East German press enjoys a
relatively high newspaper circulation. This is not
attributable to any virtuosity on the part of the papers'
editors but to the fact that one can be more selective in
obtaining information from the press and can more
easily filter out the pervasive propaganda than is the
case with the other media. The following tabulation
compares newspaper circulation, i.e., the number of
purchasers, per 1,000 inhabitants in 1969:
Sweden 528
United Kingdom 463
East Germany 445
Switzerland 368
West Germany 331
U.S.S.R 320
United States 305
Czechoslovakia 277
Austria 268
France 243
Hungary........................... 212
Poland 204
By far the most important of all the East German
dailies is the SED's central organ Neues Deutschland
(New Germany), which is published every day in two
editions, a city edition and one for distribution
throughout East Germany. Neues Deutschland is the
most authoritative East German publication and
reflects party policy more accurately than any other
publication. It sets the tone and style for all other press
reporting, and many of its stories are printed verbatim
in provincial newspapers. While policy direction for
Neues Deutschland comes from the SED Central
Committee, the paper is run on a day -to -day basis by
an editorial collegium consisting of the chief editor,
five or six deputies, one secretary, and four or five
party ideologues. The paper maintains a network of
editorial offices in major East German cities and
foreign correspondents in all East European capitals as
well as in several West European countries, including
France, Italy, and the Scandinavian states. The paper
usually runs eight pages, with major sports events
sometimes vying with important political news on the
front page. On Saturdays it carries a six- to eight -page
supplement on cultural, historical, and scientific
subjects and prints a page devoted to such items in the
weekday editions. Most sports reporting and foreign
news appear on the last three pages. There is only
limited advertising.
In addition to the 41 daily newspapers with a
combined circulation of 7.6 million, there are more
than 500 lesser newspapers. Most of the 218 county
governments publish newspapers that appear one or
more times a week, but their number is diminishing as
the authorities amalgamate facilities in order to reduce
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newsprint demands. Factories and cooperative farms
together publish about 6(X) newssheets. Unlike other
publications, they are banned from export, probably
because of their frank discussion of local economic
problems. The 540 periodicals cover a broad span of
interests in monthly, bimonthly, and weekly editions.
The weeklies with the largest circulation are the
Wochenpost, the illustrated journals FF -Dahei and
Neue Berliner /llustrierte, the Zeit im Bild, the paper
for foreign policy Horizont, the cultural paper
Sonntag, and the satirical paper Eulensniegel. The
regime claims a comuined circulation of about 6.9
million for all periodicals, journals, and magazines.
The party line is disseminated from East Berlin to
provincial journals through two indigenous agencies
other than Neues Deutschland. The SED's Depart-
ments of Agitation and Propagand� provide
interpretations of domestic and international
developments as well as special publishing instructions
to agitation and propaganda bureaus at the district
and county levels. The government -owned East
German news agency, ADN, which is supervised by
the Press Office of the Chairman of the Council of
Ministers, distributes important news items at home
and abroad. The East German press also uses material
distributed by the Soviet news agency TASS and the
other Eastern European news agencies. Material of
various Western news agencies, including the
Associated Press (AP) and United Press International
(UPI) of the United States, may be used when the
subject matter coincides with Communist policy.
Despite efforts to improve the format and
presentation of newspapers and periodicals through
greater highlighting of sports news and human interest
stories, the East German press projects, for the most
part, an aura of dull uniformity. The constant and
predictable propaganda makes the press on unpopular
medium. Subscriptions to non- Communist news-
papers and magazines are not permitted to East
Germans, and the authorities periodically screen non
Communist literature brought in by western travelers
entering the country.
2. Booko and libraries
The book publishing industry, which centers on
Leipzig and East Berlin, published 5,234 new titles in
1970 in 122 million copies; 804 of the titles, or about
15 were translations, mostly from the Russian. Of
the new titles published, 4,500 or 86% were book
length. These totals show that the steady decline in
variety evident since 1962, when the industry
published 6,540 titles, including 902 translations, has
continued despite an alltime high in total book
production. Book publishing concentrates on the
classics, light literature, and scientific and technical
works, but ideological treatises, both historical and
contemporary, comprise a steady portion of the
industry's output.
East Germany has more than 17,000 libraries, of
which more than two thirds are state- supported public
libraries and the balance run by the trade unions at
various industrial enterpris ^s. These libraries have
about 27 million holdings and loaned about 66 million
volumes in 1970, or about 16 volumes per reader. The
libraries are controlled by the Ministry for Cultural
Affairs' Central Institute for Library Activities, and
their collections are carefully selected. There are in
addition 34 scholarly libraries with nearly 26 million
volumes in their collections. Among the major East
German collections are the German (formerly
Prussian) State Library in East Berlin with 4 million
volumes (of which 1.8 million are "illegally withheld"
in West Germany and West Berlin) and the Deutsche
Bucherei in Leipzig, which collects all publications in
German regardless of national origin, with 3 million
volumes.
3. Radio and television
East Germany has one of the highest per family
ratios of radio and TV ownership of any Communist
country. In 1970 nearly 70% of the East German
households contained a TV set and nearly 92% had at
least one radio. The authorities make extensive use of
both media in their campaigns to indoctrinate their
own citizenry and to present the regime in the hest
possible light to audiences abroad.
In 1968, the State Broadcasting Committee was
split into two separate commissions, one for television
and one for radio. Both are administratively
subordinate to the Council of Ministers, but under the
direct, day -to -day control of the SED Central
Committee. There are five major stations (Sender): 1)
Radio DDR I broadcasts 24 hours a day, divided
between political and economic subjects and
entertainment; 2) Radio DDR H broadcasts 14 hours a
day, stressing educational and cultural programing; 3)
Berliner Rundfunk, targeted at the East German
population in the environs of that city is on the air 24
hours a day; 4) Stimme der DDR, the product of an
amalgamation in 1971 of Deutsehlandsender and
Berliner Welle, broadcasting high quality, prestige
programs for East and West German consumption, is
also on the air 24 hours a day; 5) Radio Berlin
International, as its name implies, is beamed to
foreign audiences and as of late 1971 was broadcasting
a total of 275 hours per week in 13 languages,
including German and Russian. In addition, there is a
network of studios primarily located in district capitals
F]
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wi:ich, carries programing of Radio DDR I and II to
local audiences along with a few how.5 each day of
local programing.
In addition to these legilimate radio transmissions,
East Germany is the site of several clandestine
transmitters operating on frequencies ostensih ?y
assigned to the Soviet forces in Germany. 'Cite So'Act
station Radio Vora, foiinded in 1946, ison thcair 193
hours weekly, but of this only 13 hwim comprise its
own programing, the balance being divided between
retransmissions of Radio Moscotu s program for the
Soviet troops in Cast Germany and Giechoslovakia,
and its Czech and Slovak programs aimed at that
country's civilian txtpulation. Of the clandestine
transmissions the Turkish language Our Radio and
Greek language Voice of Troth directed against
Greece. Turkr-y, and Cyprus, have been broadcasting
since 1918 and are an the air 30 and e,0 hours per
week, respectively. Between 1961 and 1963
clandestine Persian- language transmissions also
originated front East Germany, hot were subsequently
transferred to Bulgaria.
Of greater significance are the clandestine
transmissions directed to West Germany. A station
calling 'itself Deurscher Freilteitssender 901 began
broadcasting in 1956 as the voice of the illegal
Communist Party of Germany (KPD). With the
decisions to absorb the KPD into the legal CCrman
Communist Party (DKP) and to promote a policy of
normalization between the two Cermanies, the station
went off the air in October 1971. However, 2 months
later programs in Greek, Turkish, and Italian aimed at
foreign workers in West Germany were heard on this
frequency. These transmissions were not u new
venture, but a resumption of programs on the air
between 14167 (Spanish language programs had been
attempted as curly as 1964) and January 1970. A
sccund station calling itself DeutscherSofdatensender
Started operations in 1.96(1, directing its appeal to the
West German military. It broadcasted30 hours weekly
until 1972 when the two German states agreed to stop
directing military propaganda against each other.
The East German television (Femschen der DDR,;
prior to 1972 Deutsche Ferrisehfunk) transmitted 000
hours per week in 1971 over two channels. Several
hundred heron included programing taken from the
Eustern European INTERVISION network, of which
Fermehen der DDR is a cuntributing'rnember, airing
as much as 16686urs `of East German programing to
its eastern neighbors annually pia the larger network.
Approximately 1 0% of 'Fernsches:. der DDR's
programing in. 19'rj was directly related to politics or
news reporting; but the largest share of transmission
titre (23.4q)-was devoted to feature and documentary
films. The East Germans have constructed the highest
TV tower in Eastern Europe The tower at
Aleximderplatz in East Berlin (Figure 32) is 1,200 feet
high, second only to the 1,700 -font TV tower in
Moscow. The East Germans have both black and
white and color televisiou. The black acid white is
compatible with West German and Western Europe's
EUROVISION. East Germany inaugurated its color
system during its 20th anniversary celebrations in
Octolr_r 1969 and in 1971 was transmitting 9 hours of
color 'IV weekly on Channel II. East Germane uses
the SECr1M 3 -11 color TV system, a F rench system not
compatible with the West German PAL Lmlor
television, the Choice of most countries in Western
Europe. The West Ccrmans are installing a converter
relay network consisting of a n4imber of special
inst:;llatiuns along the inter- German h order that
would change their signal to Vfie East German pattern
and theft boost it across the border.
FIGURE 32. N view of the East Berlin telovision tower.
This structure, located in the middle, of East Berlin's
retonstv00 dt tenter, has become a trademark for
the East German capitcl along with the Brandenburg
Gate, arid with Its viewing platform arid' revolving
restouraat of the 670 -foot level, It has become o
leading tourist attractlon.
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Radio and television are perhaps the sole mass
communication media in which the East German
regime does not enjoy a monopoly of information
control. Western radio stations, notably the U.S.
Government managed Radio in the American Sector
(BIAS) in West Berlin, virtually blanket East
Germany, and West German television can be
received in all but the northeast and southeast corners
of the country. For many years the East Germans
sought to blot out Western programs with jamming,
but they found that the jamming effort was very costly
and not effective. However, the regime still jams RIAS
medium -wave broadcasts of news and comment when
it feels the political situation merits such moves, as for
example during the Czechoslovak crisis. The regime
also sought to prevent people from tuning in Western
TV programs by prohibiting orientation of TV
antennas to Western channels and by invoking social
and economic, and sometimes political, sanctions
against violators. These efforts were a total failure,
however, and many East Germans continue to listen to
and watch Western programs, especially since UHF
transmissions make the position of antennas irrelevant.
4. Cinema and theater
The cinema industry is a monopoly of th:: state,
organized under the Deutsche Fil n A.G. (DEFA),
which is controlled by the Ministry for Cultural
Affairs. In 1965 DEFA produced a total of 611 films,
the lowest yearly production since 1960. Of the 1965
total, only 15 were full- length features. In comparison,
the West German film industry produced 69 full
length films that year. The number of theaters devoted
exclusively to showing films has declined steadily from
1,369 in 1960 to 858 in 1970. During this period,
however, more multipurpose theaters, known as
Dorfkinos (village theaters), were established. The
number of these theaters, which included films in their
schedules, jumped from 289 in 1962 to 1,015 in 1965,
but dropped to 520 in 1970, probably due to the
increase in the number of privately owned TV sets.
Overall the number of film presentations declined
from 2.5 million in 1960 to 973 thousand in 1970; 91.4
million persons viewed films in 1970, a far cry from the
237.9 million who viewed films a decade earlier.
The theater, as a whole, has become a virtually
static art. The number of full -time legitimate theaters
in 1970 stood at 101, with a combined seating
capacity of nearly 51,000. This represents an increase
of 13 theaters over the previous 15 years but a drop in
seating capacity of nearly 10,000 seats. During
approximately the same period there was a decrease in
the number of theater seats from 3.4 per 1,000
inhabitants in 1955 to 3.0 seats in 1970. The number
of theatrical performances also dropped from 29,566
in 1955 to 25,918 in 1970. 'Total attendance that year
,vas 12.3 million, markedly below the 1955 high of
17.5 million. The irregular decline in theater
attendance during the 1960's may be due to the TV
explosion which has affected other countries in a
similar way. While the quality of contemporary
theater is far below that of the immediate postwar
period, the faithful rendering of classical works has
managed to retain a loyal theater following. This
trend seems to have carried over to the Workers and
Farmers Theater (Arbeiter and Bauerntheater).
Encouraged by the regime in the early 1960'x, factory
and farm collectives formed theater groups. At their
peak in 1964 there were more than 4,400 members of
such companies with 135 theaters. By 1970 the
membership in such companies had dropped to about
3,000 with only 95 theaters, but attendance for that
year was 713,500 for 2,200 performances.
K. Selected bibliography
1. General and historical
Childs, David. East Germany. New York. 1969.
Covers many aspects of East German life from an
English point of view. Not notably biased but not very
well written.
Doernherg, Stefan. Kurze Geschichte der DDR.
Berlin. 1965. Standard text by leading Eust German
historian. More useful for the image the regime would
like to transmit than for the information iF contains.
Dornberg, John. The Other Germany. Garden City.
1969. A journalist's view of contemporary East
Germany, paralleling his work on West Germany,
Schizophrenic Germany (1961).
Flenley, Ralph. Modern German Histcry. London.
1968. Traditional text oriented on Prussia. Much
revised since the first edition in 1953, with two
chapters by Robert Spencer on post -1939 develop-
ments.
Government of the German Democratic Republic.
Introducing the GDR. Dresden. 1971. The usual
propaganda booklet for foreign visitors. Has the
advantage of appearing after the Ulbricht- tionecker
changeover and reflects the early emphasis of the
new regime.
Hanhardt, Arthur M. The German Democratic
Republic. Baltimore. 1968. A political scientist's
analysis of East German political, economic, and
sociological problems. Concisc' r written.
Ludz, Peter Christian. The German Democratic
Republic From the Sixties to the Seventies.
Cambridge, Mass. 1970. A West German political
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scientist's digest of his extensive work on East
Germany. Interesting not only for his insights but
because he is Brandt's leading academic adviser on
East Germany and has frequently visited the United
States to promote East German studies.
Mann, Colo. The History of Germany Since 1789.
New York. 1968. A comprehensive treatment by a
liberal German historian, the son of Thomas Mann.
Richert, Ernst. Das Zweite Deutschland; ein Staat,
der Nicht Sein Darf. Goetersloh. 1964. Another survey
in a more traditional mold. Critical, but not
obsessively so.
Rodes, John E. Germany: A History. New York.
1964. A standard college text, beginning with Roman
times. More descriptive than analytical.
Sehwarze, Banns Werner. Die DDR ist Keine Zone
Mehr. Koeln. 1969. A comprehensive survey which
attempts to be a scholarly work but has serious
inaccuracies.
Smith, Jean E. Germany Beyond the Wall; People,
Politics and Prosperity. Boston. 1969. Highly
favorable treatment of political, economic, cultural,
and social life in East Germany. Based on extensive
personal observation and careful research but marked
by personal enthusiasms of the author.
2. Geography, demography, and sociology
Baum, Samuel, and Combs, Jerry W. The Labor
Force of the Soviet 'Lone of Germany and the Soviet
Sector of Berlin. Washington. 1959. A thorough
analysis of the East German manpower situation, but
usable now only for background.
Dickinson, Robert E. Germany; A General and
Regional Geography. London. 1961. Information on
cultural traditions as recent as the early postwar
period; discusses Germany's regions more in
geographic than in political terms.
Gayre, G. R. Teuton and Slav on the Polish
Frontier, a Diagnosis of the Racial Basis of the
Germano- Polish Borderlands with Suggestions for the
Settlement of German and Slav Claims. London.
1944. Proyidpt much of the pseudo- scientific
justification for what was to become the Oder Neisse
line. Pinpoints every area of Slavic settlement in the
Reich from the beginning of recorded history.
Herz, Hanns Peter. Freie Deutsche Jugend.
Huenchen. 1965. A basic survey of the youth
organizations: the Free German Youth and the Ernst
Thaelmann Pioneers.
Holm, Hans Axel. The Other Germans; Report from
an East German Town. New York. 1970. An informal
sociological study of a town in Schwerin Bezirk by a
Swedish journalist. Valuable because of the absence of
propaganda and the portrayal of life as it is actually
lived.
Ludz, Peter (Aristian, ed. Studien and Materialien
zur Soziologie der DDR. Koeln. 1964. A symposium
covering man. aspects of social conditions and
intellectual life; contains a monumental bibliography
covering the decade 1952 -63.
Mampel, Siegfried. Das System der Sozialen
Leistungen in Mitteldeutschland and in Ost- Berlin.
Bonn. 1961. A basic survey of the East German social
security system published by the West German
government.
Materialien zum Bericht zur Lage der Nation.
Bonn. 1971. A comparison of the political, economic,
and social systems of the two German states. Issued to
supplement West German Chancellor Brandt's State
of the Nation Report to the Bundestag.
Ministerium Fuer Gesundheitswesen Taschenbuch
der Medizinisehen Wissenschaft der Deutschen
Demokratisehen Republik. Berlin. 1964. Listing of
medical organizations, institutions, schools, libraries,
journals, legislation. A basic reference published by
the East German government.
Nelson, Walter Henry. The Berliners; Their Saga
and Their City. New York. 1969. Neither scientific nor
systematic but a thorough report on conditions in both
East and West Berlin based on extended residence in
the city by the author and more than 1,000 personal
interviews.
Pollock, James K. and Thomas, Homer. Gerr `ay in
Power and Eclipse; The Background of German
Development. New York. 1952. Gives both an overall
and region -by- region survey of developments of 1945.
Invaluable for an understanding of the diverse
cultural, social, and historical traditions in the various
provinces.
Pounds, Norman J. G. Eastern Europe. London.
1969. A good recent discussion of the region as a whole
with separate country chapters. More narrowly
focused on geographic problems than similar books.
Schoepflin, George, ed. The Soviet Union and
Eastern Europe; a Handbook. New York. 1970.
Coverage organized on a problem -by- problem rather
than country basis. Thus, discussion of specifically
East German questions is uneven.
Storbeck, Dietrich. Arbeitskraft and Beschaeftigung
in Mitteldeutschland; eine Untersuchung ueber the
Entwiklung des Arbeitskraeftepotentials and der
Besehaeftigung von 1950 bis 1975. Koeln. 1961. A
manpower study, covering the Baum -Combs book
forward.
Thude, Guenther. The Workers and Their Social
hnsurance; the Social insurance for Workers and
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Employees in the G.D.R. and Its Prospects in the
Seven -Year Plan. Berlin. 1961. An East German trade
union information booklet.
Solberg, Richard W. God and Caesar in East
Germany. N ^w York. 1961. A basic discussion but
woefully out -dated by the changes made since the
erection of the Berlin wall.
Walther, Gerhard. Der Rundfunk in der Sow
jetischen Besatzungszone Deutschlands. Bonn. 1961.
Part of the series Bonner Berichte aus Mittel und
Ostdeutschland. A comprehensive survey of East
German broadcasting.
:Y
i.:
3. Religion, education, mass media, and culture
Anderle, Hans Peter. Die Literatur der Gegenwart
in der DDR. Stuttgart. 1968 A very brief study of East
German literature, outlining principal trends and
listing works by major authors.
Baske, Siegfried, and Engelbert, Martha. Zwei
jahrzehnte Bildungspolitik in der Sowjetzone
Deutschlands. Dokumente. Berlin, 1966. About 200
texts documenting development of educational
policies from 1945 to 1965.
Bodenman, Paul S. Education in the Soviet Zone of
Germany. Washington. 1959. A factual and
comprehensive survey for the period from 1945 to
1958. Contains numerous tables and other statistical
analyses.
Brecht, Bertolt. Brecht on Theatre. New York. 1969.
A selection from the works of the foremost playwright
and theatre critic in postwar East Germany. This is
only one title in a steadily expanding collection of
Brechtiana.
Grant, Nigel. Society, Schools end Progress in
Eastern Europe. Oxford. 1969. Places East German
educational developments in useful regional
framework, showing that many of the innovations of
recent years were inspired by Soviet models.
Heil, K. Heinz. Das fernsehen in der Souletischen
Besatzungszone Deutschlands 1953 -1963. Bonn. 1967.
Part of the series Bonner Berichte aus Mittel -und
Ostdeutschland. A comprehensive survey of East
German television.
Hermann, Elisabeth M. Die Presse in der
Souletisierten Besatzungszone Deutschlands. Bonn.
1962. Published under official West German auspices
as part of the series Bonner Berichte aus Mittel -und
Ostdeutschland. A comprehensive survey of the East
German press.
Hermann, Friedrich- Georg. Der Kampf Gegen
Religion und Kirche in der Sovietischen Besatzung-
szone. Stuttgart. 1966. A basic discussion of the role of
churches but is marred by underlying prejudices
against the East German regime.
Kersten, Heinz. Das Filmwesen in der Souletischen
Besatzungszone Deutschlands. Bonn. 1963. Part of the
series Bonner Berichte aus Mittel -und Ostdeutschland.
A comprehensive survey of the motion picture
industry.
Meineeke, Werner. Die Kirche in der Volksdemo-
kratischen Ordnung der Deutschen Demokratischen
Republik. Berlin. 1962. An exposition of the East
German view of the role of the church in the GDR.
4. Statistical and other reference documents
American University, Foreign Areas Studies
Division. Area Handbook for East Germany.
Washington. 1972. A comprehensive document using
open sources. Supersedes Harvard University's Human
Relations Area File Study, The Soviet Zone of
Germany (1956).
Bundesministerium fuer Gesamtdeutsehe Fragen. A
biz Z: Ein Taschenbuch- Nachschlagebuch ueber den
Anderen Teil Deutschlands. Bonn. 1969. An
invaluable one- volume reference prepared by the
West German government. In addition to 752 pages of
dictionary -type entries, it contains a list of
abbreviations, biographic notes, a chronology, and an
extensive bibliography.
Deutsches Institut fuer Zeitgeschichte. Handbuch
der Deutsehen Demokratischen Republik. Berlin.
1964. A collection of essays on all aspects of East
German political, social, and cultural life written from
the regime point of view.
Deutschland Archiv, Vol. 1 April 1968 Koeln.
1968 The single most useful periodical devoted to
East German affairs. Contains analytic articles,
documents, bibliographies, and a running chronology.
Continues SBZ- Archiv, 1950 -68.
Horeeky, Paul. East Central Europe; a Guide to
Basic Publications. Chicago. 1970. Brings the U.S.
Library of Congress bibliography up -to -date in
summary fashion. A separate section for East Germany
(p. 361 -442).
Meyers Neues Lexikon. 2d ed. Leipzig. 1961 -64. 8
v. The leading East German encyclopedia. A 3d
edition began to appear in 1971.
Reichelt, Paul, and Behn, Hans Ulrich. Deutsche
Chronik 1945 bis 1970; Dalen und Fakten aus Beiden
Teilen Deutschlands. Freudenstadt. 1970 -71 2 v.
Parallel chronology of events in both West and East
Germany.
Reisefuehrer Deutsche Demokratische Republik.
Leipzig. 1971. The most recent edition of the official
travel guide to East Germany. Although grudging
with hotel and restaurant recommendations, it
dispenses social and cultural information with a lavish
hand.
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Statlichen Zentralverwaltung fuer Statistik.
Statistisches jahrbuch der Deutschen Demokratischen
Republik, 1971. Berlin. 1971. The official East
German statistical yearbook.
United Nations. Demographic Yearbook, 1970.
New York. 1971.
United Nations. Statistical Yearbook, 1970. New
York. 1971. Of use also are the statistical yearbooks
issued by the 'U.N.'s Educational, Scientific and
Glossary
m 6111%
Cultural Organization, by International Labor
Organization, and World Health Organization.
U.S., Library of Congress, Slavic and Central
European Division. East Germany; a Selected
Bibliography. Washington, 1967. Concentrates on
publications appearing from 1958 to 1966. An earlier
work appearing in 1959 under the same title and
auspices covers works to 1958. Across the board
coverage.
AABREv1ATiON
FOREIGN
ENGLISH
ADN.........
Allgemeine Deutsche Nachrichtendienst.
East German News Agency
BEK.........
Bund fuer Evangelische Kirchen.......
League of Evangelical Churches
CDU.........
Chrisitieh- Demokratische Union.......
Christian Democratic Union
DBD.........
Demokratische Bauernpariei Deutsch-
German Democratic Peasants Party
lands
DDR.........
Deutsche Demokratische Republik.....
German Democratic Republic
DEFA........
Deutsche Film AC
German Film Company
DFD.........
Demokratischer Frauenbund Deutsch-
Democratic Women's League of Ger-
DKR.........
DKP.........
lands
Deutscher Kulturbund
many
German Cultural Association
Deutsche Kommunistische Partei......
German Communist Party
DTSB........
Deutscher Turn- and Sportbund.......
German Gymnastics and Sports As-
sociation
EKD.........
Evangelische Kirche Deuischlands.....
Evangelical Church of Germany
FDGB........
Freie Deutsche Cewerkschaftsbund.....
Free German Trade Union Federation
FDJ..........
Freie Deutsche Jugend
Free German Youth
GDSF........
Cesellachaft fuer Deuischesowjetische
Society for German Soviet Friendship
Freundachaft
KPD.........
Kommunistiche Partei Deutschlands...
Communist Party of Germany
LDPD
Liberal- Demokratische Partei Deutsch-
German Liberal Democratic Party
lands
NDPD........
National Demokratische Partei Deutsch-
German National Democratic Party
lands
RIAS
Radio in the American Sector
SED..........
Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutsch-
Socialist Unity Party
lands
VDK.........
Verband Deutscher Konsumgenossen-
Association of German Consumers
schaften
Cooperatives
VELKD......
Vereinigte Evangelische- Lutherische
Union of Evangelical- Lutheran Church
Kirche Deutschlands
of Germany
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ern ni� a@I'ff&ff n
It
Places and fea!ures referred to in this chapter
COORDINATES
o rE
Bautzen 51 11 14 26 i
Brandenburg (region) 53 00 14 00
Bitterfeld 51 37 12 19
Cottbus 51 46 14 20
Cottbus district 51 45 14 00
Dresden 51 03 13 45
Dresden district 51 05 14 00 1
East Berlin 52 30 13 33 t
B
Eisenhlittenstadt 52 09 14 39
Erfurt 50 59 11 02
Erfurt (district) 51 10 10 50
i
Frankfurt (district) 52 30 14 00
Freiberg 50 55 13 22
Fulda, West Germany 50 33 9 40
Gera district 50 50 12 05
G6rl itz 51 10 15 00
Greifswald 54 06 13 23
Halle 51 30 12 00
Halle (district) 51 30 12 00
Halle Neustadt (sec. of Halle) 51 29 11 56
Hildesheim, West Germany 52 09 9 58
Hoyerswerda 51 26 14 15
Jena 50 56 11 35
Karl- Marx- Stadt 50 50 12 55 f
Karl- Marx- S��tdt (district) 50 45 12 40
Leipzig.. 51 18 12 20
Leipzig district 51 15 12 40
Magdeburg 52 10 11 40 f
Magdeburg (district) 52 15 11 45
Mecklenburg (region) 53 30 12 00
Meiningen 50 33 10 25
I
Meissen 51 09 13 29
Naumburg 51 09 11 49
Neisse stream 52 04 14 46
Neubrandenburg (district) 53 30 13 15
Oder (stream) 53 32 14 38
Osnabruck West German 52 16 8 03
Paderborn, West Germany 51 43 8 46 j
Pomerania (region) 53 40 15 00
Potsdam 52 24 13 04
Potsdam (district) 52 35 12 50
Rostock 54 05 12 08
Rostock district) 54 00 12 00
Saxony region 51 00 13 00
Schwedt 53 04 14 18
Schwerin 53 30 11 30
Schwerin (district) 52 12 13 53
Silesia, Poland and Czechoslovakia (region). 51 00 18 00
Suhl (district) 50 35 10 40
Thuringia (region)...... 51 00 11 00
Warnemunde 54 10 12 05
Weimar 50 59 11 19
Wilhelm- Pieck -Stadt Guben 51 57 14 43
Wittenberg 51 52 12 39
Wroclaw (Breslau), Poland 51 06 17 02
Wiirzburg, West Germany 49 48 9 56
Zwickau 50 44 12 30
48
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