NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 18; CZECHOSLOVAKIA; SCIENCE

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Page
S. Other sciences
16
a. Chemistry and metallurgy
16
b. Physics and mathematics
18
c. Astrogeophysical sciences
20
(1) Astronomy
20
(2) Space science and aeronomy
21
(3) Meteorology
21
(4) Terrestrial geophysics and
geology
(5) Geodesy
(6) Hydrology and hydraulics
(7) Oceanography
Page
21
22
22
23
Glossary 23
IWIMES
Page
Fig. 1 Federal government organization of
scientific research and development
(chart) 3
Fig. 2 L -29 Delfin Maya) jet trainer
(photo) 7
Page
Fig. 3 L-39 advanced jet trainer photo) 7
Fig. 4 L-410 Turbolet light transport aircraft
(Photo) 7
ii
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Science
A. General (S)
Czechoslovakia occupies a leading position in
scientific accomplishments among the East European
Communist countries. The Czechoslovaks are capable
of doing good scientific research, although the total
volume is probably less than 10% of that done in the
U.S.S.R. Progress in scientific research and
development has been favored by a strong scientific
tradition, a high level of literacy, a good educational
system that places emphasis on science and
technology, and one of the highest standards of living
among the East European countries. The Czecho-
slovak scientific tradition, extending back to the early
part of the 17th century, is based on the work of such
scientists as the German -born astronomer, Johann
Kepler, and the Danish astronomer, Tycho Brache,
who did much of their work in Prague during 100-10;
Jan Marek, discoverer of the dispersion of white light
by a prism, who worked at Charles University in
Prague around 1620; Jan Ev. Purkyne, an outstanding
Prague physiologist, who studied physiological optics;
and Gregor Mendel, Moraviani "Father of Genetics."
More recently, Czechoslovakia has developed several
outstanding scientists, including Jaroslav Heyrovsky,
who received the Nobel prize in 1959 for his discovery
and development of polarography.
Scientific progress, although basically strong, has
been affected adversely by foreign interventions and
by internal political factors. During the period of
G ^rman occupation prior to and during World War 11
and in the chaotic period following that war, the
Czecheslovak research program declined substantially
because of casualties, defections, and purges. After the
Communists seized power in 1948, emphasis was
placed on the development of heavy industry and on
supporting fields of engineering and applied research.
With the gradual relaxation of orthodox Communist
leadership during the early and mid- 1960's,
Czechoslovak scientists obtained increasing freedom
in conducting research. Liberalization continued
during the first half of 1968 under the leadership of
Alexander Dubcek. This situation changed abruptly in
August 1968 with the invasion of Czechoslovakia by
the other Warsaw Pact countries. Since the invasion,
the Soviets have forced Czechoslovakia to revert to a
more repressive regime, including strict censorship,
increased bureaucratic controls, restrictions on travel,
and purges of liberal scientists. Because the
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (CSAV) and many
individual scientists and professors strongly supported
the Nberalization policy and freedom of expression
and discussion in scientific publications, the academic
and scientific communities have been targets of
repressive measures.
There has been a far reaching purge of scientific
leadership since 1968. Approximately 50 of the 65
directors of institutes of the CSAV have been removed
from positions of management, either by assignment
to nonsupervisory positions or by complete separation
from their institutes. Replacements have been selected
primarily on the basis of political reliability rather
than scientific and technical capabilities, and
Communist Party members are appointed to all
leading pqsitions. The academic community has been
affected also. Qualified faculty members have been
discharged for political reasons, and revised political
criteria have been used for accepting students for
university study. Under a new law, officers of the
Academies of Sciences are appointed by the political
authorities rather than being elected by the members.
Also, appointments of academician:, have been
reduced from lifetime to 4 years. Presumably
reappointment will depend on willingness to follow
party lines.
Scientists and students of science frequently
complain because, although some are permitted to
continue their research, they cannot travel and are
restricted from gaining access to many outside books
and periodicals. Also they are unable to get technical
and scientific information from the United States
because they have no funds to renew subscriptions to
leading journals. Instead, they are required to use the
Soviet operated scientific literature dissemination
services that provide foreign papers and abstracts.
Generally, the Soviet documentation services provide
untranslated English articles, and translation of these
involves lengthy periods of time. Representatives of
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the (:SAS' who are permitted travel to foreign
countries are carefully screened and selected according
to their party loyalty. In November 197, the status of
science was reported as extremely low because of
purges ,o that there was it pronounced stagnation of
activities at most institutes and university research
centers. The federal Minister of Education was
eliminated aid some liberalization occurred. In late
1972, however, the govenement was continuing to
exert pressure on the scientific community to increase
cooperation with their Soviet counterparts and to
refrain from contacts with Western scientists. Great
emphasis was placed on maintaining �ood relations
with party officials since it was made clear that the
party would not tolerate neutral and liberal scientists
in the country.
Scientific and technical activity has been se riously
disrupted b% the above repressions and changes. The
present government has cut hack drastically on
scientific research funding and has redirected much of
the effort into applied fields. As it result of currency
restrictions, it is also almost impossible for the
scientists to purchase Western equipment a
supplies. However, the most drastic changes have been
at administrative levels, and the large body of
scientists and engineers is continuing to conduct
significant research. Basic research in medical sciences
is continuing. In most branches of science, however,
the research effort is being directed mainly into those
areas which contribute to the country's economic or
military strength. Although many competent scientists
and engineers have left Czechoslovakia since the 1968
invasion, the country has many capable voting
scientists and engineer; to replace those who have left.
Czechoslovakia has attempted to maintain
scientific contacts with both Communist and Western
countries. Since August 1968, the Soviets have insisted
that Czechoslovakia strengthen its scientific ties with
the U.S.S.R. and other Communist countries. There
has heen extensive scientific-technological cooperation
between Czechoslovakia and the U.S.S.R. Several
thousand Czechoslovaks have visited the Soviet Union
to study research and development methods and
production technology. As of July 1971, it was
reported that about 2(H) Czechoslovak organizations
and about DR) Soviet organizations were engaged in a
corresponding number of joint scientific research and
development projects. However, at the working level
there has reportedly been considerable animosity
between scientists from the two countries, notably at
the U.S.S.R.'s nuclear research facility at Serpukhov.
Czechoslovakia has r:.gned bilateral agreements with
other Commit list countries and with some Western
a
countries for exchanges of personnel, information, and
materials. In June 1972 a contract was signed betvren
petrochemical enterprises in Czechoslovakia and East
Germany calling for economic, scientific, and
technical cooperation in the production and
exploitation of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
During the past 10 years, scientific and technologi-
cal relations have expanded considerably between
Sweden and Czechoslovakia. Cooperation i,as been
effected through agreements between scientific and
engineering academies and between governments. As
a result, Czechoslovak scientists hav: participated
actively for periods of a year or more in special projects
at various Swedish institutes. A bilateral agreement
between the two governments was signed in October
197; On.c of its objectives was to strengthen scientific
and technical cooperation.
Czechoslovakia belongs to many organizations of
the International Council of Scientific Unions and has
participated in their worldwide cooperative programs.
It is a member of such international scientific bodies as
the International Union of Geology and Geophysics
(IUGG), the International Union of Biological
Sciences, the International Unions of Pure and
Applied Chemistry and Physics, the International
Union of Food Science and Technology, and the
International Astronomical Union. Czechoslovakia
participates also in various U.N. agencies such as the
U.N. Edoeatiot.al, Scientific and Cultural Organiza-
tion (UNESCO), the World Health Organization
(WHO), the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), and the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA).
Czechoslovakia has in the past provided facilities
for international scientific meetings: for example, the
Prague Symposium on Macromolecular Chemistry
attracted scientists from 27 countries and the
International Union of Biological Sciences held its
13th Congress in Prague. In 1%. 6 the World Congress
of Archaeology held its sessions in Prague. Over 300
scientists attended a 5-day symposium on geophysics
in October 1972.
B. Organization, planning, awl financing of
research (S)
Scientific research and development are controlled
and administered primarily by the federal govern-
ment, which in turn is under the control of the
Czechoslovak Communist Party. Since January 1969
the government has reorganized its ministries,
abolishing most of the ministries which existed prior to
that time, and has strengthened its control over the
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CSAV. The real authority in most of the scientific
research facilities is held by the local Communist Partv
cell. Under the new government organization, the two
provincial or republic governments �the Czech
Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic
have established their own separate ministries in some
fields. In some cases, the activities of these provincial
ministries are coordinated by new federal ministries.
The federal government, however, does not have a
ministry for education nor a ministry for health, since
these arc as are considered to be the responsibilities of
the two states. The higher educational institutions and
their affiliated research institutes are under the
supervision of the state governments. The bureaucratic
complexities of the present system of parallel federal
and state ministries have caused serious difficulties in
the administration of scientific research and
development.
Federal ministries concerned with scientific
activities include the Ministry of National Defense,
Ministry for Technological and Investment Develop-
ment, Ministry of Fuel and Power, Ministry of
Agriculture and Food. Ministry of Posts and
Telecommunications, Ministry of Transportation, and
Ministry of Metallurgy and Engineering (Figure 1).
Particularly important is the Ministry for Technologi-
cal and Investment Development, which was formed
in January 1971 from the Committee for Technologi-
cal and Investment Development. This ministry
controls all federal scientific and technical activities,
including allocation of funds for the CSAV. Its
minister, Ladislav Supka, formerly headed the Central
Committee Department for Scientific, Edu- �ational,
and Cultural Affairs. The Min ;stry for Technological
and Investment Development is responsible for
establishing a unified government scientific and
technological policy and for coordinating and
controlling scientific programs and certain develop-
ment programs. The ministry formulates the applied
research and development program with assistance
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FIGURE 1. Federal government organization of scientific re- torch and development (C)

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from the CSAV, while the CSAV is responsible for the
basic research program, subject to approval of the
ministr\ This ministry is also responsible for
supervisiug international cooperation in science and
technology and has jurisdiction over the Czechoslovak
Atomic Energy Commission. The latter is esponsible
for the peaceful utilization of atomic energy and for
coordinating the nuclear energy program. However,
nuclear powerplant construction is the responsibility
of the Ministry of Fuel and Power. Formeriv the
commission was not directly involved in the operation
of research and development facilities for nuclear
research, which were under the CSAV, but recently,
the Nuclear Research Institute at Rez (near Prague)
has been placed under the commission.
The CSAV, created in 1952, was formerly a very
powerful organization for scientific planning and
coordination of research and for carrying out
fundamental and applied research. In 1969 the new
government took away much of the autonomy of the
CSAV. The previously unimportant Slovak Academy
of Sciences (SAV), which functions as a branch of the
CSAV, was upgraded, thus ending the ability of the
CSAV to speak for the entire sciemific community in
opposition to the new regime's policies. Many research
facilities of the academies have been reorganized or
abolished in order to strengthen government control
and to insure leadership by Communist Party
members. The regime controls the monetary and.
physical resources needed for scientific and technical
activities and uses them to gain its objectives.
The ,cademics continue to play an important role
in scientific education and research through the
approximately 130 institutes, laboratories, centers, and
other facilities that operate under the control of
various scientific boards of the academies. They cover
such disciplines as biology, mathernatics, physics,
nuclear research, technical cybernetics and electronics,
materials research, medical science, organic chemistry
and biochemistry, chemical process fundamentals,
and the astrogeophysical sciences. More than 30
formerly independent scientific societies have been
placed under the framework of the CSAV. This
grouping under one organisation has promoted better
cooperation and communication among the societies.
Since 1%9, government financial support for the
CSAV has dropped off sharply. Until recently the
CSAV has been concerned almost entirely with basic
research, but under the present regime the CSAV
program of applied research is being expanded.
Resources previously used to support basic research are
now being used to support applied work responsive to
industrial needs. The applied research of the CSAV
E
has included work proposed by top government
agencies on problems too complicated and too
diversified to be handled by industrial research
institutes.
Most applied research is conducted in about 200
industrial research facilities under various economic
ministries. Many of these facilities arf connected with
industrial plants in major industries. In some cases the
research facilities conduct work for a group of
industrial enterprises.
Most of the research done in the higher educational
facilities is fundamental in nature, although the
technical universities are engaged in some applied
research. Some pressure has been exerted on the
universities to bring their research programs under the
government program for scientific development which
has been set forth in the directives of the Government
Plan for Development of Science and Technology.
The Czech and Slovak National Councils have
parliamentary authority to pass legislation concerning
science and research in relation to the requirements of
the Czech and Slovak state economies. The federal
government as the supreme executive power is
concerned with the direction of planned expansion in
scientific fields and with the general applications of
research in the overall economic program. The
government has the power to prepare long -range plans
for science projects and assigns specific research work
connected with the country's development to the
relevant state agencies and scientific institutions. In
these :activities, the federal government is advised by
the Czech and Slovak Ministries of Construction and
Technology 4n collaboration with each of the
academies of sciences and the Federal, Czech, and
Slovak Planning Commissions. Although detailed
planning of research and development activities has
long been practiced by the Communist government,
the present regime has insisted on stricter centralized
planning than previously.
Only limited information is available on the
financing of scientific and technical activities in
Czechoslovakia. Government support for scientific
research, including funds available for the CSAV, has
been cut back drastically in recent years, and the
degree of accountability for expenditures has increased
greatly. Funding has been controlled by antiliberals
since at least 1971. Cuts in funding have led to
infighting among competing scientists, and only those
with strong party connections prosper. Research and
development spending is being made more respmisive
to industrial needs.
Acco�ding to the Czechoslovak Federal Statistics
Office, `otal spending for research and development
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by the federal and ,tatc gmenunents amounted in
1972 to USSI.56 billion (using the official but unreal-
istic rate of exchange of 7.20 korunas =l'SSI.M).
of cvhic�h about 80(1 was expended in the (,vec�ir
state. The amount appears to he cxc�esske and
probably includes iterns not properly inc�Inded under
research and development. Funds for research at the
universities are not separately stated but are included
in their annual operating budgets. Approval of funds
for the academic sector is haled on re�vi;�v� by high
level committees c�.msisting of the Deputy Ministers of
Technolog}, Finance, Planning, and the Interior. In
view of this, approvals require considerable time,
resulting in delays in initiation of research programs.
C. Scientific education, manpower, and
fac..:ities (C)
The quJih of scientific and technical education in
Czechoslovakia is good. High standards are
maintained in spite of the overcrowding that prevails
at some institntions. The Czechoslovak Covernment in
1972 cut back drastically on university enrollments in
science and technology. At one institute, for example,
admissions wt�re� clown from IM per year to 20.
Universit% -level scientific and !(-clinical training is
provided h\ nine universities and technical schools,
ssith a total enrollment of about 74,M). 'These
institutions ar;- (in descending order of enmIlment):
Charles Universit Prague; Comenins Universitv,
Bratislava; Technical Universit\ of Prague; Slovak
Technical Universit Bratislava. PnrLvne Universih,
Brno; Pulackv Universih, Olonuovrc�; College of
Chemical Technology, Prague: State College of
Mining and Metallurgy, Ostrava; and Collage of
Chernic�al Technology, Pardubice. 'There are also
several specialized colleges in agriculture and
engineering. All higher education, inc�inding
postgradi, training, is free; stipends, based on need
and academic excellence, are designed to direct
students into scientific and technical specialties
according to ctuotas set by the government and based
on anticipated manpower requirements.
Scientific and technical education in the universities
and technical colleges includes 3 years of general
mathematics and science courses, 2 to 3 vears of
specialization supple�rnented b\ industrial practice,
aril preparation and defense of an undergradnate
thesis covering it design or technical process.
Graduates hear such titles as diploma physicist and
diploma engineer. \7-year program of reform of
higher technical ecluc�ation, instituted in 1959, was
designed to emphasize the program of practical work
and to decrease excessive spcuialization. Approxi-
matei\ 100M students were being trained in the fields
of science and technology at the universities and the
CSAV in 8.
There is ample opportenit\ for postgraduate study
in Czechoslovakia. Both the universities and CSAV
institutes offer programs leading to the Candidate of
Sciences degree. Some postgraduate students enroll in
the scientific aspirantura program, which is offered in
both full -time (regular) and part -time (external) study
I 111 regular aspirantura is a 3-year program consisting
of IS months of study and examination and 18 months
in preparation of a scientific dissertation, which must
be a significant scientific contribution. The external
aspirantura has no time restriction on the period of
stud\ and permits young specialists to work full time
as laboratory assistants and technicians while
attending courses and seminars at night. Less formal
postgraduate training "Is;) is offered through a
program of scientific preparation of selected personnel
at scientific research institutes and of selected
assistants working on assigned projects at higher
schools.
holders of the degree of Candidate of Sciences
(more or less equi-alent to the Ph.D. degree in the
United States) may, after additional research
experience, submit a doctoral dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Science This is the highest degree
awarded in Czechoslovakia, and the doctoral thesis is
intended to be a profound and original scholarly work.
Much of the responsibility for the training of
scientific research workers rests with the CSAV, which
utilize, many of the country's science graduates and
competes tit universities, ministerial institutes, and
industry for their services. As required by law, the
CSAV provides scientific instruction and coopera,cs
with the universities in the selection and training of
qualified scientific workers in both basic and applied
sciences. In 1971 there were approximately 1,800
indi in the CSAV w:,o were engaged in fud-
awl part -time training activities. In 1966. 34
aspirantura in the CSAV program received the degree
of Doctor of Science and 267 received the degree of
Candidate of Sciences. The CSAV has had some
dif(ic ulty in recent years in placing some of its
graduates. It has tended to absorb the best researchers
in the country. "Therefore, many of the outstanding
men in Czechoslovak research are identified with
CSAV institutes, which employ it total of about 16,0(19
persons at various professional levels. Of this number,
approximately 7,000 have advanced degrees.
l ?mployrnent of scientists within the CSAV who do not
5
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adhere to the regime's political line is controlled by 6
month contracts subject to renegotiation before
renewal.
Most of the important CSAV institutes are in the
Prague area, including the Microbiology Institute and
the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry,
each employing about 400 scientists and technicians;
the Institute for Maercrnoler_ular Chemistrv, which
had about 340 employees in 1969; an(' the Institute of
Solid -State Physics.
Czechoslovakia does not appear to be faced with
the problems of shortages of technical marp ower. In
fact, it produces more scientists, particularly chemists,
than it can use effectively, and as a result many
scientific graduates have accepted positions in other
countries. Others have accepted positions in
Czechoslovakia outside their field of specialization. In
spite of the purges and defections, the scientific and
technical manpower Situation has not deteriorated
significantly. The younger scientists have filled the
gap left by the h,,s of about 1,000 research scientists
and technicians since 1968 through resignations,
dismissals, and emigration because of political factors.
The total number of persons engaged in research
increased from about 124,000 in 1965 to about
147,700 by the end of 1971. Approximately 13% of the
total are associ�,ted with the CSAV and the affiliated
SAV, 64% are employed by industry, 4% are
concerned with construction, and the remainder are in
such area; as health, agriculture and food processing,
tnunsportation. Lnd cx)mmunications.
Research facilities at the various centers and
laboratories are quite modern. Sore of the CSAV
institutes and the institutes under the government
ministries have the best equipment and facilities,
whereas the facilities of the higher educational
institutions tend to he less modern except in those
cases where .rpplied research is being done. The CSAV
Institute of Nuclear Research at Rez' is well equipped
with a research reactor, cyclotron, accelerator, modern
hetar,y spectrographic equipment, and electronic
instrumentation.
Czechoslovakia has a good capability for
production of modern instruments and is able to
supply other Communist countries. The government is
aware of the fact that many of the CSAV institutes are
berated in old buildings and are shori of laboratory
space and has .armarkud future funds for new
buildings and equipment.
'For diacritics oo place names, we the list of narnes on the apron
of the Somrnan Map in the Owntry Profile chapter.
T
D. Major research fields
1. Air, ground, and naval weapons (S)
Czechoslovakia's capability for weapons research
and development exceeds that of other East European
countries, but it is very limited when compared with
international standards. Soviet pressure has diverted
the nation's resources away from systems develop-
ment; consequently, most of its operational combat
weapons are being supplied by the U.S.S.R. The
greatest capability exists in the development and
production of small aircraft and ground weapons.
Although shipbuilding activity is underway at the
Kimarno yards, evidence is lacking to indicate any
naval weapon application or association.
The Czechoslovak aircraft industry leads the
Warsaw Pact in the development and production of
small utility, sport /aeroba tic, and jet trainer aircraft.
The output of jet trainers is sufficient to meet Warsaw
Pact requirements. The Czechoslovak 129 Delfin
(MAYA) single engine, two -seat aircraft (Figure 2) has
been the standard jet trainer for the Warsaw Pact
forces, and as of March 1973, approximately 3,500 1
25's had been produced at the Vodochody plant in
Prague. However, the Ir39 advanced jet trainer,
designed as a follow -on to the MAYA, has entered
production and has been selected as the advanced jet
trainer for the Warsaw Pact; 1,500 of these subsonic,
two-seat tandem, single engine aircraft are being built
(Figure 3). Also in early 1973 the Czechoslovaks signed
an arms agreement to provide 50 of these aircraft to
Iraq. Production of the 1,410 Turbolet light transport
(Figure 4) has increased to three per month at the
Kunovice plant, with a total accumulative production
approaching 50 aircraft. The Czechoslovaks are
making a strenuous effort in several European
countries to market the 1410.
Continuing '.nterest in the development of rotary
wing aircraft is reflected by the efforts of
Czechoslovakia's Aero Group, which is building
several prototypes of the new HC-4 helicopter at its
Orlican Plant in eastern Bohemia. Essentially a
derivative of the experimental HC -3 five -place
h- licopter of about 1960 -61, the newly designed
HC -4 offers increased capacity of up to seven places
and is powered by a 700 shaft horsepower Walter
M -601 turbine engine. There is a possibility of
Czechoslovakia's entering into a cooperative program
with the Polish aircraft industry in the production
of the HC -4.
The Czechoslovaks have a limited capability for
aircraft engine research and development, and most of
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FIGURE 2. L -29 Delfin (Maya) ;et
trainer (G)
FIGURE 3. L -39 adytinced jet
trainer 00U)
FIGURE d. E -AIO `orbolel light
transport aircraft iui U)
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this capability is in the modification of foreign engines
to meet iocai requirements. Current efforts focus upon
modifying Canadian -built Pratt and Whitney PT 6A-
27 gas turbine engines, developing the native designed
M -601 engine as an optional engine for the Lr410
turbolet transport, and the further development of the
Soviet- designed AI -25 bypass engine for the 1129 and
AI -25W for the 1,39. Several small reciprocating
aircraft engines are being developed and /or produced
for the smaller aircraft previously mentioned. A high
bypass turbofan engine developing 9,000 pounds of
thrust is reported in design. Although purely of native
design and intended for domestic applications, ail
segments of this program are controlled by the
U.S.S.R. Ministry of Aviation. This engine is expected
to enter produoion in about 5 years.
A zrodynamic research associated with development
of air breathing engines is done by a division of the
Aeronautical Research and Testing Institute at the
Motorlet complex. The institute is virtually the only
organization in Czechoslovakia doing applied research
in aerodynamics, and nearly all of this work is in direct
support of industry. Facilities include several subsonic
wind tunnels, a supersonic tunnel, and a shock tube.
Over the years, the above institute has conducted
extensive investigations on boundary layer control,
particularly in its application to s'rolrtype aircraft.
Some of this research was devoted to the development
of blown slot and slotted flap systems. Although the
res -arch program was considered a success, neither
system has been iicorporated in production of aircraft.
Basic research in the propulsion field is accom-
plished primarily by the Institute of Thermodynamics
of the Academy of Sciences. For nearly 10 years, this
institute has conducted research in turbine design.
Czechoslovakia has a relat ?vely strong capability in
rocket propulsion research and development, and it
continues to lead other East European Communist
countries in solid propellant technology. Development
activity is devoted almost exclusively to double -base
propellants. However, extruded composites containing
ammonium nitrate have been developed, but no
information indiraes research and development of
propellants employing ammonium perchlorate and
elastomeric binders.
In October 1972 the Czechoslovaks displayed an
adaptation of the Soviet 122-mm, 40 -round multiple
launcher. The Czechoslovak weapon features a
powered reloader to fire a second 40-round salvo and
displace within three and one -half minutes. The
system, mounted on the 14-ton 8x8 Tatra 813 chassis,
is the fii,est multiple rocket launcher in the world. A
considerable number of these systems are in use with
T
the Czechoslovak army The Pardubice Explosives
and Solid Motor Development and Production Plant is
currently producing the Soviet designed Malyutka
wire guided, antitank rocket, which is equipped %ith
two solid propellant motors.
The sounding rocket development previously
reported in progress at the Antonin Zapotocky
Military Academy in Brno apparently was eliminated
at the time of the August 1963 invasion; the rockets
were of low performance compared with similar Soviet
rockets. Since 1968, no information has been received
on the status of this program.
Czechoslovakia has shown only limited interest in
liquid rocket propellants. The Institute of Inorganic
Synthesis, Rez, has conducted research under Soviet
sponsorship on boron hydrides (boranes) and on
hydrazine-borane adducts in rocket fuels. Part of this
work was devoted to improving the Soviet
manufacturing process for pentaborane and decar-
boraae. The only other activity with propellant
association is a liquid oxygen production capability at
chemical plants located in Zaluzi and Sokolov.
Czechoslovakia has the industrial potential to
produce guided missiles. This potential has not been
developed, however, because of the restrictions
imposed by the Soviet Union which prohibit
indigenous weapon development activity. The
research being conducted on missile systems is
generally of a basic nature, and the only applied
research being done is related to those areas authorized
by the Soviets. These include work on unguided air
launched and salvo -fired rockets. Unconfirmed reports
cite a new missile similar to the Soviet SA -7 /Grail
being produced in a joint effort with the U.S.S.R. The
missile was described as a shoulder launched, low
level antiaircraft surface -to -air system. The composite
propellants in the booster and sustainer of the system
are comparable to the best found in Western
technology.
Since World War 11, Czechoslovakia has demon-
strated an excellent capability for the design and
development of infantry and artillery weapons, a
variety of which are in use by the ground forces.
Among Warsaw Pact nations, the Czechoslovaks alone
have equipped their army with small arms that are
entirely of their own design. A new universal small
arms family was announced recently. Variants include
an assault rifle, light and heavy machine guns, and a
tank machine gun. It is undetermined whether
Czechoslovakia, a respected small arms exporter, will
use the new arms to replace existing inventories of
already adequate weapons or offer the new family for
immediate export sales.
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The Czechoslovak ammunition industry does not
rely solely on copies of Soviet produced ammunition,
but has and continues to maintain a domestic design
capability if improvement is required. This is
understandable because the munitions industry has
long been independent and highly regarded
throughout the world, so much so that Nazi Germany
simply confiscated the plants and continued
production of Czechoslovak native designs. The
ammunition research and development effort develops
and produces large caliber ammunition of virtually
every size available to the Warsaw Pact countries. The
quality of the ammunition and fuzing in many
instances seems to rank above that produced by the
U.S.S.R. This trend undoubtedly will continue into
the foreseeable fu: Research appears to be
concentrated on the development of propellants and
explosives, and work is underway on combustible
cartridge cases. Czechoslovakia, one of the leading
Communist countries in research and development of
mine warfare equipment, has developed and produced
a family of antitank and antipersonnel mines which
employ conventional fuzing techniques.
Czechoslovakia has not developed an original tank
design but has continued to modify Soviet medium
tanks, manufactured under agreement with the
U.S.S.R. OT -64 wheeled armored personnel carriers,
possibly based on the Tatra 813 chassis, and armored
reconnaissance vehicles employed by the Czecho-
slovak armed forces are similar in design and
operational capability to their Soviet counterparts.
These lightly armored vehicles were developed by the
Czechoslovaks in collaboration with Polish and
Hungarian engineers. The current in- service, full
tracked OT -62 armored personnel carrier is a copy of a
Soviet counterpart vehicle with modifications to meet
Czechoslovakia's specific mission requirements.
Reportedly, the nation also produces a version of the
latest known Soviet full- tracked infantry combat
vehicle.
Czechoslovakia is capable of performing research
and development necessary for the production of
military motor transport vehicles ranging from light to
heavy duty trucks. Research and development for the
Czechoslovak automotive industry were conducted by
the Automotive Research Institute, with research on
military vehicles being the responsibility of the
Military Technical Institute under the Ministry of
National Defense. Most research work is performed at
`he research facilities of the Skoda, Tatra, and Praga
plants, which have good equipment and staffs.
Vehicle, design is geared to provide military transport
vehicles of improved performance and mobility. This
is evidenced by the utilization of such items as tire
inflation systems, locking differentials, wide profile
tires, power braking, power steering, and high power
to -weight ratios in vehicle designs.
The Soviet Gaz(Uaz }69 is the only foreign vehicle
used by the Czechoslovak armed forces; it and the
Tatra 805, a 1.5-ton 4x4 truck, are the only gasoline
fueled military trucks in Czechoslovakia. All other
trucks are diesel fueled. Current research projects
involve continuing development of the Tatra 813 and
Tatra 148 families of vehicles and product
improvement in current production of trucks in the
medium -load range. Feasibility studies are continuing
on unconventional design, high mobility, and off -road
vehicles in the light- to medium -load range. Engine
research programs include multifuel engine develop-
ment, direct injection air cooled diesels, and a gas
turbine for heavy trucks.
Research and development in military engineer
equipment are broadly based, and Czechoslovakia is
the only Warsaw Pact country that has developed a
family of river crossing equipment independently of
the U.S.S.R. This equipment includes reconnaissance
and assault boats, powerboats, light and heavy
bridges, tank launched scissor bridges, and Bailey
type panel bridges. Most recently the Czechoslovaks
have displayed a new multispan truck launched
bridge mounted on the Tatra 813. The bridge appears
superior to the similar Soviet TMM model. Fixed
bridges of fiberglass and aluminum reportedly are
under development. In other types of engineer
equipment, the country has a considerable capability
for the development of virtually all types of engineer
construction equipment. Actual research activities,
however, have been curtailed in this area because of
budgetary limitations.
The Czechoslovak Army has an impressive
capability for surveying, photomapping, and
topographic mapping, primarily in support of artillery
and missile units. Most of the equipment in service is
of Soviet, Hungarian, or East German origin. The
Czechoslovaks have built special- ,)urpose mobile
mapping vans based on the Praga Vas truck. These
mobile vans include photo lab, photo compilation,
and map reproduction models. Some research is
conducted by the Military Topographic Institute and
the Military Geographic Institute.
Among the Communist countries, Czechoslovakia is
second only to the U.S.S.R. in the development and
production of military and sport parachutes.
Czechoslovakia relies more and more on its own
research institutes, with major efforts being made in
the development of synthetic fibers and plastics with
9
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applicability in the airdrop field. The country's largest
developer and producer of parachutes is the Kras firm,
which has factories and research centers located near
Brno. K as has been commended for the development
of outstanding military and sport parachutes during
the past 3 years. Research and production of
parachute material is conducted b the firm Stuhy a
Pryrnky. Its production rate of nylon and perlon
parachute cording, webbing, and strap material for
the armed forces is estimated to exceed 32 million feet
per year.
In recent years Czechoslovakia has shown increased
capabilities for development of sophisticated POL-
handling equipment for military use. Among these are
the design, development, and production of various
types of collapsible storage containers that can be
parachuted, transported by truck, floated on water, or
towed by tugboat. Other POL- handling equipment
required for support of military requirements is of the
conventional type produced locally.
In the field of individual clothing and equipment,
the army utilizes new synthetic materials, plastics, and
finishes in the components of combat clothing and
individual equipment to increase durability and to
better serve functional purposes, such as protection
against the elements, climatic extremes, corrosion, and
visual and photographic detection. New impregnating
agents have decreased the water permeability of
clothing, and new fiber blends and finishes have made
them resistant to flame, grease, and abrasion. U.S.
research and development agencies have determined
recently that the Czechoslovak Army's combat suit
represents highly significant advances in clothing
design and camouflage capabilities. There is no
known research underway on materials handling
equipment, rations, packaging, and tentage specifical-
ly for military use..
2. Biological and chemical warfare (S)
Czechoslovakia has the best developed mi-
crobiological capability among the Communist
Many of the most competent researchers
have been engaged in research that has BW potential,
in particular, BW defense. During the early 1960's,
authorities initiated an accelerated defensive BW
research program that included research on the rapid
identification and decontamination of BW agents and
in immunology. Much of the rapid identification work
was completed during 1965 -69. In the early 1970's,
emphasis was on immunology and therapy of viral
and rickettsial diseases and hybridization of viruses.
Scientists at the Military Institute of Hygiene,
Epidemiology, and Microbiology, Prague, which is
L
subordinate to the Ministry of National Defense, have
been conducting research on a number of microor-
ganisms of potential BW significance. This research
includes the viruses causing Monkey B disease,
lymphocytic choriomeringitis, tickborne encephalitis,
smallpox, rabies, Venezuelan equine encephalc,nye-
litis, and rubella. Work also has been done with
Pasteurella tularensis, Bacillus anthraces, Leptospira
species, and Q -fever and typhus group rickettsia.
Many of these are well known candidate BW agents,
and some are exotic agents whir h pose no public
health problems in Czechoslovakia.
The Czechoslovaks are well versed in the techniques
of microbiological aerosols and have conducted
aerosol infection studies on many candidate BW
agents. Th: Czechoslovaks are working on aerosol
phenomena, including cloud physics, industrial gas
cleansing devices, respiratory aerosol penetration,
sampling and filtration of microbial aerosols, and the
differential thermal analysis of aerosols. Some research
on aerosol vaccines has been accomplished at the
Military Medical Research and Postgraduate Institute
(formerly Military Medical Academy Jan Purkyne) in
Brno. k1though the Czechoslovaks were once leaders
in aerobiology, the overall level of aerosol research
appears to appreciably lag behind Western efforts. In
biomedically oriented aerosol. research, however,
excellent work continues to be done by some
individual scientists.
Czechoslovakia has signed and in mid -1973 ratified
the 1972 United Nat; ns convention op the
prohibition of the development, production, and
stockpiling of bacteriological (biological) and toxin
weapons and on their destruction. This convention
permits research with microbial or other biological
agents and toxins (whatever their origin or method of
production) for prophylactic, protective, or peaceful
purposes. Despite budgetary and personnel cuts in the
scientific domain and the signature of the United
Nations convention, Czechc is c:.pc,ied to
continue with research and training in a realistic BW
defensive program.
Research related to chemical warfare (CW) is
oriented primarily towards the study of the
mechanism of action of nerve agents, natural poisons,
and psychotropic compounds. Excellent research on
the pharmacology and toxicity of stereoisomerism of
organophosphorus compounds could well support a
nerve agent development program. Natural poisons,
particularly the bacterial toxins, and the !ial-
lucinogenic plant alkaloids are being studied
extensively. Research on bacterial toxins (e.g.,
botulinum toxin) may lead to the development of such
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toxins as potential CW agents. Much of the basic
research on plant hallucinogens concerns the effects of
indole -based alkaloids on the higher nervous system.
In addition to their studies on LSD -25 (lysergic acid
diethylamide), new hallucinogenic drugs, such as
piperidylglycolates, are being synthesized and tested
Possibly as candidate CW agents.
TO maintain their strong CW defensive posture, the
Czechoslovaks have very active programs for devising
new detection, decontamination, and protection
equipment. More sensitive and mechanically reliable
automatic alarms based on enzyme reaction are being
developed for detection of nerve agents. Work on
detection of aerosols, which might be CW- oriented,
includes scintillation particle counters tuned to
identify defined chemical compositions, chemically
treated membrane filters for spot testing of collected
aerosols, and counters to measure reflected light
impulses from particles. Prophylactic and therapeutic
research for more effective treatment of nerve agent
poisoning appears to have a high priority.
At least five institutes are engaged iu CW- related
research and development: the Chemical Warfare
Research and Development Center 070, which is
collocated with Antonin Zapotocky Military Academy
in Brno; Military Research and Postgraduate Institute,
Brno; Charles University, Hradec Kralove; Zemianske
Kostolany Chemical Plant, Zemianske Kostolany; the
Military Veterinary Research Institute, Prague; and
the Institute of Physical Chemistry, Prague.
The Chemical Warfare Research and Development
Center 070 appears to be the major facility responsible
for the development of personal protection,
decontamination, and detection equipment. Activities
at this facility include development of mobile field
laboratories, CW agent detector kits and alarms, and
thin -layer chromatographic and flurometric tech-
niques for the systematic detection of nerve agents,
mustard, and lewisite. The center directs field testing
of protective equipment at Vyskov, east of Brno. The
Chemical Troops Directorate, which is subordinate to
the Ministry of National Defense, directs the center.
The primary CW research mission of the Military
Medical Research and Postgraduate Institute is to test
the effectiveness of agents and to devJop prophylactic
and therapeutic compounds to protect against agent
poisoning. Research activities include studies on
inhibition of brain acetyleholinesterase by sarin of
reactivation kinetics of sarin inhibited acetvlcholine-
sterase by bisquaternary pyridinemonoaldoximes. The
effects of LSD 25 on the central cholinergic functions
as well as synthesis and testing of new psychotropic
compounds are also under study.
The facility at Zemianske Kostolany reportedly has
laboratories capable of producing up to 100 pilot
plant lots of CW agents. The facility reportedly
conducts research on antidotes for CW agents,
develops chemi;.' agent detector kits, and also
maintains an animal farm for experimentation.
Experimental data are forwarded to the Antonin
Zapotocky Military Academy.
3. Nuclear energy (C)
Czechoslovakia has established a nuclear energy
program restricted to research and the development of
the economic applications of nuclear energy,
particularly the productior of electric power. The
program has been hampere(l rly the limitations of
funds and the lack of some basic materials and
equipment, but it has progressed with assistance from
the Soviet Union. Under terms of a bilateral
agreement for nuclear research concluded in 1955 with
the U.S.S.R., Czechoslovakia acquired a research
reactor, a cyclotron, and aid in the construction of a
nuclear power station. The country also has profited
from membership in the IAEA and the Joint Institute
of Nuclear Research at Dubna, U.S.S.R.
The Czechoslovak Atomic Energy Commission was
established in July 1955 to direct and coordinate the
development of nuclear energy. The actual program is
carried out b a number of scientific, governmental,
and industrial organizations, chief of which is the
Institute of Nuclear Research (INR) at Rez. The
principal facility of the INR is a Soviet- supplied tank
type research reactor, which went into operation in
September 1957. The reactor is fueled with 10%
enriched uranium fuel, and its design power level of 2
megawatts (MW was raised to 4 -5 MW in 1964). The
INR also is equipped with a Soviet- supplied 120
centimeter diameter cyclotron able to produce 8-
megaelectronvolt (MeV) proton and a Czechoslovak
designed 5 -MeV Van de Graaff accelerator. These
facilities are used for research, training, and the
production of radioisotopes. The research programs at
INR include reactor design, basic nuclear physics,
radiochemistry, and the chemistry and metallurgy of
reactor materials and components. In 1966,
construction was begun at Rez on a heavy water
moderated, aatura) uranium- fueled, zero -power
reactor, named TR -O, which was to be used to test
fuel element designs for power reactors of this type.
The TR -O was expected to go into operation in 1970,
but its completion was delayed until July 1972.
The Nuclear Energy Development Section of the V.
I. Lenin Works (Skoda Works) at Plzen designed and
fabricated a zero -power experimental reactor, which
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was inaugurated at Bolevec on 8 May 1970. This
reactor, the SR -OA (Skoda Reactor OA), is light water
moderated and uses IOSi enriched uranium fuel
supplied by the U.S.S.R. This reactor is used for
reactor physics research and to train nuclear reactor
operating personnel.
'Cite Czechoslovaks envisaged an extensive nuclear
power program, and construction of the first nuclear
power station, the A -1, was started in 1958 at
Bohunice, about 35 miles northeast of Bratisla-a. The
A -1 has it gas cooled, heavy water- moderated reactor
fueled with natural uranium with an installed electric
power capacity of 150 megawatts electric (MWe).
Although it was begun as a joint Soviet Czechoslovak
venture, over the vears it became a Czechoslovak
project. The Lenin Works was responsible for the
design and construction of the A -1 nuclear power
station, although the U.S.S.R. supplied the fuel and
heavy water for the reactor. While the A -I was
originally planned for completion in 1961, a number
of difficulties were encountered, and the reactor
finally went critical in October 1972.
Czechoslovakia had planned to base its nuclear
power program on the A -1 -type reactor, and the Lenin
Works established sections at Bolevec, Zatisi, and
Vochov, near Plzen, for research on and development
of nuclear power stations. However, plans for the
construction of additional reactors of the A -I type
have been dropped.
In April 1970 an agreement was concluded between
Czechoslovakia and the U.S.S.R. for Soviet assistance
in the construction of tv o nuclear power stations in
Czechoslovakia, with a total installed electric power
capacity of 1,700 MWe. Each station is to have two
pressurized water reactors of the Soviet Novovoronezh
400 -440 MWe type. The first station is under
construction adjacent to the A -I at Bohunice, with the
reactors expected to t�,e in operation in 1977 and 1978.
The second station i!: to be built near the hydroelectric
power station at Dukovany on the Jihlava River. The
two reactors of this station are scheduled to go into
operation in 1979 and 1980. The U.S.S.R. will supply
the primary plant �the reactors and primary circuits
including steam generators�while Czechoslovakia
%will he responsible for the secondary circuits including
pumps, turbines, and condensers.
Plans call for the construction of 10 additional
nuclear power stations between 1980 and 1990, with
the installed electric power capacity to be 5,(XX) to
7,5(X) MWe by 1985 and 12000 to 15,000 MWe by
1990. It is expected that Czechoslovakia will
manufacture at least part of the primary circuit for
these reactors as well as similar components for export.
12
The nation is cooperating in the Soviet fast breeder
reactor development program, and a group was
established at the Bolevec site for this work.
Construction of the fast breeder type reactors ip
Czechoslovakia is envisaged for some time after 1990.
The principal applications of nuclear energy to date
are the use of radioactive isotopes in research,
medicine, and industry and the production of nuclear
associated equipment. Isotopes are produced at INR
or imported from other countries and are prepared for
distribution by the Institute for Research, Production,
and Use of Radioactive Isotopes, Prague. A number of
industrial organizations are making use of isotopes and
radiation for research, production, and process control
and testing, and a sizable industry has been created to
provide nuclear equipment, including the Chirana
Works in Prague, which manufactures medical
radiation therapy instruments.
Uranium ore has been mined in Czechoslovakia
since 1946, and virtually the total production has been
sent to the U.S.S.R. Several thousand tons of uranium
are sent to the U.S.S.R. annually iii the form of high
grade ore and concentrates. Vast uranium reserves arc
located in central and northwestern Czechoslovakia,
amounting to well over 1000X) tons of uranium.
Czechoslovakia had planned to use its own uranium
resources to fuel its nuclear power reactors. In 1966 the
Institute for Nuclear Fuels and a pilot plant for fuel
fabrication were set up at Minisek. However, the
U.S.S. R. is to provide the natural uranium fuel for the
A -1 reactor and the slightly enriched uranium fuel for
the four reactors being built under the tc as of the
April 1970 agreement.
4. Electronics (S)
Czechoslovakia has a strong electronics research and
(levelopmr:it capability compared with other
European Communist countries, equal to that of
Poland, but slightly behind that of East Germany. In
all aspects of basic research, however, and applications
in particular, Czechoslovakia continues to lag behind
U.S. eft:: is by at least 5 years. Much emphasis is
placed on acquisition of Western technology and
equipment as a basis for improving this capability.
Czechoslovak and Soviet research and development
are closely allied through bilateral agreements. ThA
nationalized civilian industry and the Czechoslovak
Army conduct all research and development within
the framework of a 5 -year program. Plans for the
development of military equipment must be approved
by both the Technical Council of the Ministry of
National Defense and the Soviet Army Chief of
General Staff. Approved plans must subsequently he
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coordinated with the military section of the Counei!
for Economic Mutual Assistance. In 1969 and early
1970, agreements detaiiing scientific- technical
c'ctt)peratlon between the Federal Commission for
Postal Services and Telecommunications of Czecho-
slovakia and tFr Ministry of Communications of the
U.S.S.R. were signed. These agreements provide for
the foilowing: compatibility of automatic telephone
systems control offices with standard communications
n0wo coupe ation in planning of radio and TV
networks; and coordinated efforts in transmission of
color and black and white TV signals, in the design of
cables, and in the constmetion of ground stations for
satellite communications.
Czechoslovakia continues to emphasize com-
muni- ations research and develop;ilent, and is
providing some challenge to Hungary in the
microwave field, especially in the capability to
produce high quality components, such as avalanche
and Gunn diodes, in quantity. The major electronic
research, development, and production facility is the
Tesla Nationalized Enterprises in Prague. Military
radio relay equipment, deployed extensively
throughout the U.S.S.R. and to a lesser extent in other
European Communist countries, has been reported as
possibly developed and manufactured by Tesla and its
affiliated organizations. One of these, the Tesla
Telecommunications Research Institute, Pardubice,
continues to accomplish considerable microwave
research and development work on pulse position
modulation (PPM) and pulse code modulation (PCM)
systems.
Particular attention is devoted to the development
of digital and secure communications systems using
electronic encoding and West German teleprinters.
Tesla developed and produced the 24- channel KPK-
24 PCM system in the mid- 1960's and followed in
1970 with the 32- channel KPK -:32. Another of Tesla's
major efforts is concerned with the development and
production of air traffic control equipment for both
airborne aril ground installations. Automatic
reconnaissance and direction finding equipment was
developed by an experimenta! research institute near
Prague. Microwave measuring and test equipment up
to and including the 8- millimeter band was developed
and produced by the Radio Technical Institute at
Opocinek, also a T-sla affiliate.
The Czechoslovaks continue to develop many types
of electronic components, resulting from a moderate
research and development program on electron tubes
and solid -state devices. Also transistors, diodes, thin
film integrated circuits, and ferrite components are
under development. Silicon products technology, such
as silicon epoxy molding compounds for semiconduc-
tor devices, lag Western Europe by about 3 years. The
Institute of Solid -State Physics, Prague, ;s investigat-
ing noncrystalline semiconductors, including liquid
amorphous and chalcogenide glasses and amorphous
germanium. The degree of success of these studies is
not known, but the knowledge gained will enable
production of transistors by evaporating semiconduct-
ing films of selenium and tellurium which, in turn,
will benefit miniaturization and printed circuit
technology.
Czechoslovak laser research compares favorably
with that of East' Germany but lags in areas of military
device production and hardware development. Since
1963 Czechoslovakia has developed ruby, neodym-
ium- glass, gas, semiconductor (g=allium arsenide)
lasers, and considerable interest is centered on helium
neon lasers. A number of serially produced solid state
and gas lasers have been placed on the market. As part
of its extensive research program in the communica-
tion field, the Institute of Radio Engineering and
Electronics in Prague has studied laser transmissia of
audio signals and modulation and detection of laser
(reams. Applications of lasers in the fields of range
finding, geodesy, mine stnvc :a )phthalmic surgery,
and plasma heating are being res- parched. There is,
however, no evidence of directed energy weapon
development. The first Czechoslovak laser radar,
intended for observations of artificial earth satellites,
has been installed at the Ondrejov Astronomical
Institute rn Prague. The instrument, in operation since
March 1972, incorporated the four -axis tracking
concept developed separately in East Germany, the
U.S.S.R., and the United States. The U.S.S.R.
furnished the tracking mount, and the laser is a
Czechoslovak ruby device rated at about 2 joules with
a 20- nanosecond pulse every 10 seconds. The Institute
of Radio Engineering and Electronics is investigating
the communications potential of lasers.
Most of the avionics equipment being used in
Czechoslovakia was obtained from the U.S S.R. and to
a lesser extent from Western countries. Nevertheless,
Tesla has been involved in the design of both airborne
and ground installations for air traffic control, and
their effort has concentrated on the development and
production of precision approach radars.
The Aviation Research Institute (NU) is reportedly
developing certain instruments for the Czechoslovak
designed L-159, a delta wing tvinjet, low -level attack
aircraft. Details are sketchy, but the work possibly
involves the development of such equipment as an
instrument which would constantly plot the aircraft
13
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position on a d;-;play device in the cockpit, airspeed
indicator, a laser altimehc,, an autopilot, and a flight
recorder.
Metra Electrical Measuring Instruments Company
was reported to be manufacturing electronic
countermeasure equipment designated "1Vobler."
The equipment employs a sweep method which
constantly changes frequency and can be operated via
remote control from the pilot's compartment.
The Czechoslovaks have developed and deployed
the only operational ground -based ELINT time -of-
arrival system in use in the world. It has been in use at
least 5 years. Front three or more ground sites, quite
accurate locations of U.S. or West German radars can
be obtained if coincident intercept can be obtained.
The advanced ground sites are connected with a
direction finding processing center by video link
operating at K gigahertz. Designed by the Military-
Technical Directorate and operated by the military
exclusively, the system has only fairly recently received
greater Warsaw Pact recognition. It has been deployed
along the Czech German border and represents a
rather considerable investment and technical
accomplishment in the passive electronic counter-
measure/ EIANT field.
The czec�hoslovaks have displayed originality and
high capabilities for designing digital computers, but
the completion of prototypes and initiation of
production in industry have been too slow to provide
computers competitive with foreign models. Heavv
dependence on foreign systems is still necessary to
rivet many normal domestic needs. Since the early
1960's, important work has been underway in the
military sector, for example, in modern command and
control procedures, yet no field military automatic
data processing systems are known. The Ministry of
National Defense has at least two research centers
concerned with the development of computers,
applications techniques, and specific problems of
logistics, training, and related military activities.
The main adiniaisirative authority for Czecho-
slovak computer activity is probably the Ministry of
Industrv. "I'he Research Institute of Mathematical
Machines (VUMS), Prague, is the primary design
facility and the most important contributor to
Czechoslovak computer research and development. It
has developed excellent peripheral equipment; its tape
readers are the hest in the Warsaw Pact countries; its
line printers are in domestic use and exported to the
U.S.S.R.; and punchcard equiiinnent is used in various
army installations ;or control of spare parts and similar
logistic applications. Basic research is conducted also
by the CSAV's Institute of Information Theory and
Automation, Prague.
14
Products of the VUMS have included a variety of
special- purpose, data processing devices and a large,
high- precision analog computer called ANALOGON,
but the most important results have been the small
general- purpose MEDA analog computers, the small
general purpose digital computers SAPO, EPOS -1,
EPOS -2, "ZPA -600, and its smaller version ZPA -200,
the MNP -10, and the DP -100, a small punchcard
computer. The most recent Czechoslovak digital
computer, the third generation ZPA- 600G/30, is
claimed to approximate the IBM 360/30. Other
analog computer developments have been the AP .3M
and the AP -5. Czechoslovakia also has maintained a
strong capability to develop input /output equipment
for digital and analog machines.
5. Medical sciences (S)
The high quality of research in the medical sciences
can be readily discerned. The CzecEoslovaks maintain
a superior level of competence, surpassing that of the
other East European counties ii, most fields and
qualitatively equal to that of the U.S.S.R. in
rnicrohiology and pharmacology. Despite the lack of
well equipped laboratories and limited research funds,
results achieved are remarkable. Productivity has been
inhibited to some extent by the Soviet intervention in
IWS, and since that time prominent scientists have
been d--prived of key positions as institute heads and
leaders of research. Major contributions are being
made in microbiology, biochemistry, physiology,
pharmacology, and radiology.
Microbiological science is at a very high level.
Research utilizes biochemicai, biophysical, organic
and physical chemical, morphological, and math-
ematical approaches. Major -work is done at the
Institute of Microbiology. Academy of Sciences,
Prague. Tasks include study of cellular formation and
reproduction, controlled proliferation of microbial
populations, and genetic systems in life processes and
in regulation of physiological states of the cell. Some
of the best efforts are in the field of continuous
fermentation. Fundamental studies have been
contributed to the production of single cell protein by
fermentation of petroleum hydrocarbons. Research in
the immunology of infectious diseases is especially
productive. Czechoslovakia's computerized epidemic
diseases surveillance system is recognized as one of the
best in the world and has served as it pattern for
adaptation by other countries. Research workers have
succeeded in producing germ -free animals. Work on
staphyloc�ocei and related infections is on a par with
that done. in Western countries, including the United
States. The group -working with insect hormones for
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control purposes is ane of the largest and best of its
kind in the world. Virology research is excellent on the
structure of viruses, the incidence of tick -borne viruses
of Europe and Asia, the development of vaccines, and
the production of interferon. The major center for
virolog} work is the Institute of Virology in Bratislava,
which is a WHO r' F iona) Reference Laboratory for
A rbovi ruses.
Investigations in radiobiology include a well
planned and executed study of the comparative
radiotoxic and cancerogenic effects of radioisotopes as
related to isotope half -life. Fine res ^arch is underway
on the metabolism of isotope labeled blood
components, the distribution of radioisotopes, the
effects of whole -body irradiation, the genetic code,
and modeling of living processes. Interesting studies
are underway on the use of enzymes in the treatment
of radiation sickness to neutralize radiation doses and
on the cardiovascular effects of radiation damage. The
country is shorthanded in laboratory personnel, but
many radiologists have received ex--ellen training in
hoth the United States and Western Europe. An
important center lm- radiation work is the Institute of
Biophysics and Nuclear Mcdic:ne, Charles University,
Prague.
The high standard of research in biochemistry can
be attributed in part to the fact that a large number of
Czechoslovak biochemists have been trained in the
United States. The scientists are bright and
imaginative, but they are severely handicapped by
shortages and inadequacy of equipment. Biochemists
are contributing exceilent studies on the fractionation
of immunoglobuiins, an understanding of the
problerns of transplantation immunology, the effect of
physical factors on blood during extracorporeal
circulation, and the physiological effects of
electromagnetic irradiation. Important contributions
are being made in the analysis of protein and
polypeptide structures and the partial ss- nthesis of
enzynies. There are genetic studies of i.ulustrially
useful organisms to isolate desirable antibiotic
producing strains and to develop a systen to regulate
production of nucleic acid and protein mac
ronolecules. Extremely pure and highly active:
enzymes have been isolated.
Research in pharmacology is given high priority and
is directed primarily to support of the drug industry.
The Institute of hygiene and Epidemiol-gy in Prague
is pursuing a program for the eviduation of
pharmacological agents, a program which exploits the
facilities of the Central Computer (,enter of the
Institute of Applied Mathematics, Prague. hoposals
have been made to WI 10 to formalize standardization
of drug assessment procedures. The pharmaceutical
industry has four specialized research units in addition
to 13 production enterprises. A major center of
investigations is the Research Institute. of Pharmacy
and Biochemistry, Prague. The nation is one of the
worlds largest developers of ergot alkaloids, and
research on these agents is directed to their action on
central regulation of physiological functions.
Research in the field of chemotherapy of cancer
involves analysis of selective toxicity of agents in
cancer cells. Chemical approaches to cancer control
are very sophisticated. Czechoslovakia has done good
vvork on antimetabolite development, and its
competence in organic chemical synthesis of drugs is
of the same caliber as that of the United States.
Difficulties are eecountered in obtaining reagents and
chemicals. Other areas of attention are psychophar-
macological agents, prophylaxis of upper respiratory
infections, radiopaque agents and steroids
Abie and imaginative work is being contributed in
physiology and neurophysiology. Research personnel
are well trained, but laboratory equipment is difficult
to obtain. The Department of Physiology has
developed a technique for assessment of subjects
suffering from a varietv of neurological, physiological,
and psychophvsiolOgical disturbances. Collaborative
studies with the United States in this area are being
initiated. Some good equipment, imported from West
Germany, is available for the study of pulmonary
functions. Wide recognition has been given to
Czechoslovak work on the physiology and pathology
of the nervous, muscular, and reprod fictive systems
and mechanisms of adaptation to stress. Exhaustive
study has been made on the limits of human
endurance when subjected to extreme physical and
mental stress under laboratory and real conditions.
Physiologists have done fundamental research on the
effect of long -term hypoxia on the human heart.
Clinical research is of good quality. Research on
medical electronic devices must depend on the use of
imported materials. An important clinical study center
is the Institute of Clinica! Experimental Medicine in
Prague which now incorporates the rormer institutes of
experimental therapy, human nutrition, cardiovas-
cular research, arid experimental grid clinical surgery.
An Advanced neurosurgical clinic, established at the
Faculty Hospital in Hradec Kralove, is equipped with
West German as well as native instrumentation.
Czechoslovakia has made a major contribution to the
development of a soft contact lens. Important studies
are being made by the Institute of Human Nutrition
on the nutritional value of local foods.
29
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Military medical research, of ^ood quality but
limited in scope, is conducted in both military and
C; ::pan facilities. Principal military medical research
facilities include the Institute of Aviation Medicine,
Prague; the Institute of Radiology arid the Military
Research and Postgraduate Institute, Ilradec Kralove;
the (ventral Military Hospital and the Military
Institute of Hygiene, Epidemiology, arid Mi-
crobiology, both in Prague. The major fields of
military medical research include operational aviation
medical� neurophysiological and psychological
aspects, hypoxia, hyperventilation, and hypocapnia (a
reduction of the amount of carbon dioxide in the
blood) reiatc.: :o flight safety in high performance
aircraft, and on weightlessness; wound healing; drug
induced radiation immunity; protection against
ionizing radiation and BW; CW agents; diagnosis and
treatment of brain tumors; drugs to counteract the
effects of I.SD; arid research on viral diseases. Benefits
are also de�ived from civilian- conducted research and
development having military implications. The
general attitude of military medical personnel toward
in- service research is favorable.
6. Other sciences
a. Chemistry and metallurgy (S)
The :zc_hoslovaks have an outstanding capability
in chemical research. "Their publications presently
account for 2; of the world's chemical publications,
slightly more than Poland but less than the U.S.S.R.
The research program is %yell diversified, covering all
of the important branches of chemistry. Both
fundamental and applied aspects are included, arid
much of the applied research is directed toward
meeting the needs of the expanding chemical industry.
Most of the fundamental chemical research is
conducted in the universities arid in the marry research
institutes of the CSAV, while most of the applied
chemical research is conducted at the numerous
research laboratories and institutes associated with
chernicai and other industrial plants under the
government ministries. In addition to the universities,
the College of Cherical "Technology in Prague :,.rod
the Slovak Technical University are important centers
for fundamental cherical research.
Cze choslovakia k strong in organic chemistry,
including organic synthesis and physical organic
chemistry. Mucli of the country's organic chemical
res� _-arch is done in support of the substantial organic
chemical industry, which is interested in organic
intermediates, pharmacologically active compounds,
agricultural chemicals, dyes aril pigments, aril high
16
polymers. Excellent organic chemical research is dons
at the CSAV Institute of Organic Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Prague. At this institute, the countrv's
most outstanding organic chemist, Dr. Frantisek Sorm,
had done extensive research on steroids, the structure
and function of proteins, the preparation of
cancerostatic agents for leukemia, insecticidal esters,
and recently on natural and synthetic materials with
insect hormone activity. In cooperation with his
associate, Vlastimil Herout another prominent
organic chemist, he has done considerable research on
the isolation, identification, preparation, and proof of
structure of terpenes and other plant substances.
Some of the foremost synthetic organic chemical
research is done by Miroslav Protiva and his colleagues
at the Pharmaceutical arid Biochemical Research
Institute in Prague. Their work on pharmacologically
active organic compounds has included studies on the
synthesis of tranquilizers and antidepressants,
antihistamines, analgesics, and various heterocyclic
compounds containing sulfur and nitrogen. The
College of Chemical Technology in Prague maintains
a strong research program in org, me chemistry,
including studies on asymmetric reactions, reactions in
the pyridine series, and liquid phase catalytic
hydrogenation of organic compounds including
r- 'udies with sulfide catalysts). Also physical organic
investigations are done on alkaloids, amino acids, and
peptides by Karel Blaha, an authority c �r organic
nomenclature His work includes infrared and nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy, stereochemistry and
conformation analysis. Extensive work on or-
ganoydicon compounds has been conducted by
Vladimir Barant at the CSAV Institute of Chemical
Process Fundamentals, Prague.
.11�c is significant work at Charles University on
anhydro s,igars, at Palacky University on alkaloids,
and at the Slovak 'Technical University on organic
peroxides and isothiocvanates. Otto Exner at the
Hevrovsky Institute of Physical Chemistry and
Electrochemistry, Prague, is prominent in research in
physical organic chemistry including studies on
inductive effects, dipole moments, structure and
configurLtion, and additive physical properties of
organic compounds.
Research on organic polymerss has reached
%ionificant proportions. The most important research is
done at the CSAV Institute of Macromolecular
Chemist in Prague and at the Research Institute of
Macromolecultir Chemistry in Brno. Otto Wichterle
and others at 0w CSAV institute have clone extensive
work on vinyl polymerizations, the polymerization of
caprolaciam to polyamides, degradation of polymers,
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chemistry of steelmaking, refining (including basic
oxygen and direct reduction), continuous casting, the
statistical analysis of metallurgical processes, and
quality control. Extensive studies of foundry
technology, including solidification studies, elimina-
tion of casting defects, and molding sand practice,
have been conducted. Ferrous physical metallurgical
work has included the development of high silicon
electrical purpc �A steels and means to produce them,
the investigation of stainless steels for high
temperature service, the study of the transformation
kinetics in high- strength, low -alloy steels, the
development of nickel -base, high temperature alloys
for aircraft gas turbine applications, and the study of
thermal mechanical treatment to improve the strength
properties of structural alloys. On the latter subject,
the Czechoslovaks apparently have not reported the
notable improvements in strength claimed by the
Soviets.
Extensive research has been done on metalworking
and processing. Recent work has included the effect of
deformation rate on the hot rolling and forging of steel
products aril on the extrusion of steels and nonferrous
alloys. Extensive welding research has been carried out
at the Welding Research Institute in Bratisiava. This
facility is one of the premier welding research
establishments in the world, arid it compares very
favorably with the Paton Institute in the U.S.S.R.
Research activities have hicluded the development or
investigation of various welding proce ,es, the
development of electrodes and fluxes for welding,
welding rnetallurg and weldahaity, and the surfacing
of large components. This institute is quite active in
the study of electroslag welding, it development
studied initially here rather than at the Paton
Institute. Considerable research on the welding arid
fracture mechanics of gas line pipe is currently
underway at the Welding Institute. The facility has
also conducted extensive studies on the creep, fatigue,
and brittle fracture of weldments and base metals.
A significant amount of research on the corrosion of
low -alloy steels, stainless steels, arid aluminum alloys
is undertaken. Past research has involved the study of
pitting and stress corrosion cracking of stainless steels
anci the atmospheric attack and stress corrosion
cracking of low -alloy steels. Liquid metal corrosion
studies have also been undertaken, but the extent of
the research has not been large, suggesting that the
Czechoslovaks are not engaged in a strong effort to
develop fast- breed.rr nuclear reactors.
Extensive research in nuclear metallurgy has not
been observed, although the Lenin (Skoda) Steel
Works has researched pressure vessel alloys arid
is
fabrication techniques for reactor vessels in pressurized
water reactors. The Czechoslovaks do not have a
strong independent nuclear power program, but they
are cooperating with the U.S.S.R. aril other CEMA
members i;o nuclear power reactor dev ^lopment.
Czechoslovakia is to supply some of the conventionai
components for the four nuclear power reactors being
supplied to Czechoslovakia by the U.S.S.R. and is
supplying components for other Soviet power reactors.
The research program on nonferrous metallurgy is
much more limited than that in ferrous metallurgy.
The bulk of the effort has been directed toward
mineral benefication and the refining of aluminum
arid copper. Some alloy research has been done on
aluminum and on magnesium, and appreciable
research on titanium and its alloys was done in the
past. Over the last few years, efforts in titanium have
dwindled significantly.
The amount of fundamental research has continued
to increase over the past 3 years, and excellent work on
crystal growth, atomic structure, defect structures
(disloc- it ions and stacking faults), magnetic and
electronic properties, creep, and fatigue have been
conducted. Extensive research in the fundamentals of
creep and the effect of dislocations on creep in various
alloy systems has been conducted by J. Cadek of
CSAV's Physics of Metals Institute at Brno. Similarly,
excellent work on the role of dislocation mow� :nents in
the three stages of fatigue has been carried out by Petr
Lucas of the Institute of Metallurgy. Recently, there
has been considerable emphasis in combining the
results of such creep and fatigue studies to obtain an
improved understanding of fatigue and creep
interaction and in developing improved d.amag^
criteria, a subject upon which many millions of dollars
will be spent in the coming decade in the United
States. This topic is extremely important to fast
breeder reactor technology and to high- temperature
petrochemical processing.
b. Physics and mathematics (S)
t:eseareb in fundamental physics appears to be
somewhat stagnant in Czechoslovakia. Most of the
specialists who have gained national and international
reputations over the years appear to be continuing
their old research activities, doing routine investiga-
tions and conducting other physics research that
should he classified as applied in nature. Approxi-
mately one -half of the research in physics is being
devoted to solid -state investigations. Research in the
broad fi ^Id of optics, which include electrooptics,
spectroscopy, arid interferometrv, absorbs about 20%
of the physics research efforts. Nuclear physics in both
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polymer properties, and hydrophilic polymers, which
are of interest for coniact lenses.
Increasing emphasis has been placed on bio-
chemistry. The Institute of Organic Chemistry and
Biochemistry has a large group working on nucleic
acids, amino acid sequence of proteins, effectti of
antibiotics, protein synthesis, and enzymes. Charles
University is active in research on hormones,
acetylcholinesterase (enzyme) activity and lipid
histochemistry.
Significant work is done in sweral areas of physical
chemistry in addition to the previously mentioned
work in physical organic chemistry. The Mass
Spectrometry Laboratory of the CSAV Institute of
Physical Chemistry is investigating the kinetics and
mechanism of diazo coupling, which is of interest in
connection with azo dyes. The Jaroslav i teyrovsky
Institute of Physical Chemistry and the associated
Ileyrovsky Institute of Polarography are active in
research on polarography, electrochemical reactions,
fuel cells, and reaction kinetics. The major universities
conduct research in physical chemistry.
Important research is done at several facilities in
inorganic and analytical chemistry. Outstanding work
on the chemistry of scandiurn, gallium, lanthanum,
and other rare earth elements has been carried out by
Frantisek Petru at the College of Chemical
Technology, Prague. The chemistry of copper
complexes has been studied at the Slovak Technical
University. Good research on instrumental methods of
analysis is done at Charles University, Comenius
Universih, the College of Chemical Technology, and
the Ileyrovsky institutes. The Nuclear Research
Institute at Rez is concerned with analytical and
inorganic cl problems related to the processing
of nuclear fuels and with rad iv I reactions,
plutonium chemistry, flo'rine ciarmistr and the
properties of uranium co;:pounds.
The Institute of Inorganic Synthesis, also 'Known as
the Laboratory for Special Inorganic Chemistry, Rez,
has done extensive research on the chemistry of metal
and boron hydrides. During 1960 -65 this institute
cooperated with the U.S.S.R. in a research program
directed toward the use of boron hydrides, such as
pentaborane and decaborane, and hydrazine
monoborane as components of liquid rocket fuels. The
staff of this institute is continuing to do outstanding
research on the chemical and physical properties of
hydrides, but thL- current work does not appear to
involve military applications.
The geographic area in which Czechoslovakia is
located has long been noted for its capabilities in
metals production and metallurgical technology. This
history extends back to the 19th century. Despite
being overrun in two World Wars, copquered by both
the Germans and the Russians and presently under
p litical domination by the Soviets, the capabilities of
the Czechoslovaks in metallurgical technology have
continued to expand. Yet Czechoslovakia is a h nd-
locked country that does not have the native resources
to support a complete metallurgical industry.
Nevertheless, from the standpoint of metallurgical
technology and innovation, Czechos vakia ranks well
above the other Soviet bloc countries such as Poland
and East Germany. In some areas of technoiogy, the
Czechoslovaks rival the Soviets.
The metallurgical research and development
program is of high quality and well funded, but it is
concerned primarily with the metallurgical products
of economic importance to the country. As a
consequence, the research is directed principally
toward improving processes for producing steel
products and toward improving the quality of the
metal products produced. Considerable research is
directed also toward refining native nonferrous ores,
particularly copper ores.
Metallurgical research and development programs
are undertaken at government laboratories under both
the Ministry of Metallurgy and Engineering and the
CSAV as well as at plant laboratories. Some
metallurgical research is also conducted at universities
and technical coiieges, but the research at such
educational facilities is far less impressive than that
done at the government and plant research
laboratories. In contrast to the other Communist
countries, extensive metallurgical research is done in
plant research laboratories, such as those connected
with the Lenin (Skoda) Steel Works in Plzen, the
Klement Gottwald Steel Works in Ostrava, and the
Vitkovice Steel Works. Such work at the plant facilities
has been applied and directed chiefly toward the
improvement in processes and in product quality,
although a significant amount of basic metallurgical
research has also been undertaken in such facilities.
Research at the CSAV facilities has been basic in
nature while that at the Ministry of Metallurgy and
Engineering's Research Institute of Ferrous Metal-
lurgy in Prague has been more of the applied type.
Research at universities has been fundamental in
nature.
All reas of metallurgical technology important to
the Czechoslovak economy are covered fully while
those not important to the economy are not researched
to any significant degree. Recent research on steel
production has included ore benefication, briquetting
and sintering, blast furnace reactions, the physical
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high and law energies is proceeding at a surprisingly
low rate of effort amounting to only about lO i of the
total effort. The remaining interests and activities
involve plasma physics, quantum electronics, and
acoustics.
The major portion of wsearch in solid -state physics
is divided between that being conducted at the
laboratories of Charles University arid the institute of
the CSAV. The work being done at the university
represents crystal studies on single crystals aril
crystalline structures in alloys. Primary interest
involves the studies of stress variations and strain -rate
changes. The most prominent investigator heading
those studies is Dr. M. Saxlova. Other activities on it
low level at Charles University involve studies of
material mechanical properties, field theories,
aluminum oxide- structures, X -ray diffraction of solids,
cadmium telluride rectifier characteristics, and
electron correlations and susceptibility of glasses.
At the CSAV institutes in Prague and Brno, a
considerable effort is devoted to lattice mechanics arid
the concepts hording to development of semiconductor
devices. Although there are indications that some work
is being done with germanium structures, silicon
materials are being emphasized. This is shown by the
research dealing with tunneling spectroscopy induced
by local modes and measurements in In -SiO2
degenerated p- silicon junctions. ;Metal oxide
semiconductor (MOS) si.nuctures are also being studied
to determine the influence of surface treatment of
silicon on the effective impurity charge density. The
Czechoslovaks are also conducting a large amount of
applied research in connection with semiconductor
film structures. Recrystallization and crystal structures
of evaporated films and thin film properties of metal
and liquid films are Icing studied. Same good research
is underway dealing with control of semiconductor
insulator interface characteristics in metal insulator
conductor (MIS) systems. A limited amount of
research associated with semiconductor materials is
being pursued at the College of Chemical Technology
at Pardubice which involves germaniwn -duped
(Sh2Te3) _rystals. The small amount of research being
conducted in magnetics in Czechoslovakia indicates
that the Soviets predominance in assignments of the
Council for ECanaruiC Mutual Assistance is very
effective.
Approximately one -half of the research heing done
in optic.;, electrooptics, photometry, spectroscope, and
mterferomet occurs at the institutes of the (:SAV.
r
Investigations are concerned with the study of
electrooptical properties of ferroelectrics front the
standpoint of birefringence arid temperature
dependence. Work along this line is also underway in
connection with stress induced hirefringence as related
to phase transitions in potassium dihydrogen
phosphate (KDP). Both radio frequency and solid
state spectroscope are receiving some attention at the
CSAV �the first is being explored to develop
instrumentation needed for measurement of electron
nuclear double magnetic resonances and the second
for development of particle spectrometers. Czecho-
slovak specialists in the application of spectroscopy
appear to be skilled in the use of Auger spectroscopy in
their studies of silicon surfaces. Research in
photometry is at a low level and shows a casual
interest in calibration and ph :toelectric receivers. The
research in interferometry is industry- oriented and
involves the use of lasers as a coherent source of light.
A limited amount of research, which may be expanded
later, is being conducted at the CSAV on optical
information storage in potassium chloride and
bromide crystals. This latter interest is connected with
the development of holographic instruments and
techniques.
Czechoslovakia appears to be deemphasizing basic
research associated with the nuclear sciences. Since the
institutes pursuing research in nuclear physic% have
undergone reorganization, their activities have been
curtailed significantly. At the present time it appears
that a limited amount of high- energy research remains
tinder the CSAV, Charles University, and the P. J.
Safarik University, Kosice. Much of the research deals
with subjects concerning the operation of betatron and
accelerator facilities. Some theoretical studies have
been reported on pion nucleon coupling analyses at
the CSAV. Some work has been done on the study of
noncentral effects of nucleon transfer functions at the
.,SAV, which indicates that some past work is being
reviewed. Models are being formulated that deal with
excitation functions arid isomer ratios of kwon
reactions, with some extension of the subject being
:arned into studying the interference effects in pionic
decay of neutral kaons. At Safarikovo University, some
contributions have been made in determining particle
energies for collisions by using track visualization
observed in photographic emulsions. Inelastic
scattering he energy radiated from dysprosium
isotopes of high energy deuterons is it subject of
research at Charles University. Research in the low
energy phases of nuclear physics is at a low level and
generally deals with experimental studies in the use of
research reactors.
The remaining sub brunches of physics, those which
show very moderate interest an(] progress, involve
magnetohe(Irodynamics (Mill)) aril plasma, physics
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superconductivity, quantum elo cronies, and acous-
tics. Most of the plasma and MHD work occurs at the
institutes of the CSAV. The studies involve microwave
energy absorption effects of pulses on inert gas plasma
columns, transverse wave penetration into plasma,
beam- plasma interactions, and plasma diagnostics.
With regard to quantum electronics, the Technical
University of Prague appear to have developed
significant capabilities probably aimed at developing
lasers for communications. At the present time, laser
specialists are studying means for single-mode
modulation by using acoustic waves. Others at the
Technical University are studying frequency shift
techniques which can lead to development of better
means of frequency control. In acoustic%, scattered
efforts are indicated by the few studies reported on
shock and detonation, vibrations, and oscillations.
The central interest appears to be the state of real gases
following primary and reflected shock waves and their
structures.
Mathematical research is strong and is of good
quality and of substantial quantity. The mathemati-
pal capabilities of the Czechoslovaks appear
sufficiently strong so that they can be expected to
continue to do well in this field. Their continued
productivity in spite of social upheavals is also a good
indicator of this prospect. The range of subjects
treated is wide, with recent emphasis being placed on
analvsis (especially ordinary differential equations),
logic (including graph theory), geometry, statistics,
numerical methods, and applications (such as
mathematical programing, information theory, and
automatic control). The overall output of research
may have slackened in recent years, but the output of
mathematics applicable to other fields seems to be
increasing. The Czechoslovakian performance of
mathematics research is not much behind the
outstanding performance in Hungary, but the
emphasis is more toward applications.
Mathematical activity is centered in the universities
and in the mathematics institutes of the CSAV, which
publishes five journals oriented toward the subject.
There is evidently a good effort toward maintaining
communication with mathematicians throughout the
world so that Czechoslovak research is often published
in Western and Eastern Europe, the United States,
and Asia.
Little recent information is available on computers
in Czechoslovakia, but the f cquency of papers on
numercial analysis and applications indicates that
computers art receiving substantial attention. Thev
are being used for control of industrial processes. In
many respects, compute- software developed in the
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country is more advanced than that in the U.S.S.R.
Currently Czechoslovak computers come from the
United Kingdom, France, the U.S.S.R., and the
United States. The U.S. computers are usually
obtained through the United Kingdom and France,
although some U.S. computer firms, for example,
Hewlett Packard and Uarian, are exporting directly to
Czechoslovakia. Also, IBM has a sizable share of the
market.
c. Astrogeophysical sciences (C)
(1) Astronomy Astronomical research is competent
but generally is not .outstanding. However, the
country enjoys an international reputation in
cometary and meteor astronomy, and except for the
U. S. S. R., it is the leading East European country in
solar research. The science of astronomy enjoys a high
standing with the general public, and there are about
50 public observatories and several planetariums in
Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak Astronomical
Society, comprised of both amateur and professional
astronomers, is a respected organization. and there is
astronomical activity in several of the universities.
Professional research is guided by the Scientific
Board of Astronomy, Geophysics, Geodesy, and
Meteorology of the CSAV -SAV. One primary center of
activity is the Astronomical Institute of the CSAV,
Prague, which includes the Ondrejov Observatory,
about 40 km. southeast of Prague. The second
principal center is the Astronomical Institute of the
SAV, Bratislava, and its Skalnate Pleso (Rocky Lake)
Observatory on Lornnicky Stit. Both the Ondrejov and
the Skalnate Pleso observatories are equipped for
stellar, solar, and cometary and meteor astronomv.
The largest instrument is a 2 -meter reflecting telescol')e
at Ondrejov, useful particularly for stellar spectros-
copy. The Skalnate Pleso Observatory has a solar corona
station on the summit of I.omnicky Stit. There is also a
network of about 22 all -sky camera stations
distributed thrc,ughotr; Czechoslovakia for deter-
mining the trajectories of large meteors and to aid in
locating any resulting meteorites.
Astronomical research includes some theoretical
cosmology and celestial m echanies and both
theoretical and observational galactic and stellar
astronomy. However, the principal areas are cometary
and meteor astronomy and solar research, in which
both the Ondrejov and Skalnate Pleso observatories
engage. Theoretical studies and optical and radio
observations are made. In the solar area, the major
effort is at Ondrejov, whore emphasis is on the study of
solar flares in which there is cooperation with the
U.S.S.R. and the West. There hits also been a
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Czechoslovak Commission on Solar- Terrestrial
Physics, and studies in this area, as well as on other
aspects of solar -esearc!). are conducted by the
Geophysical Institute of the CSAV, Prague, and by
that of the SAV, Hurbanovo.
(2) Space science and aeronomy �Since the
beginning of space activity, the space science effort
has been directed principally to satellite tracking. The
country participates in the Soviet- sponsored
INTEROBS optical tracking program for the
determination of short -period changes in upper
atmospheric density and in various Soviet- or Western-
sponsored photographic tracking programs. The
Ondrejov Observatory has cooperated also with the
U.S.S.R. in making photometric observations of
satellites, including the study of atmospheric optical
properties and aerosol and ozone distributions.
Czechoslovakia is one of the principal participants
in the Soviet sponsored Intercosmos cooperative space
program of the East European Communist countries.
It has provided some of the instrumentation for, or
otherwise has participated in experiments involving,
several of the Soviet launched satellites of the
Intercosmos series. These vehicles, the first of which,
Interkosmos -1, was launched in October 1969, have
had various missions, including solar, cosmic ray,
magnetospheric, and ionospheric research. A recent
contribution by Czechoslovakia was the provision of
some of the instrumentation for Interkosmos -8
launched in December 1972 to make ionospheric
observations. Czechoslovakia also participated in the
cooperative solar and ionospheric experiments
conducted by means of the high- altitude geophysical
rockets Vertikal -1 and Vertikal-2, launched by the
Soviets in 1970 and 1971, respectively. In addition, it
has cooperated in developing instrumentation for
Soviet meteorological satellites and is a party to a 1971
agreement by tf East European Communist
countries to establish the Soviet sponsored com-
munications satellite system.
Czechoslovak research in the disciplines relating to
the high Amosphere is competent but not
internationally prominent. Cosmic ray observational
activity is centered in the Institute of Experimental
Physics, Kosice, of the SAV. It has a cosmic ray
laboratory on L.omnicky Stit and has cooperated with
the U.S.S.R. in making observations in Antarctica.
The principal center for ground -based ionospheric
research is the Geophysical Institute of the CSAV,
Prague, which has ionospheric observatories at
Pruhonic and at Panska Ves. Research includes the
making of vertical incidence soundings, investigations
of ionospheric structure, and radio -wave propagation
research. The Upper Atmosphere Department, Prague,
of the Astronomical Institute of the CSAV conducts
airglow research and is active in twilight -sky studies of
the aerosol content of the upper atmosphere. Ground
based phmometric observations are made at the
Ondrejov and Skalnate Pleso observatories, and
twilight sky measurements have been made from
aircraft and from stratospheric balloons in cooperation
with the French.
(3) Meteorology� Meteorological research in
Czechoslovakia is not outstanding. That conducted by
the Hydrometeorological Institute, which is headquar-
tered in Prague, is predominantly in climatology and
synoptic meteorology. Similar type research is done
also by the Institute of Meteorology and Climatology,
Bratislava, of the SAV, and in the universities. The
Hydrometeorological Institute has also done a small
amount of numerical forecasting research. The
Institute of Physics of the Atmosphere, Czechoslovak
Academy of Sciences, is located in Sporilov. The
institute conducts research on general circulation of
the atmosphere and also conducts studies in dynamic
climatology, physics of the clouds, and precipitation
and the boundary layer of the atmosphere.
Czechoslovakia is one of the three countries in Europe
with the greatest air pollution. Atmospheric physics
research is playing an important role in improving the
dissipation of smoke stack gases caused by a sprawling
power engineering, metallurgical, and chemical
industry.
(4) Terrestrial geophysics and geology�Czecho-
slovakia exhibits a high level of competence in
terrestrial geophysics, particularly in seismology. The
most important center is the Geophysical Institute,
Prague, of the CSAV. Other principal centers are the
Geophysical Institute of Charles University; a center
of the SAV, Hurbanovo; and the Institute of Applied
Geophysics, Brno. Czechoslovakia has major
geomagnetic observatories at Pruhonice;, Budkov, and
Hurbanovo, and a seismograph network with
instruments at Pruhonice, Prague, Kasperske Hory,
Bratislava, Srobarova, Hurbanovo, and Skalnate
Pleso. In addition to the network station, there is an
experimental subterranean station at Kasperske Hory.
In research on geomagnetism, the study of solar
influences on the geomagnetic field is emphasized.
However, work is done also on geomagnetic
pulsations, in making aeromagnetic surveys and
preparing geomagnetic maps, and in paleomagnetism.
Magnetotelluric (earth) current observations have also
been made in studies of the deep geological structure
in Czechoslovakia.
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Seismologists of the Geop' ,,cal Institute of th_
CSAV are doing significant research on the seismicity
of Europe and the classification of European
earthquakes. They have made major contributions to
the European Seismological Commission with regard
to these topics, including cooperation with other East
European countries in the deep seismic sounding of
the Carpathian- Balkan region. This institute also
emphasizes the study of the propagation of seismic
waves and is active in terrestrial heat flow research.
Research in exploration geophysics, including deep
seismic sounding and ultrasonic well logging, is
conducted by the Institute of Applied Geophysics.
Geophysical prospecting is done also by the Mining
Research Institute, Prague, of the CSAV, and by other
organizations.
Some scientific geological research is conducted by
the Institute of Geology of the CSAV, Prague, and by
that of the SAV, Bratislava. However, the
Czechoslovak geological effort is directed primarily to
mineral prospecting. This effort is coordinated by the
Central Geological Institute, Prague, which is
analogous to a national geological survey. The
institute cooperates in this work with various other
geological as well as geophysical and mining activities.
It is engaged in a long -range program to explore the
deep geological structure of the north rim of the Alps
and of the Carpathians. In addition to the search for
minerals, this effort is directed to locating potential
subterranean heat sources. Plans for the development
of geology in Czechoslovakia until 19130 have been
prepared also under the auspices of the Central
Geological Institute.
(5) Geodesy Geodetic research capabilities in
Czechoslovakia are slightly behind those of Hungary
and East Germany and are considerably behind those
of the leading countries of Western Europe and the
U.S.S.R. The Research Institute for Geodesy,
Topography, and Cartography, Prague, the most
modern and best equipped geodetic fat.ility in the
nation, is the leading center for both theoretical and
applied geodetic research. Geodetic studies are geared
primarily toward applied research and have covered
many fields of geodetic triangulation and leveling.
New first- through fourth -order triangulation and the
ucified leveling networks have been con
Research and experimental studies have included the
problems of measuring errors. the determination of
related elevations in mountainous regions, and recent
movements of the earth's crust.
As a member of the East European Sub
Commission for Satellite Geodesy, Czechoslovakia
participates in geodetic observations and studies based
22
on these observations. The country has assisted the
United States and France with their geodetic satellite
programs and is participating currently in the
dynamics program and the International Satellite
Geodesy Experiment. Research activity has focused on
the adjustment of spatial satellite nets, the
determination of the shape and dimensions of the
earth from satellite and terrestrial data, and the
reduction of satellite observations.
Activity in geodetic astronomy has led to the
development of a new method of comparing clocks
with microsecond accur -cy using image synchroniza-
tion impulses of television transmissions. Czecho-
slovakia's 5 -year plan (1971 -75) calls for the
determination and solution of problems of latitude for
geodetic and astronomic purposes.
Gravimetric studies have included the downward
continuation of gravity to a reference surface, satellite
orbit computations using gravity anomalies,
fundamental gravity parameters of the earth's figure,
and the structure of the earth's gravity field derived
from satellite data. Problems concerning tidal
observations and systematic observations of earth tides
below the surface of the earth also have received
considerable attention.
Dr. Milan Bursa is prehably the best known
geodesist in the European Communist countries. His
contributions include the determination of the
Czechoslovak ellipsoid and research in using satellite
geodesy to determine �.hr Figure of the earth, both
independently and combined with classical methods.
Bursa works closely with Dr. L. P. Pellinen, a leading
Soviet scientist who investigates the combined use of
gravity and satellite data.
(6) Hydrology and hydraulics Czechoslovakia is
one of the leading East European Communist
countries in hydrologic and hydraulic research. The
research is predominantly of an applied nature and is
directed toward full utilization and control of water
resources for hydroelectric energy, irrigation, domestic
and industrial water supplies, improvement of inland
waterways, and flood control. The principal
organizations conducting this type of research are the
Institute for Hydrodynamics of the CSAV in Prague,
the Hydrologic and Hydraulic Institute of the Slovak
Academy of Sciences in Bratislava, and the Research
Institute of Water Economy in Prague.
Research in hydrology is directed toward the
problems of determining precipitation- runoff
relationships, long -term discharge forecasts, flood
^ontrol, dynamics of suspended and transported
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SECRET
sediments, ground -water flow characteristics through
various media, hydrokinetic problems encountered in
removal of radioactive substances from wastes of
uranium processing, and methods of pollution control.
In hydraulic research, efforts are concentrated on flow
turbulence; design of shaft spillways, stilling basins,
and gates; load pressures on locking installations;
vibration and cavitation effects on turbines; and
construction of pilot plants for water treatment and
pollution control. There is an increasing use of
numerical and analog computers for handling
problems of water resources and economy. Czecho-
slovak engineers have been successful in devising
methods and instruments for measuring snow density
by radioactive emission; detecting leakage through a
dam b; salt tracers; and plotting water stage,
discharge, and velocity hydrographs.
Czechoslovak hydrologists and hydraulic engineers
are very active in national and international
professional organizations and meetings. Some of the
professional engineers have served as consultants on
Glossary (u/ou)
ABBREVIATION FOREIGN
h) Arologic and hydraulic problems in several less
developed countries.
(7) Oceanography �Land- locked Czechoslovakia
has no significant oceanographic capability; however,
some oceanographic work has been carried out. The
most important marine science organization is the
Biological Institute of the CSAV's Hydrobiological
Department at Prague. It is conductiYAg studies on
plankton, bottom ecology, and chemistry of the Black
Sea. In additon, Charles University is doing some work
in geolotcal oceanography.
Czechoslovakia has not been active in international
oceanographic organizations. It cooperated, however,
with Cuba in Caribe Uno, an undersea habitat
experiment, which took place from 17 to 20 July 1966
off the Cuban coast near Havana. A later experiment
has not been reported. The cylindrical habitat,
carrying two scientists, was designed and built in
Czechoslovakia. The goal of this experiment was
investigation of biological effects of prolonged
submergence on man.
CSAV......... Ceskoslovenska Akademie Ved...........
IUGG........ Mezinarodni Unie Geodezie a Geojyziky..
SAV.......... Slovenska Akaderlia Viet
VSLU......... Vyakumny r Skusobny :Iecky Uatay.....
LVU.......... Letecky Vyzumny Uatav
'SUMS........ Vyzkumny Ustav Matematickych Slroju
Mezinarodni
.SECRET
ENGLISH
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences
International Union Geology and Geo-
physics
Slovak Academy of Sciences
Aeronautical Research and Testing
Institute
Aviation Research Institute
Research Institute of Mathematical
Machines
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
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