NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 32A; YEMEN (SAN'A'); THE SOCIETY

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CONFIDENTIAL
32A/GS/S
Yemen
April 1.973
NATIONAL IN
CONFIDENTIAL
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pleted by January 1973.

YEMEN [SAWAY)
C;ONTEN�TS
This General Survvy suprrsedes the une dated
June 1070, Copies of which should be destroyed.
A. Historical background
1
Early cultures; introductiou of [~lain, division
into soots; Turkish occupation; gover, nt after
World War 1; overthrow of Imams; effects of
1962 revolution; royalist republican rapproche-
ment.
B. Structure and characteristics of society 4
Gradual changes; pcnsistence of old patterns.
1. L:thnic and culture groups 4
Arab groups; Qahtanis, Adunnis; descendn tits
of Africans, Malays; 7.aydi, Shnfn sects; cmi-
gration of Jews.
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2. Tribes 8
Political importance; definition; confedera-
tions; leadership; role of sheikh, council, (ladi.
3. Family
Importance of the extended family; status of
women; rules governing marriage, divorce;
expected effects of modernization.
4. Social classes
Lack of uniform status symbols; sayyids;
ularna; tribesmen, sheikhs; merchants; artisans;
sharecroppers, farm laborers; dushans, ahadiru,
akhdaaav; former slaves.
5. Community organization
"Urban" settlements; San's'; villages; farm-
land; nomads, serninomads.
6. Basic values and attitudes
Conservative traditions of tribesmen; venera-
tion of family and tribe, blood feuds, attach-
ment to land; attempted reinterpretation of
values by republican government; Zaydi-
ShafN friction; urban -tribal differences; re-
gionalism; Adnani- Qahtani animosity; strength
of nationalism; xenophobia; attitude toward
Arab nations, world developments.
C. Population
Estimated size, growth rate, effects of immigra-
tion, emigration; increase in longevity.
1. Size and distribution
1972 estimate; growth of urban areas.
2. Age -sex structure
D. Employment
1. The people and work
High proportion of agrarian workers; employ-
ment of women; underemployment and un-
employment; poor work discipline; working
conditions.
2. Labor organizations
Development, cidtural impact of labor unions;
leadership problems; accomplishments.
E. Living conditions and social problems
1.. Levels of living I
Obstacles to social development: unequal dis-
tribution of wealth; low personal incomes;
Increases in living costs; substandard housing.
2. Welfare services
Traditional methods: mutual assistance within
family and tribe, royal dole, zakah, karamah;
republican government policy.
3. Social problems
Low incidence of crime; incidence, effects
of qat- chewing.
F. Health
Page
28
C. Religion 32
22 Importance of Islam, its place in the 1970 consti-
23 tution; major tenets of Islam; Yemeni conserva-
tism; folk beliefs, superstitions; saints' cults;
23 Zaydi, Shafi% Ismaili sects; religious policy in
the republic; Christians; Jews.
1. Endemic diseases
28
10
2. Nutrition and sanitation
28
24
a. Diet and food supply
28
ISffects of malnutrition; typical diet; neal-
11
nutrition in women; feeding of children;
24
1960 -70 food shortages; foreign aid; Min-
24
istry of Agriculture projects; distribution
40
problems.
b. Environmental sanitation and hygiene
29
1,4
Problems in water supply, modernization
25
efforts; lack of sanitation control measures;
Inadequate sewerage.
43
15
3. Medical care
30
27
Health care under the Imamate; republican
health programs; role of superstition; Ministry
45
of Ilealth activities.
a. Medical personnel
31.
Statistics on Yemeni, foreign doctors; other
medicul personnel.
b. Medical facilities
31
1.9
Increase in hospitals, dispensaries; aid
from international organizations; foreign
aid; overcrowding of hospitals; poor sani-
20
tary conditions; availability of medicine.
C. Religion 32
22 Importance of Islam, its place in the 1970 consti-
23 tution; major tenets of Islam; Yemeni conserva-
tism; folk beliefs, superstitions; saints' cults;
23 Zaydi, Shafi% Ismaili sects; religious policy in
the republic; Christians; Jews.
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11. Education
36
EdLcation under the Imams; the kuitab; repub-
24
lican school program; curricula; Ministry of Edu-
cation goals; statistics on literacy, school enroll
rnent; education )f girls; study abroad poor ac-
24
ademic environment.
24
I. Artistic and cultural expression
40
Architectural forms; handicrafts; contributions to
classical literature; importance of poetry,
diwans theological literature; folktales; folk
25
music, dances.
J. Public information
43
Development of television, radio, newspapers,
27
books, and periodicals, telecommunications.
K. Selected bibliography
45
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FIGURES
a
4 c
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Page
Fig. 1
Bronze statue from Sabaean temple
Fig, 2
(photo)
Ruins of Sabaean temple photo)
2
2
Fig. 3
Representative Yemenis photos)
6
Fig. 4
Selected tribes and tribal confed-
26
Fig, 20
erations map)
9
Fig. 5
Yemeni couple marketing photo)
11
Fig. 6
Veiled townswoman photo)
11
Fig. 7
Tortured Yemeni woman photo)
12
Fig, 8
Mounted sayyid in ceremonial dress
33
Fig. 24
(photo)
13
Fig. 9
Yemeni tribesmen photo)
13
Fig. 10
Mud -brick "skyscrapers" photo)
15
Fig, 11
Wadi Dahr agricultural area (photo)
16
Fig. 12
Camel drivt r in Al Hudaydah
37
Fig. 13
(photo)
Population density, by province
18
Fig. 28
(table)
20
Fig. 14
Density of population map)
21
Fig. 15
Distribution of population and
40
Fig. 30
area (map)
22
:gig, 16
Population, by age group and sex
41
Fig. 17
(table) 1.,,..
U.S. and Yemen age -sex structure
22
(Chart)
23
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Fig. 18
Multistoried home of a wealthy
tribesman photo)
26
Fig. 19
Village in the Tihamah, with con-
ical thatched huts photo)
26
Fig, 20
Homes of wealthy merchants photo)
27
Fig. 21
Modern housing (photos)
27
Fig. 22
Facilities at the Al jumhuriyah
Hospital (photos)
32
Fig. 23
Muslims kneeling for prayer (photo)
33
Fig. 24
Bedouin woman from eastern Yem-
en (photo)
34
Fig. 25
Boys learning to write photo)
37
Fig. 26
Structure of the educational sy.
tem (chart)
37
Fig, 27
Enrollment, by type of school table
39
Fig. 28
Enrollment, by type of school and
province table)
39
Fig. 29
Classroom interior photo)
40
Fig. 30
Exterior of an ancient house in
Dhktmar photo)
41
Fig, 31
Old silver bracelet and necklace
fashioned by bedouins (photo).
42
Fig. 32
Minstrels using typical instruments
(photo)
43
Fig. 33
Yemeni list wing to radio photo)
44
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The society
A. Historical background (C.)
I)vs lit c� ;I I III g IIist(I r as an ;uttollonulo, political
("'fit Yell 1t�n is only II(m c�\Iwric�tic�iIit; t tatIic,l
(;tit( ()l lr:tn Irons a traditio lit I lriI)i �it�I\ I(
nto H IV rII. III i I n:Itinu slide 1111t( iutll prt�donti-
uanllN \I;cll. %IItJlIli, ;uld triI)aL the pc�oplt� ;iru
(I i\idc�d In ancient rc�iii;ious. 114Wi;IL ;IIld (.111 Ilic
(liffc�rc�nc�c�s. I'c rh;tp, its nt:un :t, I11', :trc� non,%rah in it
racial if nos c�(tltnr:ll citw. c�11tc�tli \tu,litn, arc� ,plil
lilt() 1m) major rk al sects and it nlinur ()uc�: prc�- Mantic�
r�lit4iou, ht�lit�f,. Ili( lrc�oct�r. I ry 1 ill Irong. The triIit
an� ;11,,1 c�harac�tt�ri /ed 11\ c�ontrasliIIg. lil ,I 1 ;111(
I( itit;II lct\allic s. and rural trihc� n ll;i%c little in
c�o1(1(1o) \title lomn,nu�n \do II lit rg �l fret of tribal
a rl�, :tit II rcculttti)it :Ind cisil \car in IIic�
16160l r. tl,(� u( nttn nr�di(�\;11 oh,c�ur;utlist Ill( nucrc�h
v, ;IN r�111:tced h it ((�public� I ,c Ic:ulc r, Ili t\t� t�d
Io brim; the nation clot of tl,c� \1iddlc� :1gv% and inlo
Ihc� 20t cenlur littt lift for must lc�t11rni Ila, not
c-IIi(II;(.(I- In Iflt� (�()untr s dc \\l,(�rc ;Ilnrtl,l t ()1 tltt�
pt�oplt� rt�sidc, subsistence farming and hc�rdi11>; rc�nuli11
the Mail "evm1nntic� pursuits, the trihc a lantil\ are
the nr1,l i nip orlattl (wiiul mtits. and IsEunicc
lundanr�ntalisnt c�oot ill ul�, to hind Set a\.
1,
vii rl ;t, lltc� lint ntillenniltnt 13.(: ,the S;tha(;ut
(-lilt iii-c. c�rtttured it Ili it and to Ilse ,(lull, c1f' II,(.
pr�sviii republic�, a, tl,c� rids( acic:utcrcl in 1l,(-
lrthi:ut I'euin,ul:I (I figure 1 i. (ate ,tall,. n()tabl
Ma Saba. Qaluhan. and II I(IrantaitI, \\c�r� at the
huh of it trading 11et\\ork \%hic�h Arc�tc�hc�d (runt Ilu�
N,1al;t\ archipelago and the Indian pr- nins(tl,l t(t the
Fertile (;rewc�ttt. Knossu a, S;tl )ae;uts. the irthabi fit 11t
elf the cilx ,lad(�, built their c k ilizohon upon profits
dcrked Irons trading. C tillural achievcntenls.
although not ;I, impressive ;t, those of the Fvrtilc
Cr�-weiit, included tht� opnu'nt I' it rt�f'iu(�d
soutl,ern Scmitic languagc ar(1 of ad\ancecl buil(Iing
tech Ili( Iucs. ewutphfied b,. thl� (arid(), dim :tt \l ;I*rib.
For c11acrilw, Ult plact II:IIIIP, b4' die tot of IIaltIP at dw tilt of
(tic halltrr and the mall, in lilt� t(r,t.
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op
FIGURE 1. Brorze statue discovered in the temple of
'llumguh, the Sobaeon ?ample dedicated to the moon
god (U /OU)
"flit� Yenienis' "anarchic disposition," evident
throughout their IIisttlry, was l:Irgel responsible fur
the decline of the Sabaean civilisation. I ?aelr city slate
jealousl\ guarded its irtdepeudence. anal ssarlare was
conatrtcnt. Although Saba -known also w,, Sheba-
contluerecl much of southern Arabia in the third
century, the region :vas never ;r Irtte lwlitica! unit.
I finally, ha the sixth centatry, s\eakeued h\ constant
strife and the loss of trade, the S;abaeans were
conc{uered by invaders from I ?thiopi;a, and Yenaen
entered inr:, att "t-pocli of front which it has
yet to recover.
Religion has :alwaa\s played an int;rortant role in
sharing Yemen's Itislarry. The religion of the S bava its
(Figure which provided the b;tsis for political order.
was displaced, in tun, by judaaism. Cbristi;anity, and
Islam, all introduced throaaglt invasions front the
north. Although Islam quickly bec�aine the predoink
nant religion, two major sects were introduced which
continue to divide society. At tau early date. Yemenis
ill the southern highlands and coastal plains bec�;atue
Sunni Muslims of the Shafi'i school: hater, ill the ninth
century, followers of the %aydi sect of Shia Islam
settled in the northern highlands and established a
a
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FIGURE 2. Ruins of Sabaeon moor,
god temple, near Ma'rib, capital of
ancient Sheba (U /OU)
dw(wmtic� stile govc rned h a religious le:, I r or
Inuun. Conflict developed. haled upon the poker
ulai the %avdi Imam. and fur over 10 centnrics
the more pu\cerful %:t\dis vwrciscd carving degrees of
IwLenunty over the Sh:ih'is.
I- 'oreign iutcrvention in Yenu�n was intermittent ;otd
never al a level cchich affected irtdigennus political
and sc,c�ial structures. Inc�ursiotts were Mode b\ the
I�:g\pti;tns ill the 12th centnry ;md by the Ottoman
iffks in the I (it It century. 'I'll( period of Ottonr:ut
fit genrc,n\, \\IIich heg:ut in 151 ;ti id la until 1918,
Icfl little Lost iiig imprint un Yenieni (wietx. In Bart
)ec�atIse only it snutlI 1>urtiuu of the c�onutry \gas
uccupiecl� ustutll\ the nutjor cities -and hcc�attsc
Turkish trunks mid offic�iuls were only sporulicallc
stationed in the couutrv. Thus. until 191 Ycir it'll 's
political histc,ry c\as c�hnracterized by brief interlude"
of strung rule, either %;tvdi or Ottonuot, separated by
lung peri (if' near inarc�h\. Thrortghout this chaotic
era. ho\ever. the ;,veraLe Yemeni was rarely distctrhed
h\ political unrest: social order wits provided hs the
family and the tribe %hich educated nee+ nu�mbc�rs
abet conunandcd basic� emotional loyidtics.
;Attempts by the Turks to inyx it strong c�olnui;tf
rule tended to unite the 'Lavdis and Shafi'is and to
stinrrulate active resistance. lit the litter part of the
Kith centrtrv. followiug the arris;d of it large 'Turkish
expeditiollur\ force. the 'Lavdis uud ShidFis rallicrd
hehiud (,)asini. it popular %a\cli Inruun later known as
Q, tsint the Crectt, sshu forced the 'Turks to agree to it
truce and to recognize the partial authority of the
'Laydi kingdom. I- rout thc� 1 th century to the ntid-
191h centnry the Ottoniuns showc(l little interest ill
their southern ;lrabimi culunc. This period coincided
\\ith it general decline in the importance of the ki di
Intutnts and with the growth of it flourishing coffee
trade with 1Vesteru I'ii ropc�an ,nereha.nt nations,
particularly I�,ngaand. After the opening of the Suez
(:anal in 1969, the Ottomans developed it rene\yed
interest in Yemen and, in 187 I. rcoc�cupied the capil;tl
of' S,ut';t'. Once again Ottonum imperialis: unified
the Yenccuis. who, under the leadership of the kaydi
lmwn. it pious and orthodox descendant of Qasint the
Croat known us YaFtva al Miitit \yit kiI ala ;\Ilah (the
Helier on God), onc�eagain limited Turkish hegemony.
\Vid) the departure of the Turks after their defeat ill
Vurld War I. Inuan Yahya becinne tl ruler of at
independent `tetncn. At the srtggestion of his advisers,
Yahva set up it Western style government including a
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Prime Minister and a cabinet but, in reality, only the
imam had the power to govern. His regime, which
continued until his death in 1948 by an assassin's
mullet, was characterized by isolation and .n almost
total rejection of 20th century technologies arid the
amenities of Western civilization. Fearing that too
many material benefits would undermine faith in
Islam and that too many new ideas would
compromise the Imamate, Yahya either banned or
severeiv restricted the importation of radios,
telephones, cinemas, printing presses, books,
automobiles, and medicines, and opposed the
construction of factories.
Nevertheless, contact with the outside world was
impossible to avoid, and some Yemenis were exposed
to modernizing influences. As a result. discontent with
the country's autocratic theocracy grew, particularly
among Yemeni exiles. in the rnid- 1940's, a "Free
Yemeni" organization was formed for the express
purpose of overthrowing the Imam. Yahya was
succeeded by his son Ahmad, who proved more
reactionary and tyrannical than his father; he staved
off numerous assassination attempts and fought a
relatively successful rearguard action against the
modern world. Ahmad's son, Muhammad al -Badr,
was more liberal than either of his immediate
foreb, and promised to institute wide ranging
refom s upon assuming office. However, his reign,
which lasted only l .week, was ended bv a coup on 26
September 1962.
The 1962 republican revolution and the ensuing 8
years of civil war �which produced a great loss of
human life and widespread devastation �ended
Yemen's isolation From the modern world and
destroyed the old patriarchal, theocratic framework of
the state; political reform, however, did not lead
automatically to economic development or to social
change. some change has been effected, but the
regime is still seeking new political and social
directions. This search has been complicated by the
civil war and by the fact that Yemen has virtually no
modern tradition of its own; accordingly, the country's
leaders are forced to rely on foreign concepts and
institutions which often are unsuitable to Yemeni
conditions.
The end of the civil war and the royalist- republican
rapprochement of 1970 may lead to greater stability
and permit concentration on domestic development.
The inclusion of former royalists of conservative
persuasion in the government of the Yemen Arab
Republic indicates that radical social experiment will
riot be seriously pursued. In any case, there is little
evidence to suggest a systematic attack on the essential
4
features of Yemeni society- -the relatively rigid class
system, the subservient status of women, the abject
poverty, and the entrenched tribalism. Although
Westernization and increasing foreign contacts are
slowly thrusting the nation into the modern world,
Yemen for many years will be a primitive, fractured
land, brutal in its physical aspect and torn between
adherence to an ancient past and acceptance of a
more dynamic future.
B. Structure and characteris --s of society
(C)
After the overthrow in 1962 of Yemen's ancient
Imamic government, .which had held the country
together for centuries, civil war and revolution
combined to disorient much of the population, alter
traditional social institutions, and set in motion new
forces capable of changing the conventional style of
Yemeni life. Since the 1962 coup, the old ethnic,
tribal, class, and family structures have been steadily if
not systematically eroded, and new institutions, such
as labor unions, have been created to fulfill new needs.
In the context of Yemeni society, these are radical
developments, but their effects should not be
exaggerated. The weight of tradition is heavy, and it is
doubtful that the cultural patterns of most of the
population have yet been affected by the revolution.
Most Yemenis retain a deep attachment to the land
and to the social patterns which derive from a
subsistence agricultural econorny. The tribe and the
family continue to receive primary emotional
loyalties, and ethnic, religious, and cultural rivalries
remain strong. Furthermore, in the absence of
effective central authority, evident throughout much
of the republic's existence, the age -old patterns of life
in large areas of the country have tended to persist,
reflecting well- established, often imam- oriented
habits and traditions.
1. Ethnic and culture groups
Successive foreign conquests and migrations have
markedly affected Yemen's population. In the
highlands, the inhabitants are almost entirely a
mixture of various Semitic peoples, .vhile the residents
of the Tihamah, the hot, hurnid coastal strip along the
Red Sea, are of diverse racial origin. As a result of this
intermixture, physical types vary (Figure 3). 'Fite
Arabs, most of whom live in the highlands, are divided
into two fairly distinct groups �those of southern
Arabian and those of northern Arabian origin �each
with differing physical characteristics. The Yemenis of
I
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y
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southern extraction, known as Qahtanis (descendants
mixed freely with the coastal Arabs and are
of Qahtan or )octan in the Old Testament.
are
generally believed to he descended from the
OCcasionally kn a% "Afro- Arabs.'
ancient
discernible s
Himyaritie and Sabaean peoples who inhabited the A r the arger dto type is
in c
villa the
pre Islamic empires of Yemen. In 2246 B.C., 'Tihamah. Traditionally
according to legend, Qahtan migrated from
assumed to he of
Malay origin,
Hadramawt to Yemen where lie introduced
peons of this tyoc have been described
as short in
agriculture and architecture. Although intermarriage
stature, with broad faces, wide noses, and
dark
between the Qahtanis and the northern Arabs 1w
skin. A very old community of people known as
the Hajur is found
occurred, thus blurring considerably the physical and
distinctions betw "pure"
also in part of the Tihamah and
the southern highlands. Although of indeterminate
Q genealogical -2en them, Borne
ahtanis are still found in a few remote southern
origin, some arc probably descendants of black
African
mountain villages. The Qahtanis are generally darker
slaves, while others may be related to an eic,n. the rtu�reh:u,ls represent the� 11p1erstnotnnr
c,( urban sc,cich and perf()rru the major leadership role
in the shah'i c�orutnunit'. The\ have assunn d
inipurt:urc e cnl\ iuce the 19i0 s, bill A prescit %%ield
eeusidcrll>le e�(ouc,nlic po\%vr. with the emphasis
upon c�ortntc�rce and b:trikins; hicl', follostied in till'
\rake of the revol ill iort. the status cf ll'nr< ni
1 )11siuessilleri has clonhtic ss iic�reascd.
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ri"UKt U. Mounted sayyid in ceremonial dress (U /OU)
FIGURE 9. Yemeni tribesmen wearing jambiyahs. The
jambiyah, or dagger, is the symbol of manhood. (C)

Artisans rarzk considerably lower than merchants.
Their lesser status is caused in part by the belief that
nonagricultural labor is demeaning. The small artisan
class is stratified into various trades, each with
recognized status and each headed by a sheikh.
Carpenters, cohblers, dyers, weavers, goldsmiths, and
silversmiths, among ot:iers, are most often tr ained by
their fathers and pass tiv.ir skills on to their sons; it is
thus exceptionally difficult to move from one trade to
another. Often, in tae case of Yemeni Jewish society
which once supplied many of the skilled craftsmen-
and possibly that of Arab society as well, the name of a
particular trade was associated with the whole family
engaged in it, or every displaced the family name.
A step below the artisans are the share.�roppers and
paid farm laborers who till the fields for landowning
tribesmen. Their number apparently increased during
the latter years of the imamic regime because of
stringent taxation and the need to forfeit land in
payment of debt. Nearly comparable in status are the
dushans and shadins �the eulogists and minstrels
who attach themselves to particular tribes or wander
from place to place singing of heroic deeds and
satirizing enemies.
At the bottom of the social ladder are the akhdams
and the former s!aves, both predominantly non -Arab.
The akhdarn, a despised class drawn primarily from
Negroid and other non -Arab elements, are employed
as farm helpers, domestic workers, stevedores, porters,
water carriers, or in other menial tasks; some aklidam
w omen are singers and dancers. Slaves, legally freed in
IW2, were mostly Negroes or "Afro- Arabs." In many
respects the small slave class fared better than the
akhdarn. The term "slave" was not an epithet, and the
institution was generally benign; in sonic cases the
slaves were better fed and clothed than free men and
were spared hard agricultural labor. Many slaves were
held in high esteem by their owners, treated as
members of the family, and placed in positions of
trust. Upward mobility was possible, either through
manumission or through appointment to a prestigio s
position. In the republic, the generally impoverished
condition of x- slaves, as well as their skin color, makes
it difficult for them to move up the social ladder, and
many probably continue in the service of former
masters.
5. Community organization
Most Yemenis are sedentary and live in settlements
ranging in size and complexity from dispersed mud
huts in remote mountain areas to sizable communities
containing large villas, and even palaces. The physical
layout of most Yemeni communities has not changed
14
in centuries but modification of community patterns
may be extxcted as economic and political de-
velopment proceeds, as tribesmen slowly gravitate
toward the cities and towns, and as governme
programs expand into the villages.
Mast of the large communities are located in the
southern half of the country among the detribalized
Shafi'i. The numbe! of settlements qualifying as cities
or towns is unknown; in tine late 1960's, however, it
was estimated that only 1 I% of the population were
"urban." A medieval atmosphere still surrounds many
of Yemen's sizable communities. 'Cities are enclosed by
wails built originally to protect the inhabitants from
marauding tribesmen, and massive stone and mud
brick houses (dars), rising six to seven stories, are often
constructed on the fortress principle (Figure 10). These
houses are frequently interspersed with whitewashed
mosques and small walled gardens, 1 it virtually all
towns it is customary for tribal and other groups, each
with local officers, to live in separate quarters (harahss
which not Infrequently mirror the tribal organiz
of tLe countryside. In Al iludacdah, the Afro -Arab
servant class liv in grass tins in its own residential
area while. the Arabs live in masonry houses in
another section. Artisans are also loosely organized
into harahs, although with the creation of new
industries occupational segregation may be expected
to become less common.
San'a' traditionally has peen divided into three
major sections, which partially assume the character
of separate towns: I Qa'ah al- Yahud, formerly in.
habited solely by J ews; 2) Bi'r a!- 'Azab, the resi-
dential quarter b uilt by the "Turks, inhabited
mostly by members ol the royal farnily and other
wealthy citizens; and 3:) San'a' proper, the commercial
center of the town where the majority of the people
live. The capital city is further subdivided into smaller
quarters harahs) consisting of groups of 10 to 50
houses, each headed by :ur agil, an unpaid taut
respected community leader who helps to manage
neighborhood affairs.
19ost Yemenis live in small villages of 1.3 or more
houses situated near arable land (Figure I I In the
highlands, villages are 1-vrched upon hilltops or
located in the valleys. T!ic inhabitants are most often
herder cultivators; ho\cever. a few nonfarm villages,
the residents of each specializing in it different craft or
trade, arc: reported in southern Yemen The village,
which has been described as the "geographical seat of
a clan -like unit," may be composed of compact,
tightly grouped clusters of houses or of scattered
dwellings separated by farmland. Many larger villages
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contain from. 50 to 100 dwelling units. with duly three
to four entrances for the entire group. 1t the Bani al
I larith tribal area north of San'a', walled gardens are
conlnlon; inside each wall is a house and sotnetitnes a
tiny village. The gardens are usually irrigated, hilt
nonirrigated fields also are fanned outside the walls.
As in towns, class and tribal divisions affect the
physical layout of the villages, with the ruling
tribesmen often living in large, favorably situated
houses which overlook the harmers' mild hats sprawled
at their base.
Most farmland is owned individually or by the
tribe �one source reports that 9W(', of the farmers own
their land. Although a few ahsetntee landowners, are
said to nla,intatin substantial holdings and a few large
tracts were reported near Al lludaydah in the 1960's,
farms of ever 300 acres are rare and the average is said
to he 2.6 acres. The larger plots are often worked by
day laborers. A typical farmer in the Bani al !-larith
area is limited to about 1 acre, while the paramount
sheikh owns about 1,000 acres out of at total of .1,0()0 to
6,000 acres. Farmers in this area have heredRary land
use rights but must of the crop to the tribe.
Highland farms are e .'ensively terraced. The tern-ees,
many of them constructed centuries ago, are often
only it few feet in width and require considerable
community cooperation for their upkeep. In the flat
'rihanlah, where terracing is unnecessary, a primitive
but intricate system of dams, dikes, and levees is
maintained for channeling the periodic flow of water
from the mountain wadis onto the fields.
The migratory habits and community structures of
the nomadic and serninomadic population in Yemen
have not been investigated. It ntav he assunned that
their culttral patterns are closely related to, yet
distinct from, the permanently settled agriculturalists.
The semirlonads are sheep and goat herders whose
large flocks require some seasonal migration. 'They
usually occupy tnuv.h smaller territories than true
nomads, as their wanderings are limited by
attachment to perrrnanert settlements for most of the
year. Genuine nomads, the becfouin, rarely engage in
agriculture; they wander continuously through
extensive although definite territories.
6. Basic values and attitudes
The cornnon core values customarily designated as
Yemeni are largely the traditional values of the' avdi
tribesmen which reflect three plain forces Islamic
tradition. tribal law and custom, and awareness of a
Yemeni identity. Islamic tradition fosters a profoundly
conservative spirit which infuses every aspect of
society. It is grounded on tilt- morel and legal precepts
of the Koran and the Sharia which, until 1962, served
as Yemen's unwritten constitution. %aydi interpreta-
tions of these works encourage belief in the
innutability and virtue of traditional ways, foster
reverence for the wisdmn of the past, and promote the
pleasures of paradise over the struggles of earthly
existence.
Patterns of authority and community life
sanctioned in the tribal ethic reinforce this
conservative outlook. Mary of the most highly prized
virtues are found in the urf, it collection of unwritten
15
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FIGURE 10. Mud -brick "skyscrapers" (dors) and a
mosque rising above a narrow street in the capitol
city of Son'a'. Note the inscription praising Allah high
on the building at left. (U /OU)

I,r usages, aid traditions pasucl (),.;III\ front
genenttion to goner +tio \hove :Ill. the c\lended
furaifr is senor; 11 .11,11 its honor and reputation
:herished. "'itltiu the I, niik. interpersonal rel;ttion-
ships corttiactc to he goverrtcd hs respect for age :curl
authority. Be\oncl lhc� faatil\, the tribecornnutn(ls the
loy.tlty of its nu�ndwrs and represents the largest soci;d
unit to which trih,cl Yemenis feel a morul obligation.
An indiVi(Inal's honor is closek ;tssoci;cted \cith th;tl of
the c\lcnded fantil and the tribe, and if a Yenu�ni
acts di.shonombly he disgnurs not )Il l s Itintself hctl
also his kin. On the other h;utcl, il' the I'amik or the
tribe consi(ler that the\ bare been crongecl b\ ;ur
o(ttsidcr �and Yemeni tribesnteo are quick to lake
offense ul real or imagined slights redress most be
made.
WV irfarc� has been pruc ticnll a of life anuntg
tribesnua. ..'hose loge of fighting is s;tirtant traditional %elfare activit
undertaken b% the government was the ro-al dole,
which consisted of food and money for the aged and
the infirm, for religious leaders, and for worthy
individuals who had served the Imam. The sums
dispersed were relatively large, paitiealarly in San�a'.
The dole, however, rested entirely on the whim and
generosity of the Imam, who personally directed
payments to families and individuals. These grants
usually erased with the recipients death. mother
traditional program was institutionalized in the form
of the zakah, one of the "five: pillars of Islam," which
makes personal gifts to the needy incumbent upon the
heiiever and includes a religious tax paid to the
government for charitable works. A lesser Islamic
injunction is karamah (generosity), an esteersied
attribute of a Yemeni chief, who is expected to provide
aid and assistance to the inembers of his tribe.
The mpublican government, preoccupied with the
aftermath of the civil war, has not vet entered the
welfare field with a deliberate policy, although Article
35 of the 1970 Permanent Constitution guarantees
FIGURE 18. Multistoried home of a wealthy tribesman, San'a'
plateau. Lower floors are made of mud, upper floors of brick.
Note drain spouts and urine troughs projecting from walls. (U /OU)
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i
Yo
FIGURE 20. Homes of wealthy merchants along the
waterfront, Al Hudaydah. Balconies are common in
coastal cities. (U /OU)
that the state will "sponsor welfare for children, the
disabled, and the aged." According to a U.N. study,
any attenipt to develop a coniprehensive social
security system will encounter "conceptual difficul-
ties, inadequate ;administrative structures and
personnel, poor coordination of policies and programs,
and generally meager financial resources."
3. Social problems
Crime is not considered a major problem. Within
the traditional social carder, a family's honor is judged
by the actions of its members, and inost Yemenis are
loathe to disgrace their families by contmitting
jmrnoral or antisoci:.al acts. Them traditional
inhibitions, however, do not apply to acts of violence
committed as a result of a blood feud. juvenile
delinquency is thought to be largely deterred by strict
parental control.
The few crime statistics compiled in Yemen are
considered unreliable. Records kept by the Ministry of
Interior for the period 1064 -70 indicate that rol)bery
was the most common offense. These records,
however, fail to include many offenses committed in
the name of blood feuds, as well as crirries perpetrated
during the civil war. Yemenis convicted of crimes face
harsh sentences. Decapitation and the amputation of
limbs have been conimon penalties for serious crimes,
but the government is moving to introduce more
humane forms of punishment. Prisons are medieval;
only in 1971 did the government order that prisoners
not be chained in their cells.
The use of narcotics such as opium, morphine, and
heroin is largely unknown, but qat is eliewed by an
estimated 75% to 90^i of the male population and
25% of the female. It is obtained from catha edidis, a
small nonflowering shrub whose leaves, when
masticated, produce narcotic -like effects. The usual
practice is to chew the leaves for hours, often in the
conipany of a large group of friends, continually
{racking sprigs into a ball inside the cheek, thereby
producing it temporary feeling of well being and
mental alertness.
Little is known about the social effects of chewing
qat, although a niental health adviser to the World
Health Organization (WIIO) has concluded that "qat
has contributed to the stability of the conununily by
socializing leisure time and inhibiting aggressiveness.
Nonetheless, from a medical and economic
standpoint, (jai chewing is harniful. Whether or not
the drug is addictive in the physiological sense is not
FIGURE 21, Modern housing. Because of poor construction, most
of the newer structures will soon become dilapidated.
Apartment house, To'i:: (U /OU) Housing project, Al Hudayclah, built originally to house Soviet
technical personnel (C)
2
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known; however, its use has been linked to such
disorders as headaches and constipation and to it
getteral loss of resistance to various diseases. The long
term chewer is marked by pale skin, protruding eves,
and a general deterioration of bodily functiots. As a
result of its popularity, the amount of acreage devoted
to qat has increased at the expense of exportable crops,
such as coffee. Furthermore, qat consumption deprives
tits individual Yemeni of important earnings which
could best be spent upon basic necessities. long qat
sessions have severely restricted economic production,
and one observer has estimated that for every potential
worker, from 1,823 to 2,190 produvtive hours are lost
each year. In May 1972 the government ordered all
qat shrubs destroyed; it is doubtful, however,
considering the economic and social inaportanc�e of
qat, that such drastic action will he taken within the
near future.
F. Health (C)
1. Endemic diseases
Although data on the incidence of disease ill Yeutctt
are scarce, it is known that infectious ,and parasitic
discuses are major causes of mortality and morbidity,
Inadequate sanitation, substandard diets, insufficient
potable water supplies, and faulty or nonexistent
waste disposal systems contribute to high disease
levels. Many women die in childbirth, and as mauay as
mie -third of all children die before reaching their first
birthday and one -half before reaching age 5, 'Those
Yemenis who survive early childhood usually fall prey
to a variety of illnesses during the rentairrder of their
lives.
Tuberculosis is considered by medical authorities to
be the most parevaletat disease in Yemen and perhaps
the most conttton cause of death. Pulmonary
tuberculosis is xidespread among women wid young
children, particularly those in urban areas confined to
the crowded harems; tatbcreular meningitis occurs
fmqucntly among iraf;uats rand young children. In
1970, the discoveries of a Finnish medical team in pits
Tihanuah linked the incidence of tuberculosis to the
malnourished ccntditiot of the inhabitants. 'I'hc
occurrence of malaria is also high, This disease is
found in all sections of Yvinvn, where 12 differrnl
varieties of the anopheles mosquito, the malarial
vector, have been discovered, but it is especially
widespread in the Tiliamah mid in the foothill regions,
Gastrointestinal discuses of all kinds are ;a nnajor cause
of illness and death, and acute dysentery is said to be
the tuost usual cause of death among infants and
28
young children. Cholera was reported in the Tihanrah
ill the latter part of 1971 and later spread to tit(- city of
Al Iludaydah; in early 1972, 55 cases of the diseas(*
were reported.
Schistosontiasis, affecting nten more than women, is
said to he endemic in areas from 3,000 to 7,000 feet
above sea level. Among Yemeni Jewish emigrants to
Isra:cl, schistosontiasis affected 2Wi of all children
aged 3 and 4, and 85% of those emigrants over age 30.
I)ise:ases of the eye, primarily trachoma, afflict ;tt
estimated 90% of the population. Venereal diseases are
Aso common, regardless of class, and one observer has
estitated that 804 of all adults suffer from sonic form
Of these diseases. Scabies is reportedly prevalent
among children and laborers, at least in the three
major cities. The greatest incidence of leprosy is found
in the mo mttain area bctwecn Ibb and 'Labid. 'Tetanus
is said to be fairly frecpuent in 11ty Tiliantah but rare in
the mountains, Relapsing fever is widespread, and
smallpox epidemics were fairly c�ouunon until the�
1935 -.10 period, when Italian doctors initialed a
vaccination campaign. More recently, Saudi Arabian
hctalth regtdations have forced many 1�etnenis to
obtain smallpox vaccinations before etnba rking of the
pilgrimage to Mec(-a. In 1966, VIIO reported that the
disease had been virtually eradicated ill Yenaeu, with
It() new eases since 196.1. Au outbreak of measles
reached near epidemic proportions in the major cities
of Yemen in 1971 and was thought to be indirectly
responsible fora number of deaths ;among small
children.
2. Nutrition and sanitation
a. Diet and fond supply
N'lost Yemenis staffer front malnutritiota, I)iel;try
deficiencies are directly responsible for the high
incidence of a number of disorders, including, anemia,
tuberculosis, and sleep skin lesions, as well as reducing
resi sl;uace to other diseases aatd retarding develop-
ment. 1 is particularly severe attong
children, attd rickets is prevalent. In 1986, observers
front div 1.00d and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
reported that many 2 -year -old childreu in the
'I'llaanuah weighed only 6 to 9 pounds.
I3tnring late 1969 tilt(] early 1970, as a result of
nearly a decade of civil war ;aid drollt food
shortages became ;acute and famine conditions were
reported in some areas of the country. I lardest hit was
the Tihanuah where as many as 5000K) people were
sevemly afflielvd. Many persons were reported eating
the twigs atul branches of cactus plants, normally used
as ;animal fodder. At unknown number of Yeutenis
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died of starvation, and many others succumbed to
disease because of their weakened condition. Food
relief from a number of foreign governments and
international organizations eased the threat of mass
starvation hilt not before severe damage had been
done to the social and economic order.
The traditional staple food in Yemen has teen
grain sorghum, barley, or millet. Townsmen are
exPosed to a wider selection of food products than
inhabitants of rural areas, bedouins subsist on a diet
consisting Iargely of rnilk -std milk products. The
h�pical Yemeni diet is deficient in vitamins, proteins,
and other important nutrients, the insufficiency of
animal protein being especiall marked. Only 10%' of
the Tihamah households visited by a U.N. mission in
1966 reported eating meat even once a week. Average
meat consumption for these households was 250 grants
per week for a family of five. Although the U.N. team
did not stake systematic: nutritional surveys, it
estimated that per capita daily intake ranged from
I.W) to l,ti(x) calories, while daily requirements were
in the range of 2,00) to 2,5(x) calories. Consumption of
fish is generally confined to the coastal areas, tut
sntali quantities of canned fish are available inland.
Fruits, particularly grapes and apples, and fresh
vegetables, including potatoes, squash, eggplant,
cabbage, radishes, and spinach, are apparently
consutnecl much more regularly than in most other
Arahian countries. Yemenis rarely drink milk,
although milk front sheep, goats, and camels is used
extensively in yogurt and cheeses.
The diet of women and children appears to he a
special problem. Women and girls usually cat less well
than tnett, as they are generally scr "ed last and
occasionally toilsome leftovers from the Wren's plates.
For the first -10 days after childhirth, a acw mother
typically cats onl WIleat and hurry and drinks cltsht,
;t popular drink made from the shell of lit( coffee bean
and seasoned NvitIt black pepper. cinn;.ttnon.
rdaMont, and ginger. A newborn infant is given a
sntali un oust of honey and cooking fat to help
strengthen the body. Although the mother's milk is
often poor in quantity and quality, children arc
usually nursed for about 2 years. If the mother is
pregnant, however, the infant is given cow's milk
sweetened with sugar, its many Yemenis believe that
the milk of a pregnant woman causes siekness and
death. During his second year, a child is gradually
trained to eat bread and other solids.
In most past years, sufficient food was produced in
Yetnen to satisfy the demands of the population.
Ilowcver, agricultural production began to dentine in
the second half of the 1960's, and it plunged sharply at
the end of the decade. Inadequate rainfall and the
disruption of crop cultivation us a result of civil strife
were mainly responsible for the decline, particularly
that of staple grain crops. After the 1969 harvest,
cereal production was conservatively estimated to
have been 6555.� below normal, and the total cereal
deficit during the 1969/70 crop year \%-its placed at
271,(XX) metric terns. '1'o meet this shortage about
1 15,(xx) tons of fond were imported during the period
from October 1969 through May 1970. For the
remainder of 1970 and through the spring of 1971,
comntitmcuts totaling 95,(100 tons of cereals were
financed through credits and donations front foreign
countries, especially the United States, the U.S.S.11.,
Canada, and East Germany, and from the United
Nations and various private charitable organizations.
The Ministry of Agriculture has instituted a number
of projects in an effort once again to reach self
sufficiency in food production, Included are programs
designed to expand cultivable land (estimates of the
arable land under cultivation range front 25 to 40
through the construction of sntali dams, and to
increase productivity by providing high qualit seeds,
fertilizers, and pesticides. Yet to he faced arc the
pre blctns created b shortage of facilities for
transporting, storing, and distributing food products.
b. Environmental sanitation and hygiene
LOW levels of environmental sanitation are
responsible for food contamination and the spread of
disease. Although the total supply is sufficient in most
areas of Yemen, water su })plies are often contarni-
nated, either at the source or in storage. In the
highlands, nv.mntain wells and rain catc!,ments
usually provide adequate supplies of water; in the
Tihamal, both shallow and deep wells are the major
sources, Provision of adequate water for large towns is
a serious problem. As late as 106.1, the San'a' water
system was ulntust totally undeveloped. Ilowever,
efforts to modernize water supply and distribution
sysivitts in some cities have achieved significant
results. A piped system in At Iluda which was
built with Soviet aid in the 1960's and expanded curly
in the 197Ws, is in operation, and the cities of Ar
It;thidah, Dhanmr, and At Rayda' have expanded
their capacities .utd improved delivery systems, The
largest water project and one of the most advanced in
the Middle East was undertaken in Ta'izz Iry the U.S,
Agency for Intertutional Development, which
completed a US$1 2 million system, called the John F,
Kennedy Water Sys(em. it provided some 50,M) city
residents with potahle water for the first little and ut
least temporarily ended the tleed to truck in water
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from outside the city. By mid- 196-1,.100 Yemenis had
been trained in the United States to operate the
system, but breakage and a lack of spare parts have
since hampered efficient operation. Moreover,
substantial population growth has occurred, and the
local water supply is no longer sufficient to meet
increased demand. In july 1972, a technical adviser
from the ILO was sent to Yemen omen to aid in the repair of
the equipment and to develop plans for its
improvement and expansion.
The basic principles of hygiene and sanitation are
virtually unknown. Newborn babies are not bathed for
a long period and children are brought up almost
totally unaware of the elementary concepts of personal
cleanliness. Even children of fairly affluent families
wear dirty clothes to ward off the evil eye, commonly
thought to be attracted by neat attire. Government
attempts to upgrade personal sanitation and hygiene
through educational programs have been limited;
11'110, in support of local health programs, has
provided sanitarians in the cities of San'a', Al
I-ludaydah, and Ta'izz.
Sanitation control nmasures are almost nonexistent.
'Picks abound because: of the large animal population;
rats and mica are common in towns and villages; flies
are dense in the lowlands; and lice are prevalent in
rural areas. Milk pasteurization is limited, if available
at all, and food is prepared without regard to
cleanliness. Conditions are unsanitary in animal
market- and slaughterhouses, although "nudern
facilities are being built in the large cities. Sick
animals, moreover, are rarely treated or inspected.
Modern sewerage systems do not exist. In AI
Iludavdah the beach is used as a toilet and refuse
dump, and in San'a' sewage is discharged into pits 50
to l00 feet deep and C feet ill d;.netcr but with no
provision to prevent leakage into the water table. 1 t
many towns, including San a', trash anti garbage are
thrown into the street, only occasionally collected, and
clumped haphazardly outside the walls or even within
a neglected corner of the cily. Dogs and vultures help
to consume much edible refuse. (The only known law
relating to public sanitation in San'a' forbids the
killing of (logs, which serve as scavengers.) 'These
urban arrangements for waste disposal have been
described as modernity itself compared with those in
the country villages," where waste disposal facilities
are m m
Bathrooms, if any, ill upper class dwellings our
usually located on an upper Iloor and contain all area
furnished with water pitchers mud small clippers for
ritual ablutions; such rooms are also equipped with a
hole in the fluor for the toilet. This hole is comtected
30
by a shaft to a chamber on the ground floor where
fecal matter is collected; the chartber is reportedly
cleaned about twice a year. In addition, bathrooms
contain a urine trough or spout that protrudes through
the exterior walls.
3. Medical care
Prior to the 1962 revolution, organized medical
services in Yemen did not exist. Doctors were virtually
unknown until the arrival of a small Italian medical
mission in the 1930's, and in i951 there ware only four
doctors three in Tai izz and one in San'a' �in the
entire country. Medical facilities were limited. Only
three major hospitals �one each in San'a'. Ta'izz, and
Al Hudaydah �were in operation during the last years
of the Imamate, and these were dirty and vermin
infested and lacked basic medicines and equipment.
Puhlic health programs were restricted to malaria
control, begun in the 1940's; a smallpox vaccination
project, started in the late 1950's; and the services of
the WHO I Icafth and 'Training Center, established in
San'a' in 1957. The republican regime has attempted
to improve health services by initiating additional
public health programs, expanding facilities, and
increasing medical personnel. In turban areas, access to
health care has increased and medical facilities have
improved, but general poverty and the lack of an
adequate transportation system still operate to den\
health care to most of the rural population.
Superstition is widespread. Most Yemenis behevc
that illnesses are caused by hidden spirits called jiuts,
of whom there are apparently four nruin kinds: earth
jinns are thought to cause bowel and stomach
complaints; sea jinns are responsible for headaches,
insonnia, and eye trouble; air jinns provoke heart
pains and loss of breathing; and sky jinns attack the
nervous system, catering spasms and limb contractions.
These spirits may be warded off by protective amulets
or exorcised by folk practiticnters. 'Traditional nedical
practices include bloodletting and cauterization for
the treatment of fevers, rheumatism, or nervous
disorders. Ixg ulcers are treated with a compress of
grape leaves containing a mixture of dates and
powdered clog brains. Medicinal herbs used especially
for intestinal maladies are still grown in small garden
plots and marketed throughout the country. In the
mid- 1960's, Khawlan tribesmen claimed that manly of
their war casualties were successfully treated by local
"doctors" using trod' �.ional herbal remedies.
Although a klinistry of Health was treat -ed in 1937,
it remained a rudimentary organization until the
revolution. In 196.1, acting under a government
directive calling for the provision of needed health
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1
F
services for all citizens, the ministry expanded to abort
15 sections, including Finance, Medical Supplies,
Pharmacies, and Personnel. By 1967, the fol
departments had been added: Health Quarantine;
School Health; Birth, Death, and Age Registration;
and Public Water Supply and Sanitation, along with a
schciol for public health officers. In addition, it variety
of programs have been undertaken. New health
centers were opened under WI supervision in
Tdizz, Al Hudaydah, and Bajil. Free hospital care for
the indigent is supposedly available. Public health
officers have been assigned to districts throughout the
country to offer instruction in public health practices,
and informational campaigns have been launched in
an effort to raise: health standards and to alert the
Population to the dangers of epidemic diseases.
Malaria control activities have been intensified, and
medical teams hare been sent to various areas to
inoculate the population against smallpox and
cholera. The ministry has also issued regulations
concerning the control of restaurants and slaughter-
houses. In 1969, the government arlrloutced that
mobile medical units would be sent to the villages.
During the F)'69, the regime spent 3.8 million rivals
for health programs, roughly a.4!vu. of total
expenditures.
a. Medical personnel
Although the republican regime has made
considerable effort to expand the number of medic,,I
personnel, the shortage remains acute. In the earl,
1970's, approximately 2(X) physicians were practicing
in Yemen, or about one physician per 30,000
inhabitants. Furthermore, most physicians practice in
tile: larger urban areas of the na;iior provinces, resulting
in all even less favorable ratio in some ,areas. In 1970,
according to official sources, 198 out of 220 doctors
and pharmacists were located ill the provinces of
San',', Ta'izz, and Al 1 -1 udaydah; thus, the �11 of the
total population living outside these provinces had
access to only I 1 of the doctors and pharmacists. In
Sa'dah Province there was only one ph:tiician for the
entire population, estit;lated at 477,(XX).
Until 1965, all doctors were foreigners, those from
Egypt, the U.S.S.R., Italy, and Hungary beinug most
numerous. Some h:uropean physicians withdrew in the
1967 68 period, but the medical corps was augmented
by Personnel arriving front the People's Republic of
China. In 1970, 22 Chinese doctors were reporter! in
Yennen and, in the next year, 24 Chinese "nuvdieal
officers" arrived to work in Yenlcni hospitals; 1(i
physicians from the U.S.S.R. were also practicing,
The number of Y emeni physic grew from five in
1965 to over 75 in 1970. Yemen has no medical school,
and most of the doctors studied medicine in
Czechoslovakia, Egypt, the United Kingdom, or the
U.S.S.R. Many are thought to he poorly trained; in
fact, the Soviet educated doctors are said to have
received only about one -half the training normally
required in Western medical schools. Most auxiliary
medical personnel are Yemeni: in 1970, 801 of the 837
individuals engaged in auxiliary occupations were
Yenleaai. In 1968, indigenous auxiliary personnel
included 92 nurses, 54 sanitarians, 35 laborator
technicians, and 12 X -ray technicians. A group of 22
medical technicians, trained in San'a' by Soviet arlc]
Yemeni p hysicians, completed all 11 -month training
course in 1972 which covered such topics as the basic
principles of medicine and first aid. Some assistant
nurses, sanitarians, and "dressers" are trained at
schools established by W110 in the cities of Sarn'a',
Ta'izz, and Al 111daydah. Generally, the level of
competence of Yerueni auxiliary medical personnel is
low.
b. Medical facilities
In 1967, according to the Yemen Statistical
Yearbook. 18 llospihnls and 57 dispensaries were
operating in the country, and by 1970 the number had
increase(] to 27 hospitals and IM dispensaries.
Ilspitul beds numbered 4,573 in 1970, or
approximately one bed for every 1,200 people. Sara'a',
Ta'izz, and Al Iludaydah provinces collectively
accounted for 20 hospitals and 4,100 beds in 1970,
whereas Sa'dah Province had only one 20 -bed
hospital.
Several specialized hospitals have been established
to treat tuberculosis, mental illnesses, and leprosy, and
to offer gynecological and pediatric services.
Additionally, the International Red Gross maintains a
prosthetic center in San'a' for civil war amputees. "file
Swedish Save the Children Foundation opened a child
health clinic in Ta'izz in 1964 and later expanded it
into a 30 -bed hospital. Initially staffed with two
nurses, the clinic concentrated on tuberculin testing
and irnnlunization; after expansion, 2,10) to 3,(XX)
patients per month were treated. Other countries and
organizations which have aided in the. construction
and staffing of hospitals include Czechoslovakia,
Egypt, Ilungary, Kuwait, and the U.S. Southern
Baptist Convention,
For the most part, the major hospitals continue to
he overcrowded, unsanitary, and poorly supplied, with
a conglomeration of equipment and personnel front
many countries, The largest is the l,(XX) -bell AI
31
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M *dical ward
FIGURE 22. Facilities at the Al Jumhuriyah Hospital in San'a'. Most
hospitals are overcrowded and ill equipped. (C)
Jumhuriyah 1 10spital in Sun'a' (Figure 22), described
in 1967 as "a veritable 'Power of Babel" because of its
Egyptian, Soviet, Yemeni, Italian, and C:hirlese
physicians, In 1972, the Ministry of I lealth budgeted
1.1 million riyals for the hospital's rentwation.
Formerly the largest facility in 1'ctacu, the Ta'izz
I Iospital was once considered the ']lost modern. In
1964, however, it was described us llllclean and ill
equipped; the windows had no .screens, flies were
everywhere, and sheets were dirty, Although running
eater was avuiluble, no sewerage system existed, and
bathrooms were smelly and dirty: equipment w ;is
primitive. In Al Iludaydah, hospital conditions wrrc
described in 196.4 as "deplorable," ;uxl in I)hanrtr,
the old army barracks serving i ts it hospital was
characterized us poorly managed, with conditions
approaching squalor.
As of 1972, Yenu'n did not hnsve it phunnuceutical
factory, but the Yemen I)nlg Manufacture and Sales
C:omp;lny, it sluts -owned enterprise which imports
drugs, has its a goal the production of lrndicinc's. Most
drags and medical supplies are supplied by those
countries with rnedicul teams is Ye']sca, particulurly
the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of (:hinu.
G. Religion (C.)
Yemen is a Muslim country, and lslinl is the official
religion. The importance of the faith is reflected in the
32
Preamble to the 1970 Pernuulent Constitltlioll which
states:
1Ve [the Yemeni nation) shall have no life to live
anwng nations and we can claim no pride or character
except through our true Islamic religion which has
been the religion of our nation through the last fourteen
centuries, and through following its divine guidance,
achieving its precepts, abiding by its directions and
strictures, and by remaining within its bounds.
More than it formal religion, Islam is it complex blend
of religious, social, and political attitudvs which has
been described u+ "an cell- pervasive wav of life,
guiding thought and ;lotion to a degree without
modern parallel in the Western world." The
organizing principle of the Muslim conllllllnih
('t nmah) is the Sharia (the right path), i t legal a,lid
moral sy:stcnt regulating, ill theory, every aspect of life,
The Sharia, identified in Article'? of the Constitution
us the source of all laws, still miderpins the
foundations of Yemeni society. On the popular level,
however, pre- Islamic� tribal law and religious practievs
colitinue to exert it signific.lnt influence.
\While the country is divided into several sects, all
Muslims are basically agreed on the major tenets of
their faith. 'i'hc central body of cloglllal inelndes belief
in the following: the oneness of Cod, or Allah; the
Prophets of Cod, the lust being Muhanitnad, who
revealed Cod's design to lnan: the Koran, Islam's holy
book containing the word of Col in eternal form: the
Angels, headed by Cabriel, who transntittell the Koran
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Opwating room

to \Itfta III nad: and the I ;ut _lrdg11te�nt. at \\hici
tittle the righte(,11s rill he� r(�%%ardcd in ht,a\en and tilt,
icked consigned to hell. The essential eludes required
oi' \luslints, soinctinles kno\ \n as the '�pillars of
Islam," are fkefold: 1 I to profess the creed. '"there is
no god but (:od, and \luhanun;u: is his 1'roIAwt' 2
to pra. five tunes (Jail\. i.e., at d ;r\\11, midda\
afternoon, sunset, and t,arl\ evening, an(I to attend
public prt\ ers in the Mosque on F rich\ t Figctry 2
to fast el;til\ during the hole mouth of Ranladatt: �1 to
gi\l. alms to the pour: and 5) to undertake the
pilgritat.,gl. (hajj) to Mecca ut least once in a lifetime.
(.kccording to 1- <li :lrabian records, 601,35S Yvinenis
!nude the hujj in 19 72.
Yl.nu�tti Islam, esprciall\ thal (,I the %a\di sect, has
al\%a\s bt,l.n c�o11sc�r\ :I ti\ e. "I'hr Yl.nuni is said to
belong to "Ilse older species of horn() rcll(;lasu.e, boa
mail concert is the sill\ ntiou of his soul and ht, souls
of those for Front feels rl.sponsih(v.*' \fill,\
Yemenis consider ntan's role to be that of :11Lelt s
st,r\artt, who ne\er (Iut,stions the di\ ite \\;II. It the
193(1 's, the sill rettac�\ of religious thought ;es
nrac�hallenged. the tot;tlit\ of life being detert11ined h\
Islam do\\ n to the smallest detail ;old acti\ il\. :1s Irate�
;as 19(;(1. Islam \cas still collsidt,red the prit io
deternlinutl of 1'enteni bell a\ ior.
Despite Islam's per\;tsi\e inllut,uc'e, !11
lribesnu�n, particularly nomads, have beat largel\
1111affected b\ formal Islamic teachings. According Ito
IN
oftv scholar, front the ]()lit to (it( 20th ct,ulurit,s oral\
uoluival obeisance has beers ttke: b\ tltc tribes to
islanl. Some \luslints in sau'a', usoall\ c�omsidered it
stronghold of religious cotser\;atisnt. \en� reported as
long ago as 1910 to chafe under Sharia restrictions.
partl\ because the\ inhibited trade. Durini, his reign,
I uana Y ;dr\a et11derloe,k it \igor(,us (�ant pit igII to
eliminate tribal Lt\\ and to establish till. Sltaria ;n the
c�ou11tr\ *s (sill\ l(Tal code. In the laid- 19 :311*s, for
ovi111ple. one� of his emissaries to the nominal!\
\lusliln Tiiant;tlt \sits described its using it huge (.Jill')
in his efforts to teach ti tati\es Iho\\ to pray. lalr\a's
atlt,tpts to assert tie prinru\ of \fanlint l ;t\\ \\cre not
l.ntinl\ successful, l I\\e\er: tribal la\% is still
practiced, and ignora11cc of ntue�h of \luslinl doctritr
remains.
Official lsl ;tn is contplt,nente d b\ it distinctive talk
religion, consisting of \ariocts animistic sur\i\ids front
pm Islamic times� superslitious practices, and )tier
s\ ncretic additions, Mthough sonic of these beliefs and
practices ha\c 1wen reportcd its laic as lit, 1950's, lie
c\tent to hick till.\ eonliauc (o c.ist is not kno\\n.
\unt�rous ltuntillg practices, agricultural le�sti\als,
ate! lit(' E_ eat' ";an inll.nsc�I\ agricultural people
conccrnir= IF .'Ita, for t,vanlplr. t livid ha its
proper r =ar. I.:\( lvo �rat, obsl.r\er (o cbara( size
*11 1I,un ,e� ,irtb cull coott,cled \\ills the�
%111114 ill fe ltibt. notion. bu\\l.\l.r, disputed b\
1 Semitic
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FIGURE 23. Muslims kneeling for prayer at AI -Kabir Mosque, San'a'. Note the stone
kaoba at rear of courtyard, (C)

rites abound, including invocations to celestial bodies
and "tile black rock,' the secret worship of stones. 'I he
widespread black heifer cult, in which cows decked
kith flowers are led through the villages as part of
seasonal fertility festiv,lls, is thought to be another
ancient rite. Ixlssibly similar to the worship of the
golden calf in Biblical times.
Belief it, jinns� hidden spirits which live ;;a n,c�ks
springs, and trees �is strong. One jinn belir"t %%'It
it village spring is propitiated b the 1 r it
black ox when the water supp
particulariy tllalignatlt spirit is the tl -A
the Tihanlah. The zar is said to j111\\rs. Iv t4-
force theta to perform acts fo' 11IIt t[i, ti i
responsible. t)escribed as "contf l
such individuals are impelled to d;uL
cat or drink and cannot sleep. An ct1ii,. k, .,on,
moreover, is believed to be able to eat hot coals
without being burned, '1'o exorcise the spirit, a shaykh
al -war, in c�onlpany with former patients, performs it
ritual, which inclucles burning incense, dancing,
singing, and invoking tilt' sun, moon, stars, "tilt' black
rock,� and the kings of the jinn. For his part, the
patient drinks the blood of a young goat.
In addition to jinns, various people, colors, words,
and nttnlbers are believed to have evil influelces. '1'11t'
nullifier five, for example, is considered evil and a ll
insult if used in conversation. Both men and wonit'n
reportedly specialize in averting the evil eye or casting
it on other. 'I'o ward off these tnystelious forces,
protective onntrnents are frequentl worn around the
neck (Figure ?-1), in the hair, or on the clothing. Other
aspects of folk religion include belief in astrology, in
'ilnt ai rarrtl (the science of reading the san(is), and in
other forms of divination,
On a somewhat different plane are the nlvstical
orders of saints' cults. Although the %aydis discourage
both, nuuly villages have shrines and saints tolllbs,
which are the object of 11�4 /ij)it veneration and
occasional pilgrirnagvs, at !east one "saint" earned his
reputation as a suecessful brigand who brought
prosperity to his tribe. Several religions brotherhoods
specializing in curing snakebites and it dervish order
Whose nunlhers mutilate themselves with axes alld
iron maces have also been re porte d.
Yelliellis pay their allegiance to one of three Islamic
sects. The %aydis, Who belong to the heterodox Shia
branch of Islam, have been dominanl politically for
much of the cyntntry' Islamic history. 'I'ht'y derive
their name front %ayd, the great grandson of 'Ali, the
Prophets sou ill law, who was killed at Kufah (Ira(l)
in 7.10, After his death, %ayd became revered by some
Shias as it religious and political nwrtyr. By the end of
S-1
tilt' ninth century. it nullifier of his followers had
arrived in the Yemen highlands and had established
the Inutnlate, which was to last until 1962.
The 'laydi state was it claSsical Nluslinl theocracy
ruled by (sod, who, in political terms, was represented
by the Lorain and the hadith (traditions) as well as by
Zayd; interpretations of the significance and contents
of these two basic sources. The head of state was ti
Imam. Unlike other Muslinn rulers, traditionalists
considered him infallible, although his powers were
limited by Islalllic� Ia\V and political reality. The I1
cotnhined tit(' office of tc�nlporal and spiritual ruler, his
roles as king amt priest being inseparably. As king, the
Inwnl was responsible for national defense and the
conduct of foreign relations; as religions leader his
Chief function, according to olle scholar, was "to
Uphold the Shari; and impose the penaltivs, to watch
over the performance of all zluties cortllnancled by
(sod, to defend the 'utnnudt against its viwillies,"
The importance which was attached to the imam as
tilt' defender of the faith canllot he overestinrtted, Ile
w' as the indispensable instrument for the conduct of
moral life, as expressed in the old saying, "I le who dies
without an Intanl dies a pagan." Believing that
prayers would he illegitimate before (sod if the !maul
left the country for any reason, conservatives were
critical of Imam Ahnlad's trill to Rollie for medical
treatment il 195). 'I'htls, with the dissolution of tilt'
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FIGURE 24. Bedouin woman from
eastern Yemen. The large beads around
the neck are probably protective
amulets. (U /OU)

Imamate and the flight of the Imam in 1962, the
entire religious foundation of the Zaydi conununity
was undermined.
The Shafi'is are adh -rents of the orthodox Sunni
hr.Anch of Islam. Strictly speaking, they do not
Lwastitute a sect but belong to a legal school founder(
by Muhammad ibn -Idris al- Shafi'i (767 -820). In the
early Muslim era, the Sunnis developed four schools,
all equally orthodox, which differ on technical points
of law, ritual, a;�'.d interpretation but not on major
doctrinal questions. Like Sunnis in other cnnitries, the
Shnfl'. Abu Bakr. Unnr, Uthnrin, and
ill\ JN the first `slur sue� ssors to the i'rophet. irk
ccwitrast to the 5hiats, tile do not believe that the�
k'ahph or -ipreme relp�,,,s authotlt nne�' he
descended fn,ul Mkll:knimad, beginning and
they do not recognize the infallibility of the Imam,
Thw .soallest of Yemen, Islamic sects, the Ismailis
are Shia dissenters who seceded from the plain Shia
body after the death of the sixth Imam. Iescribed as a
quasi- masonic organization with an esoteric
doctrine," they believe in a nrandi or hidden [mars(
w ho will re turn one day to redeem the world. Their
lives are regulated by definite ceremonial prescriptions
arid rituals; for example, arms and feet arc: washed
only'to it specific height, and beards have a distinctive
cut. Ismailis are occasionally referred to in 1'cnken as
the al- Makarinw, derived from the al- Makrami, i t
17th century family which established its leadership of
the Ismaili community. Although the Ismailis
governed Yetnen in the. I 1 tit and 12th centuries, their
subsequent political and social impact has been
negligible, and many were probably killed in the
1930's by the royal army, All republican governnkcnts
from 1962 to 1968, however. have re portedly included
at least one Ismaili of cabinet rank.
Central to the development of modern Yemen is the
persistence of the Zaydi- Shaffi conflict. It has
contributed to the factionalism that characterizes
1'enleni history, \vas i t factor in the abortive revolts of
1948 arid 1935 and the revolution of 1962, and
continues to inhibit the growth of secular nationalism.
The Zaydi character may account in part for the
continuing dispute, As long ago as the 13th century,
the Muslim traveler Ibn ]ubayr described then( as
"fanatics arid Snobs, who denounce everybody outside
of their sect," while i t visitor in the 1920's declared
that "they have not changed in 6x) years." Others
have remarked upon their "extrauordinar\' exclusive-
ness arid racial solidarity." Oil the other hand, several
observers have notes) their reputation for religious
tolerance.
Although the Zavdis may believe that other
Muslims have deviated from the correct path, it is
nonetheless true that specific religious differences have
played onl\ a secondary role in the controversy. Zavdi
teachings are closer to Sunni dogma than those of any
other Shia sect and, in any case, the average Yemeni
does not understand the doctrinal differences between
the two groups.
Differences in triodes of living are also negligible.
Some Zaydis, moreover, have converted to the Shalfri
sect. arid it is not une�o1111loll for Zaydis arid Shaff is to
intermarry or wo rship in each others mosques. The A
Qaa la tribe, for example, like other, in south and
southeastern Yenler, contains adherents of both sects,
\who apparent(% 0 k(+ =Flative harmony. "rhe Shafris,
are geik j.,, n-KIe sophisticated and worldly
then the %;r ""d blue maintained stronger
(Nin tectiom with t1w sr Islanli; world.
1kv.vrrdlnk In ow "the greatest distinctions
I 1114 11 It+ald in their oral traditions,
hisloc \,s, el \i Iles concerning themselves and
others, \\u,4,4, I rt j has as a part of its culture."
Although mane Zaydis view the Republic as a
symbol of atheisrll. available evidence indicates that
republican %kders have pu sued it basically
conservative religious policy. Apart from the abolition
of the Inlaunate and the confiscation of mosque
properties, they have not undertaken radical reforms
hut, on the contrary, hays deenled it necessary to
maim� traditional religious structures. Immediately
upon t,Ia.ing power. the republicans announced that
cone of the revolution's purposes was to reestablish
Sharia principles, which had been corrupted by the
mean(. Article 3 of the 1963 Provisional Constitution
declared that Islan \\'as the official state religion and
that legislation would be bused on the "noble
principles" of Islam. A t least in the early gars, the
Ramadan fast as strictly observed under the
republic, and ministers were reportedly forced to
attend Friday prayers on pain of imprisonm ent�
presuntably part of the price required by the tribes for
continued allegiance to the republic. Nonetheless, the
secular republic is different from the royalists' "free
Islamic kingdom,' whose main function \vas the
propagation of "God's religion." As early as 1963, the
Ministry of Religious Endowments (Augap had
drawn up plans for reforming the country's IQt)00
mosques by developing them into cultural centers
which \would provide libraries of religious, social, and
literary works, as well as lecture and seminar
prograuns.
Shortly after the revohtlion, about mullahs from
Cain reportedly were sent to 1'enkeu to ittcnlpl to
35
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break down the religious "fanaticism" of the tribes
and to disseminate modern concepts of Islam. With an
obvious 1-enlitic�al implication, they preac�Ited that
Zaydi lav did not legitimize rule I >y an Imam. Along
similar lines, an official of the Yemeni ;Ministry of
information in 1964 attacked "so- called" religious
leaders who exph)ited their position, charging them
with mental stagnation and failure to adopt
progressive ideas. ]'Ile intP:act of such Propaganda,
however, is difficult to assess. Religiotis leaders are said
to have lost prestige, curiously without nnuch
resistance or protest. "Choir silence has led some to
conclude that in Yemen religion is not a decisive factor
in the degree and rate of smial change,
Few Christians other than foreign diplomats and
businessmen live in Yemen, although a small number
of Palestinian. Syrian, and Lebanese Christians are
known to have held official positions under the Imams
and to have acquired Yemeni citizenship. 'Three
Christian groups maintain missionary activities in
Yemen �the Baptist Mid Missions, the Red Sea
Missions, and the Southern Baptist Convention. In
1970, the Baptist Mid Missions maintained tym
missionaries in 1'emen; the Red Sea Missions operated
tw�m clinics, each staffed Ihy a missionary worker, and
the Southern Baptist Convention sponsored a mission
station it, Ta'izz and ran a hospital i nearby jiblah.
The Jewish cottumunity in Yemen, mice estimated its
consisting of about 50,000 persons, has declined to
fever than l,W0. As of 1963, the remaining jews in
the cotmtry reportedly earned it modest incmme as
farmers and artisans, Although officially excluded
from political and civic life and ineligible for
government jobs, the jews have not heeln actively
harassed.
H. Education (C)
The creation of it modern cduc�atiomd system is a
major objective of the republican regime. lfowryer,
because of the Primitive nature of the traditimnal
educational system, the upheaval caused b\ 13 years of
civil strife, and the shortage of available funds, the
government has been largely (enable to move be
the plarnning stage. As a result, the system retrains
o
poorly developed; nly a small Propmrtiun of school-
age children attend classes and, of these, few advance
beyond the beginning primary grades, facilities are
atntigtlated, classes are overcrowded, atnd teachers are
inadequately trained. Iligher education must be
Pursued mutsidc the country, at man of those who
obtain advanced degrees, ()ftk�n at government
expense, fail to return to Yennen.
36
Until 1962, formal education was essentially a
religious func�ticn, and public schools in the \Vestertn
sense hardly existed. The fmamate was concerned
principally with the training of future officials who
were expected to he better educated than the persmns
titey governed. [ante in the� 19 01 century, the Turks
established a fe" tiecon(lary schools which offered
clines in popular science and geography. Imann
Yahya i1mvever, abolished these sehmols it, 1919 and
reestal dished the Doran as the basis for all learning.
Thus, the distinction between education and religious
instruction was eliminated, and fora generation after
the Ottoman withdraval only the Koran and the
Zaydi texts were taught. Although a few government
supported primary schools existed, the backbone mf the
educational system was the kuttab, or Islamic primary
sci (Figure 25). Even today. although rtow kinder
the purview of gowernment officials, the kuttab serves
to impart schooling in reading and writing. along with
religious instruction, to a significant segment of those
children attending school. As in the past, however,
most children receive no formal instruction, rather,
they are trained ill time honored fashion by their
parents.
Bcc�ause the leaders of the imamic theocracy
required little modern knowledg the sons mf
important families were relatively well served by
akmsque schools or by private tutors, who taught them
language, law. religion, archery, and horsemanship.
Furthermore, the education Which these bows received
by listening to their elders covered a wide range of
subjects and prepared them to participate in the
essential aspects of their society, These arrangements,
although olnyiously inadequate tit meet the needs of a
modern state, provided sufficient education for the
limited purposes of the traditional society, and the
continuity of Yemeni Islamic c�iyilizatimn vas
successfully maintained.
'I'll( republican government assunied cmutrekl mf all
schools in 1963. Subsequently, it announced that the
right to 6 gars of free primary schooling was
guaranteed to all children!, and it established a 12-year
pmgrann composed of a 6 -year primary cycle; i t 3 -year
preparatory, or lower secondary cycle; and it 3 -year
upper secondary cycle Willpmsed of either general
secondary, technical secondary, or teacher training
courses, all designed to irad to further technical,
vocational, or profcssimnal training (Figure ?G), A
national e.nniyersity was proposed, but as of mid -197'.
it was still ill the Planning stagc,:i Information
"Authorities vo nsider the Shari,( and Lamy college, wdeieln hmvides
tr;eilling in Islamic and secular lase, as the nucleus for the national
mMmily. I l m in 1970 the college suffered from ;e shorti;t;e of
both faculty and students.
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FIGURE 25. Boys learning to write
at religious school (U /OU)
UNIVERSITY OF YEMEN
Gru,�ro! I Tncl Ica! 1 Tradror 1117]
111 Srtt,ndary se �cia,y I Twining I 161
l 1 0 Schxh Sdaol Intli,;.h�
9 I 14
f P- paralory Schoa! j 1
7
,I I
6 I I II
I to Prinxny Sc4aali I I
1
I I�
FIGURE 26. Structure of the educational system,
1972 (U /OU)
tu�rtainiti; to the c�urriuolur11 at tilt- Y:trious Ic\cls is
gcnrrallr unaV;lilal>Ic. In 1972, the Mi11istcr of
I ?ducution stated that "ccrtai11 curricldu [ollotcd h
our schools in all stages are in confornlih Stith the�
coriit�ttla of :un other \;dY .�tats cccllt for tlti11gs
such
IN tilt' stud; of 1'rnu�11i history and geog apk
and religions sulliccts Technical :uu1 \ocatio11al
courses arc� oflctc(I A tilt- Itrinl:tr\ ;lud po�vim:1lom
IrVs'I. Instruction is giveu in \tapir. If' front
the 1111au1ic era continue, tilt' sr1x11astic r;tr rlends
front October to Jul kith classes 11eeling :i hours
llcr cfaN, tiaturd;t Through 1 atd 2 hours
oil 'Chusda.
Ilt-T nsihilitl for the 111ar1ni11g, derclulmu'tl, and
rrtairltcrlarlct' of the educrltio11al syshit11 is dclepted to
the Minislr\ of I;ducatiun. although other govern-
111c11t entities luive responsihilil\ for sllcciali ed
;lslaects of the mstettl. In 1965, the t11i11istry lau11ched a
,i year edocalionid promotion llrogra111 ulldor official
h:g llti;ul allspice(. 'file IYrogr,un's "Iiectives \\tire to
hnild Iti second;lr\ schools Its 1968, to provide tcachcr
training for '300 students annu; lk, to open
conlmcrria) itrstitutt's in tia11'a' and :\I iluda\dah;nd
agricultural schools in Ilajjal, 111(1 I1)11, and to
M
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F
x
f.
s
construct primary -level vocationai schaxols in each
province. Only a few of these projects, however, have
been undertaken. In 1970, under the aegis of the
ministry, a six member Higher Advisory Council was
appointed to formulate a 5 -year plan covering school
construction, technical ec':ucution, and scholarships.
To reduce the almost total reliance on foreign
textbooks, the Ministry of Education has established a
printing house. In this project, support has derived
from UNESCO and the United Nations Children's
Fund.
Centuries of neglect in the field of education are
reflected in low levels of educational attainment and
literacy. In 1962, there were fewer than i00 university
graduates in all of Yemen, and formal sch000ling ryas
largely restricted to a small circle of urban men.
Literacy, considered the ability to read and write one's
name and to read simple, passages from the Koran, was
estimated in 1972 to be 15% for men and 10% for
women; probably no more than half of these were
functionally literate. Almost without exception, the
rural Door are illiterate.
Recognizing the importance of education us a
prerequisite for future economic and social
development, the leaders (of the republican regime
nave endeavored to expand the educational system to
provide more children with at least a primary
education. Efforts have in large part been thwarted by
preoccupation, until 1970, with the civil war, and by
limited funds, a shortage (1 facilities, and a dearth of
instructors. Moreover, some Yemeni parents have been
reluctant to send their c hildren to school. This is
especially true for girls; a large number of parents
continue to believe that fornnal schooling, acconm-
panied by unveiling in the classroom, will lead to their
daughters' moral ruin.
Data on the number of students attending schools
are fragmentary; nonetheless, as indicated in the
following tabulation, total enrollment (repor(ed by the
Yemeni Government or estimated by UNESCO) has
apparently increased substantially since the 1958/59
school year:
1958/59 41,256
1962/63 64,322
1963/64 59,100
1965/66 77,079
1966 /67 66,070
1969/70 78,114
1970/71 93,817
Enrollment in each school year, however, represented
only a fraction of time eligihle youth, at hest tat) more
than 100 and probably closer to 599! of all children
aged 6 -If'. The bulk of the enrollment, h oth during
38
the latter years of the Imamate and since the
establishment of the republic, has been at the primary
level (Figure 27). In 1970%71, for examnle, 94`i of all
students attended primary schools, �.rile roughly 5
attended preparatory and secondary schools. Of total
primary school enrollment in 1969/40, over 6(19* weer
enrolled in the first 2 rears and only 4i, were in the
sixth year; this imbalance is due, in part, to the fact
that many schools c offer only 1 or 2 years of the 6 -year
primary cycle,
The Yemeni school system is most extensively
developed in the provinces of san'a' and Ta'izz; in
consequence, children in these two areas have a
greater opportunity to attend school. it, 19701`71, with
less than half of the total population, these provinces
accounted for almost two thirds of primary school
enrollment and three fourths of preparatory and
secxondary school enrollment (Figure 2ti).
An increasing number of girls are receiving a
primary education, although their contribution to
total enrollment remains small. In 19651 3.536 girls
attended primary schools, and by 1970/71 the number
had risen to ;3,2(44, or roughly 9% of the total primary
enrolinment. Primary schools are not coedocational
separate schools for girls exist in Al Bayda', Al
Hudaydah, Ibb, San'a% and '1'a'izz --and prictic:illy
the entire enrollment of girls is confined to urban urea
schools. Fey girls advance beyond (he primary level;
in 1970/71, 12Z girls attended preparatory schools and
180 were enrolled in secondary or teacher training
schools,
In the absence of a university and of adequute
secondary institutions, the republican gow::nmemt,
continuing a practice begun by Imunm )'ahya in 1036,
sends students abroad for advanced study. In 1963,
some 1,55 Yemenis were said to be enrolled at
secondary and university levels in Cairo, host with
financial suppoort from the Egyptian Covernmeut.
After 1967, Egyptians scholarship assist ainc.xc declined
markedly; by 1969 /70, ucciording to an official
Yenmciii scoune, only 292 Yemenis were studying in
Egypt. During tl l same: year, 137 Yemeni sehohirship
students were studying in Iraq, 93 in Syria, and 37 in
other Arah countries. In 1971, Egypt, Saudi Arabia,
Libya, Lebanon, Syria, and Kuwait offered it total of
137 scholarships to Yemeni for professional and
technical education. The number of Yemeni students
in Communist countries increased sharply after 1962,
rising to an estinuattKl 908 in 1966, of whom about
75'% were in the U.S.S.R., including 2W in military
institutes. About 325 students were in the U.S.S.R. and
Eastern Europe in 1967 and 644 in 1970. Reportedly,
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FIGURE 27. Enrollment, by type of school (U /OU)
TYPR (IF NCnntlt, 111551;11)
141(12183
141(131(1
1110fillili
11171)171
Primary,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ;3:,05;3
81.3:3;1..
17,814._
f 74,900
88,217
Secondtu'y 6ae,,
1,097
1,11(1
0 2,0119
+;1,11111
Sectmeatry vocational.. I 937
1,
04, 311
+45
Tea her training, 50
172
55
125
412
'1`otul 11,25(1
(14,322
"w
77,079
93,81"
"Includes prepilratory and general ,weondary schools,
Nitinher
The sharp decline in sreundary vneutional
enrol(ineiii
is prnllalely
clue it) the eliinination of
religious schools Iroin this category.
^Rmlier
Ptimil-
PROVINeR
Of selttlt)l8
FIGURE 28. Enrollment, by type of school and grovince, 1970/7)
R
i
c,
1.1 Yelllt,ilis "'en sllldying ill IIIv hill1`d ill
197 I, chiefly mider iirivltte linsllives,
Although It lurgv nonitwr of the fort,ig,I- educltlell
Yvilit`tlis ltre poorly trltioed, dwy rt,prt,svol it vadre of
lcrhniritilts oltd 11"MIrllliv s1wei -dists whow skills art` in
short sopply, Nonoli `iess, Ilvellllw stutirllis t111road ilre
ilwi)ri lhitt lillle or no effort will he nllttie It) rt
llivir studies ti) Yvim -lt's Iltlllll)owilr !It`eds or to ltlilim
their knowledge, ninny do not relorn to Yelreo;
vollselilletllly. dw droill of lillelil is it soriolis probkl Ill,
Other fltwtors illeluth, the low Silhlry scldes pr(`vi will ill
'icnlen and disillusioilmelit with politiviI cl millions,
Sint, oft those who do return runnot Pint) work,
`f'lle fallow of the Yemeni (loverltmelll to meet most
of its etha`itionitl golds is lurgt clue to it shorlitgt of
funds, As t by the Uniwd Nittions Evotwiniv
mid Sochi) Of five 111 Ileiru'., public ('XI)ell()ltilty (111
rtlitoatioli i n I96'r) rvpreseiltet otlly :Z!'r" of loth)
governitivul t The hulk of Iht, rtltiva(lim
hudgm is llllovilted to sillories wid imthilviiwlee Costs,
lellvilig little revt,l)ue for new 3',- ljects, N11101 it( whill
is 11(`8' hiss bvvn filiilltet,d by foreign g1vvninivitis or
intl`rwitiolltll orliuli?.ittiolts, Tht` 11!1111` prospi'I'Ils
Arab countries have provided solsliullitd ilssisttlnce;
thus, Kllwltit huilt itlld e(pilplwd tl girls prvpiirutory
sl` llool mid it institute itild, ;ilollg with
Ilse shvikdonis of i alirltin, `ati)r, lint) Ahll Muthi,
griullt'd tilt vtiuivi It'll I of US$r)1)t 0x) for tilt`
eslublisl)Iliellt of tilt nlltiolllil Iilllvvrsity Flgypt has
provided tetlt`I vrsi and edlleiltiolitil mivisvi's Its well Its
Ivythooks, iind titllldi ArilhIit. it� ,r its i9
rt,eoncil ill lit'll evill) (ht, wpithlieltn govvnitti `nt,
tillIloillleed illiltis to guild three lendwr- IrltinhiiR
ilstilliles, Tho Soviet Union lilts eonstr(t"ted it iwhlie
lltimilistril0on lnslitllte, severltl nilititry sehools, ltnd
threl` voolitiollill scllllols; the I'vopit` IZeplihliv o f
Chinn Iris ilrovided it wcolilhlry voeltlioilid school,
The IAAO ltidell in the huildilt9 of lilt uRrieolturall
s(volldury school ill 'I WIAZ,
inlide(Iltltte school favililies Illld it Sev ern shorio)tt of
il`tlChl`rs Ii1Vt) I1ClI)l`tl to nrodut`t` till llemitilllie
rnvirolitlivilt jildgt,d olio of tilt poorest ill dw Arlth
;34)
r.
1`
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PRIMARY N
PtINPAWR TOIIV
TKAVIiklt
THA1NINti
1:11r011nlOttl
NC11001.
t: 11NI)AR1'
Nt'11o00
INNm11`UTR
Nitinher
I3Utl1
Nunihdr
vairnll
Ntl lit ber
Enroll.
^Rmlier
Ptimil-
PROVINeR
Of selttlt)l8
Mitie
1`e11`itIP
S0S014
tit sellonls
111011
tit 8Ci1t1t1I8
111110111
nr mell(wk
M0111
At I 'lllydit',,.,,,
20
1
98
1,3118
1
5
0
0
Il
0
ltajjiih..
:12
2
1 A
2,151
1'
.'S
0
0
0
0
Al 1111duydith.
ISO
12,070
I,Otls
1:1, 138
5
7.12
1
218
1)
0
1111),
Of)
5, 1 10
730
8,846
3
2;35
1
58
0
0
111dil
77
5,038
1811
5,525
2
94
0
0
it
0
8
755
ti
7111
it
tl
111
0
0
0
an'tt
298
:7
2,57:3
211,9;311
5
1,111111
3
d5:
181
1115
22,71N
:1,1.1:3
21!,181
5
I,74�1
1
1111
`3
MA
All Yenlcn..,.
N:'I
711,954
8,'203
88,21i
22
3 851
li
I
R
112
+111eltldts fn11r
general secondary
srllotI6 and ttt'e) tce11111vid
sceolldltry sellools,
1.1 Yelllt,ilis "'en sllldying ill IIIv hill1`d ill
197 I, chiefly mider iirivltte linsllives,
Although It lurgv nonitwr of the fort,ig,I- educltlell
Yvilit`tlis ltre poorly trltioed, dwy rt,prt,svol it vadre of
lcrhniritilts oltd 11"MIrllliv s1wei -dists whow skills art` in
short sopply, Nonoli `iess, Ilvellllw stutirllis t111road ilre
ilwi)ri lhitt lillle or no effort will he nllttie It) rt
llivir studies ti) Yvim -lt's Iltlllll)owilr !It`eds or to ltlilim
their knowledge, ninny do not relorn to Yelreo;
vollselilletllly. dw droill of lillelil is it soriolis probkl Ill,
Other fltwtors illeluth, the low Silhlry scldes pr(`vi will ill
'icnlen and disillusioilmelit with politiviI cl millions,
Sint, oft those who do return runnot Pint) work,
`f'lle fallow of the Yemeni (loverltmelll to meet most
of its etha`itionitl golds is lurgt clue to it shorlitgt of
funds, As t by the Uniwd Nittions Evotwiniv
mid Sochi) Of five 111 Ileiru'., public ('XI)ell()ltilty (111
rtlitoatioli i n I96'r) rvpreseiltet otlly :Z!'r" of loth)
governitivul t The hulk of Iht, rtltiva(lim
hudgm is llllovilted to sillories wid imthilviiwlee Costs,
lellvilig little revt,l)ue for new 3',- ljects, N11101 it( whill
is 11(`8' hiss bvvn filiilltet,d by foreign g1vvninivitis or
intl`rwitiolltll orliuli?.ittiolts, Tht` 11!1111` prospi'I'Ils
Arab countries have provided solsliullitd ilssisttlnce;
thus, Kllwltit huilt itlld e(pilplwd tl girls prvpiirutory
sl` llool mid it institute itild, ;ilollg with
Ilse shvikdonis of i alirltin, `ati)r, lint) Ahll Muthi,
griullt'd tilt vtiuivi It'll I of US$r)1)t 0x) for tilt`
eslublisl)Iliellt of tilt nlltiolllil Iilllvvrsity Flgypt has
provided tetlt`I vrsi and edlleiltiolitil mivisvi's Its well Its
Ivythooks, iind titllldi ArilhIit. it� ,r its i9
rt,eoncil ill lit'll evill) (ht, wpithlieltn govvnitti `nt,
tillIloillleed illiltis to guild three lendwr- IrltinhiiR
ilstilliles, Tho Soviet Union lilts eonstr(t"ted it iwhlie
lltimilistril0on lnslitllte, severltl nilititry sehools, ltnd
threl` voolitiollill scllllols; the I'vopit` IZeplihliv o f
Chinn Iris ilrovided it wcolilhlry voeltlioilid school,
The IAAO ltidell in the huildilt9 of lilt uRrieolturall
s(volldury school ill 'I WIAZ,
inlide(Iltltte school favililies Illld it Sev ern shorio)tt of
il`tlChl`rs Ii1Vt) I1ClI)l`tl to nrodut`t` till llemitilllie
rnvirolitlivilt jildgt,d olio of tilt poorest ill dw Arlth
;34)
r.
1`
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FIGURE 29. Classroom interior,
Most schools are crowded and have
limited equipment. Students are
forced to sit wherever space is
available, (C)
\r0rld. The 854 schools ;It all lv\els r1�10111rd by the
\l ill istry of 1 ?dnoalitln Iu 1r tll t`r;tlilk9 ill 197W'7 I aril
ill;ldt`tiu;ll(` for (lit` sllulrnts nu\\ hying vdile ltrd.
(:I lssru( ms arr 1.11M ilt`d and possoss litilr ill ihr \\av ill
otluipillrllt or Wat�llillg lids (I igul t 29), 1 rn lhr
no\vor ,vhiiok lend to hr soillowhaI slimhIlt. F(I
o\amlllr. Ilit` \r tiallidah I I ri I I I I rk st`h(;oI, hsilt ill
I964 Ilk nst`s iII)Ilru\imaI(AN 300 slutivills in Ni
dassrutt111s: hrosusr ill' it shurlagr ill' drsks. 111a11v
s016`111s al" 1 to sit t11 Illo flool, H r11110;1st.
howt a Ito srh00) in san'a', huill 1w suviot
Irrhtlici;Im, is rrliortrdl \\I'll rtltlilpvdt Will has
IahonItoI irs. \\orkshtIIIs, ;I gylun ;Is ill In, ;Intl rrololltit,11
r0I111s,
I.ow Iris� scales dml 1( it) I� working (v it I IiI it III ha\(`
ntatlo tit` Yachting Irol(`ssion 1111400r.10ke ;Intl, it, ;i
eta \r(luruor, ft`\\ (plohlit`d 1'r11a`llis h ;tvv l)iut`d Ilhr
lrarhing furry, 1'11.1.11) Ioaohrr 1 s art` high; dw
1lliliullal a\t`1�:lgt` fta IIrinlllr\ srhtitON llllriIIg Ihi
(964 /70srhiml \r;u \as 1;; I, \\!lilt` in '1'tt'ivr 1
it tip); I. In (lu rffurl 10 irlrrt`asv Ill(` it 11n11wr u!'
Iralurd It`(IagOgut`s, Ow rrlul)Ilk' h;ls vsl;lllishrd
Ivilelivi training i1whillrs 111 \;Itl'tl 1 Mid ;\I
Iludodah ;Intl has lrovidrd s0mr in strvirr Inliuing,
In addition, tniiurt`s are firing stilt alruad; ill 1111111,
11 Irarhrr Indilors \t,111�11 rrlmrlyd Ilk ht` I1l(l\ illg ill 18
villinttirs, 1114m thol1 I\\(1-111ink ill h:g\ 111,
Since Iho nid. II),ill's, 1'rinrll Ills dept'llh`d till tilht`r
It I'll stitlt`s it) slllIIonit`nt its Irarllilig furor� lit
196-1/65., sulnt` I,ti;a I`:g ltillns \\t`rr rrl mrh`d In ho
sor\ing ill 38 sr110OIs, and Ihr 1111111h1`r hicrrasrd it) 00
is 1965/66, \lust 011 Hirst trat`hrl's \\ore lid ril \II
;1hor 1967, hill lllan rrtur11t`(I ;Illy\ Ill,, fighting
sulsid"(1, lit 1971, I`:g11, sutli \ralIa, I,ih\'
l,rh ;111011, S\l'ia, and KIt\\sil 1 Irtlgt`tl a lul ill*r3ti�I
lraohrrs for Ihr 1971/712 .schiml \rill
I. Anklie ur:j cultural expression (t /OL1)
1'rinrn's rullurill livrilago 11;Itos hack h thr lrr
Ishllllir Sobilvalk and Milk val kingdoms� (;0nlrnl
114%nir villttiral v\prrssi0n, Ilowevrr, is lilnilod to
Uadiliumll ill rllitrt`lur;ll forms, limidirr;ll't'., I�t,lk
lileraluro, ;Ind 11111sir and (hln(`t`, \1'rili11g ilr 111\ nlid-
I9-11)`s, tmt` uhser\�I`; dull"tdorilyd 1'r11u`n's rulhlr ;i!
Ir\ o1., Irrhals tint ;lirl as "(unllllolrl lnodit`v ;I1.,'
Until tht` rrvululiun, 41\di 1h(`t, log ;011(1 lhr hisl0r\ 01
1'r11u`n \\roc` \�irluull\ tht 01111\ suI (`unsitlrrrd
\\urth 0f siudh ;Intl, \\!lift` Ihr Il11iuis \\rot` 11 111\
tlislinguishrd rrligitius scholars, n10dc`rn (yarning \\as
viltil'ok disoturagvd. 1'111 `rinnrt`, Yrmrti rillrrs
rllfurcod slringrilt lsianlir I;I\\s against tho
1 't`IrUllnclit 11 of IlUlllall tll` ;IIIIIIISI ftll'ms ill scillptilrr,
1 ilinlint. ur ulhrr ;01 tills sorluusk iuhihiliug ildislir
r\llrssiu11� t onsrllurnll ill Yvillrll as ill lnu(`h ul�
Middlo h :asl, ;Ili is rtll filled lit alslraO, gvolnrlriral,
;Intl I'lon) tivsigtls. In grm`ral it is (1l' I11i`di01orr tlu ;llil,
;dllr(11lgh Yvillt`111 I1.` \1.`1'!` Itl;lstt`P sll \clslilltlls,
\rohilrrinrt` is lrrlaps, Ihr Imisl dislillolivt`
t` \prt`ssi1111 of YvIllt`lli vllllllrvt Ofit`ll highl\ omit(`,
ill ;ln ui its hasio fur11s have willilinrd vssrlllisll\
1111t`11;111grtl 11'11111 (rrlsl11t11h` Illllrs, I ;ll�l\
1whiblr aro the hall llnusrs, nut fulled ill tIhrr parts ttl'
1111 \rah world, hull arc skl111 hnih \\ilhoul iron
tlr t`t Ilrrt`It` slllllltirls, r\rdilit`om lint's ilro golit`nill\
silnlllr ind 1 rollotding Ihr Yollir11is' 111 +lie
Ill' o, hnl Ow hr11t`r hutlsr`s Imo Ill 0rmllta`nit'd wlih
rlaho';llr g1101110rit` designs, \vuttl rarvilgs, irld
rA111 1 011 r \11`riur \rolls, dutir\wNs, amt wintilms
1111), 'SoW I hilihlrl's o\rr) ill llrour(llivr
Nilldil mill h'ir1.4's, itlld ary Illilswr designers of
lu\111 gardon rn11rls, miilly wlih I
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The MOM IIles of IIiglllluill Yt,nlen art, hasieaII
sit kIilur ill ttl't�iIilrt�IM'td SIvly to 1110se tlf Ill rtherlI
:\rabia, althuragh several in TIC ii.i. IIIld tiara';' rel1eel
i'urco- li\i;11rlinr i ill htrnc�rs. \lust liltlstlut,s eottai11 a
ernI1'.k clu -it ra11galar eourt\ ;lyd sllrnitIIt lrtI h\
;oeadc s mid slt�lid(�r, uel;lgon shalx d nlin;lrets, oI
to\\t,rs. In sotne of tluv older %.10i tnostlues in sall'a
Iliv luinarrl is relined b\ a Small raetal tiurr,
rt,Int'seutativv of lht, duet, which \\arm d tilt, Pmllhrl
in lil11t, of Ila17gor, Ruth rxtrlior ;old inlrrior
o1�11aust,ntaIio11 is gt,raerall\ ronhilt -d to ralli4rulI1
and geunu felt, drsiglls. Ill the poul'Xr illages,
nuls(lurs ufirn h ;\r no Minarets mid litho, if ;In\,
clrror;ttiou,
Yetlit�n hits Iulig brt,11 kno\\ 11 fur the eset,ll('lket, ill its
(1;Ild it r;ll'ls, including j(raelry, Ival it r \\ork,
V 111 lroi( lcr\ Migrate ,iI car11c1itItIkiIIgI tlnd gold and
sil\III \\tlrk; tut lo\\ of Xabid and \o. Za\di\till ltrr
noted fur th +it, \\c11\iug, {lundiel;tll traditions,
ho\\r\(v, ;1rt d illg in lhr filer of foreign eunllwlitioll
;1nd the rnligialion of skilict jt ish ;Irlisaits to Isracl.
aassieal lill'I'Ai1re, om of Ihr great nluMl lilt-lit s of
:\1'ab ei\ili /ation, eontaitl, signifivalit eullirihnliuns
front 1'rint,ni \\rilrrs, both {Ire- Islaillieand Islanie. Of
prv- Iaar1ie \\orks, poet(\ willaills the must crnhuing
form, 1'cl11t,ni llrhlty. InlrMl al \\fill li\cd in
the skill ce11lur\, \\as ulster of elassical \ersr and
produet,d our of !ht, most I'aualus Ile(�- Islallir uties, a
\\ol'k \\hieh e41111innes to hr ricilcd lhroaghu0l tilt
\rab \\odd, \1tich of tilt grral \rab Islatllie liter t1111rc
\\hieh dt olllsidt of :\rahia, 11410it�n1;111\ in
FIGURE 30. Exterior of an ancient
house In Dhamar, displaying geo�
metric designs on friezes and
window arches. Now the fortress-
like construction of the ground
floor, WOU)
Baghdad and Dalll,�INells, as iuflaeneed b\ these
ri(rl \erne for111s, In 111odt�rll 1'rin(�n, pot -1r\ ztppv;tls lu
;dl It,\vk of soeietj ;ud is all illipoll ;1111 osllrel (It soeia)
lift and errt,nUMy, YvIlirll is rich ill unl)uhlishrd
alllhollail'N ((fill'(111s) 111 e41110(lnitd ;Intl l'l;ls >il`al \'el'se;
bash� thollivs runrt�111 lo\r, ht,douill illid \inapt, life.
and Murals. ;11u111, \\ilh formal prose ;knit speech
{nlrtI'\ is ir\\ed Il .-\runs getivniIIy ;t, Ihr highest Itnill
of all. 'I'ht, ullilil\ to list highly sllizvd ;krabiv is
eonsidrrt,d It M1ljur sori'd asset, hilt, 1111� skilll11) lase of
lalguagt is a \,Ilrat, in itself.
lul;tir hods' of indig(�uous IIMSt, \\u1k e\isls, of
which 1111111\ \'(lllnlles \\ere llrodlteed before Ills 13111
et,rlt11r ;Intl dealt \\ith (slanlir fhrolog\ ;nd lht
histor\ of 1'rinr;l. eousiderlhlr anluult of
111rological liti \vas \\ritwil ill tilt 10111 1M1 I Itit
(�rnlurirs by Ihr ki(Ii,, nalell of it just tlo\\ beginning
Itl be sl till it'd "it It It( lugh Milne IuiIniIk(I )it it :111hiraI
\\urks \\r1'r lu� ill 11wed ;dolig \\it11 Yviliv i 11istories,
Ihr\ ;Ile of (it JUhtfill li lent l\ 111 reee11I erll(II
t wrc has IwulI trot( err ;(Ikv Irosr lAllrrssion, tiled of
i1 (mini; eu111r1t,11(ur ell tII(II r Iheult)girul ;11uf
Iisttlrit'.I \11n'ks. In i9'Z), II11 ;1111 l 11 1 ftlllllde(1 the
lihrar\ of Ihr Great \lustlnc ill ti;lll' ;1 but its rrllorlrd
\,Ihl11l(IN ;or IinlitI large!\ to II wit II
11lurausrl�illls,
\s in luau\ rolintrics \\itll a high late of iIhlrl ;c(�\
;Ind 11 Ilaueit\ 411' rrcordrd li1rn11Mr, )mice has -I rich
01111 Irmlitioll, stur\trllrrs, rnlllhasiring pious, kol,d\,
o!� Irroie tllrnles, err popillal throughout the cocnllr\.
In some arras of solllh(�rll 1't,l111 for t,\anlple� lhcsr
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FIGURE 31. Silver jewelry
worn by bodouins (U /OU)
\tntit', inellnl I,lil\ I :III ,'lllttllit I". ;,ntl Ilml.11
;IIIIIil11ll\, ;1 \IIl 1 (1111;111 \III itII%1' 1 tell ItIt`,11
I' IIsIIltII", ,11111 ntI1III' 1'1111, \trill,', 11{ \111 \1111; tlit
t' \1 ill IIIII11;1\tI 111 1 1 \.1111 \1h` \111(1,1`
ll \IIIti1U1;\ ;11111 111( li`IIt11ldi'd, ;Ill' 1 ,11111
,tn' (11111 11111"11\ II\ IelilI i1t' I4.1\ 1(`I lt'1, \Ilt11l1r'1 1,1 \11111 i'
Illlli'II IIlitit IC, II\ t'1111t�rlll. 1111' r \I III it I ul ti;l 11111
IJ11 l,lr;lln, Jill t1t111`dell 1' 111 \;file 111 (111`
11II I 1'1,1 \It r` \11`11 lit oil\ Ill Ilitt\1`Ill,
it it It lltl\ Ilui Ilot`ll \I`lI 111 \I IYlll,lII" 1111('
(lliltl A IIII lilt i\ kill I \11 it ('t111111, ;Ili` 1 '(Illlnlull
t1ilUIIt;Jltllli 1111 .1,111 \lrllltl \IIItItI1111; Ill I111/,Illul;lt,
Ilit IIIi1,I 11 (1111111, 1It'I'I,IIII lu ItI 11111111/
111(1 Ii11'�II1;1, It`1111111I1t111, 1I; IIIIIII1` ,11111 .ell 11 \11;11111,
Mid (III IIIII\ t f IIIIIIII "'NoII\ I:11it11 \1(l,l 11`ulrni
111 \(`111,, Ill, 'I1 Iunl,n11 it \\aIIIIII 1,u tll
Iit'tllIII \l lit) ,11111t`,II Itl III II'IllltI
I)I;i111,i11I ;111 I IIIit11' \ilk 11 lilt I, Ills` 1 Ili I"I Icillll11oll
(111111 I, ;I Itintl 111 I'lltlt'll ,Intl Jlitl\ ,lIII I;IIIIt1 4(11a!;()
(11I;1i`k t' \i',!, t` \I111`n1I\ II1I111t11iccd II\ IIit 111111
I
tit` \1'1111 tII11II, II III tI (11,11 1111111111 \I I11,1 \III`
1:11"111 (1110111; tilt' Illl,llll;lli` Jill (111` 11t`llt'lit III Ills' Im'd
1;111111\ \1'1111 1111 ;1 1;11.1 1 IJII,1 \1'11`
lllll,lll'l1ll\ i'(tllllt' Illl,iull, Ill \IIIIJI ;11'1111\ IIi111111I
IJIt'll' 11111`., 1 U`IIi111111tI ;Illlli ;Illllr',, ;11111 Illlllllt`It111
lIt11Jl 1111111`1 ;11111 Ili \11`1 II,1 �I,
I it lit` 1 1,111) 11 ;tlltllll II111`111 n111 1 lit` (I \1 JIt
Jim I Illtlied II n'lltll1 ;1 1111111111`1 Ill 111 \II'\I lilt ill,
1IIIUIII; 1111' 1`11111111\ III;IIt\ IIIIIt \Illlll,lIiI\ I ,till
III 1' \1 \I Iwt\\I`rll Ilse ll,lllntill\ I11 111111` \t lilt It \1:1111 ;111
11111;, otill (111' h i'l1111 IIII1 \11;1`li;i (\,111 \It 11'1;1(111.
\111,11' 11i 111 11111,111 mew" htmc\ t`1
11Mel\ little III till that Ill \1';1111;111 Ili\\its III 1;IIIII;iI.
\111,11 111111 It\ illtllt`C> I istl,ill\ t'IIAlat'It'1'IN'lJ 11\ ,1
l\ 1111' 1 t1I Illt`Illilli`\, 1\111111 1111 I IIt` ;rI1Nr1, 111111
Jllll;lli`nlI\ I, ,I Li lit I Ill IIItl11i111111t11i\ l`li;lltl
l 1111;111\ Illllllil\ I,Id ll\ lilt` 111`Iltlllllt`l, Illli (lilt",
II111 1ullu 111\ III,11 1111 (livill\ ill I(i11111(I,Itlow
\I hlJlllll 111111 I I' 1,1; 1111 i 1 midt`I tI\ el (;111;1` I I I I,
1 (el !11111 lh`Ililf 1111111 lilt IJJ;14;t` ,IIItllenli`, 11111;,
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Wit 11(1Nk w Im tIvnis ;Inc) intricate I'vel and hiil
tllt\'t`IM4,Is. N1vII ;Ire nut itIlt\t`cl to walcll,
I list niine is used (or aru llip;tilinlrnt of 1)utll so,Igs
and dmices urt` usuuli\ sintpit� 1l111es, drutus, ;and
talli ourinl's,
Ilse Ivarlied 1\ cur, the\ are usually short, \\ill Simple
ellythnue Illr;tses, (,ove sons;s, t,speciilll utnortuls folk
tours, ;Ire popular; forhiciden Burins; the (ulilltiatt`,
1111`\' held to h' Sans; ill striet st I3eli;iolls sillgins;
(china diiti l it)\\ t,\ rl, ;ts rticour;l} rcl, I'hr
inr;nalutit11 of Ihr Korml (NJI1 itiokes speei;tl
stnd' Itild is importlult tit frs6vills okid c'rrnionirs, 11111
Yvili `ilk art` Sllid lit)( it t`xeC`) ill this, Other 11111\ietll
forms i1witide lhr eiu�a\;til sonar (Motu) ;tiid lilt
c'hantilig of I,orlr\� (inAtith,
(:loser� asstchiletl \011 folk imsic is elunrinst, hieh
;Ilsll ilki`Ilrretl tilt' (111 ;im CliStlppltW;k Stlt,ill) ti1111ei111r
IRI 111, \\estt'1'll sells, is not ut'eeptlihle, and Illt`II 111111
\\'0111( tit) not thilive 111geIiat'1�, ('talk daliv `s \'al� \\illt
Irihe tltid villiigv, 'I'rihul s\\�otti dllncr\ ;tie ct)nutioll.
II1111Y t`t111IlasiV1119 Irrt'Itl Spl'Vd Mill lclioti, ;1t`eortlitig
it) kill ohsrrver, Ihr t.latiec�r "spins roust) 1141 rotilld
beating it furious mt,usm'e with his feet, lil'tilll; his
km`c's almost lu Ihr It'vvi of his chest, and twit -ling his
dagger ill his lultieL" "ll simple (tulle' ilnititivs vilritns
mo\rlti'nls of the hors', W 11111vil ill gnillps of folal'
vighl often dkitier during orditikiri sildill urrlsirnl\;
Illest` d'ttiet'S rlllploy rh\Ihmie, ildvaner-lln.11-
J. Public informutimi (U /0U)
I'he developul" "1 ol coilll till it,atiills Illedia in
1'elnrn lits let` I, slow, \\'idesprvad illiteracy has Irrn
;1 factor retarding the growth (if' a nt`\\ and
puhli1-hitt9 indtistr\, atitl relit low, otinsvrvatisin
p4renit`(I iht iIItrod let ititI of radios ;old ulutiutt
pielures, ;t( lead for Hills( cI' Ill(. Iopul;Ni.m, utltil Ilse`
rt`\�ulntit'll, Most info mititm is still tl
ilafornutllr I, \\urd of nultilh, usuall\ ;It nustlue\,
euffr't,llouses, or nl:trkt`Is. Printed India rt`ln;till
prinlit' 'Mid 11a\�e inclined lo\ranl 'nnlliou;11, ;ulli
\\'rslrril pt)lemic S, p;lrlicu1,11-k dt,Hlli the period of
I`g pliuti inlervviaion, Yemen's first indoor rlaulion
picture theater \\,is opened it, itlli�1; ;I( I1'esrnt, ;t Ir\\
Illt`litt`ts� till )stI\ opell� ;Iil' t;11therilig places 1�01 ill
the plain citit's, ;Intl ntltile film linita are living seal to
lilt, \ill;tttes, \el�011fiil9 1t) file Vnited Naliotts, l,ti
itiillirni 1'rnarni\ utletitlt,d these fueilities ill 1965, htll
this fis,lue, hiell na ;I) ilu`!ud' those ho viewed short
film rlilS, upp' ;Irs to h' high, Y'lneu h;l\ tit)
teic`viLion; in Fehrltur\- 1972, ho \\r\er, an jIgreenletil
\\';IS sighed \011 ki rt'neh c(lnlp;ln to NO ill) 1 station
in tian';1' ;nul, ill \11401 1972, grouitd broken I'm
lilt hilildint;, O((ers to collstruc�t ;additional tele\ isioll
fleilitieS h ;t\r been ulad' h\ the ao\rrnnu'nts ul'; \hit
IAhahi and Wv%t (wrimiit
Iladiu is the likost i ill poll ;tilt of Ihr fonnul
t'1IllllllltlieatioRls lllelfi ;l, V111il ;Iht)tit 1940, ho \'evvr,
o\rm'rShip of' .1 radio is foriidclrn, and reeei\ors \\ere
1`1"`1 from ptillie pliers until the 1462 rovolution.
Dilrilig tilt` 1950'x, 1111 \t 1� ;Itlio st`ls \t`I�t' t) \1'Itt`d h Iht`
Inlaln, his f;ltnik, nild it fvwdistriet offieills, lid 19ti.1,
aceortlilig to eslimltles of the (',S, IIkI lit Ii Ill
\};em's Ihr nlmah'r of radio sets had reached 8,1NN) or
IlppitW11141tel, pet I,t I0 population, Since that
Iim', Irllnsislor radius imported frttil .1lin"tt) (I;igIIre
,313) IIZI\r }w e
att\� \ptmded the rkidio;tittliellct`, lull the
numlr1 of sets 1\;til;llilt is rotlghl\ esIimaird tit
Most recehrrs ;n loc;tted in urkml iti
pllrlienlarl inti ul' il' aluf' 1' 1 'iv,x,11u1 11'tlllsisIorst, Isilrt`
ItIltll) t` \'t'll 111 1't`tllllll` '111;1sr1`S,
IIrs1 1'1ltlio St;ltillll, limlio SiI11'a It`Irltll
It itldellsl11Ig ill 141.111, 1isiIIg ;1 \111 1 all\ IIIIIv1�
dtu1111ed by Ills` I'IIiImI SI "IIts, OIleralitIll\ \1`It`
e\pandetI in the 1950 S, in pit II to cotmtel'tO
proll"Igmida frolll Ihr rt,\t)lutiomtr\ \rah Stales, hul
I
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FIGURE 32. Minstrels using typical instruments, Songs
usually are short and the rhythmic accompaniment
Improvised, (U /OU)

traslstnission \\as kdvetivIv affected qty ivade(111mv
tv(luipnu'rll, nlilUnlal soundpnofing in lilt studios,
anti an irregular po\\er \appfly, linlzah�asting tvtntelll
wws limited by the small, ill- tr;lilre'd program staff
b\ the lack of It fixed amlaal budget,
After the rt''olulioa, ilil fortes of public media \'en'
ialacrd under forimil govvninient contni Rurlio
Suu'u', officially klltrvn as lilt Yotti id Arab Republic
Broadcilsl staliou, \vas iMilelled to lilt Millistry of
Information, Ii' 1)(iE, Ihr lt.nu'ni Br(zulcastilg
Authority, la'ilded b\' it director general, lrld heel(
eslablisheti, but little hilpn'ralent in ti stzllioll
st.enls to slave been iu-Illeved, lit the words of ;,ill
observer, "clutter, det'a', and t'hao\" \'err its
"domimalt chararterislics.' AIthougl ihr stzlff
ItuillIw1't'tI zkbotlt till, most \'err \\itltollt forma)
training ill broudcztsting operaliolls, To treet lilt acrd
for skilicd personnvi, it radio trilinirlg institute as
e\tablished ill smi ;tlld I'.g'ptimI v \pt'1'Is \'t,n'
re\- ruitecl a\ histrac'lors, Nonetheless, prograrr
renlithwd na'dioclr, and tilt deficient po\rrr supple
colllinard to resIII( ill fretl it III disl,aption lit'
br\adcasls, Tht volldiliotls cur' Ielitwt -d still to
pn''ililt its it IvstllL ;111(1 bvelillsv liveplita ill v4lriolls
ilarls of the cemalry is poor, many 1'ent'nis reportedly
listeli n'gularly to fomigli broadcasts., iltclittllrlg those
of the British BromIt'llstilig Corponitioll, lintho 1SIVIel,
ladle Cailr, otld liurlir Atoxctt',
As oC MTN, N(4(lir sun',' blradcastillg Croat
\lalions located in `ilrl'il lald 'I`a'izz, In No'elliber
1972 the `+ol'a' Dolrlestit service, operating \\lilt
thret' trzulsulittel,\ \\its oil the all thlily (null M to
M05 and flul 1 IUII to 2',00, ll cal lime, All pniq am\,
inc'ladiag nr\vs reports offers'd st'vell liners a da\, \\err
illuldczkst iu Arabic, Prior to the \vilh(bil\\;11 of its
fon't's ill 196 Itigyptiau infiut'mv over 11otho `ut'a'
wits pervasive, \lost ne\ \s originated in the Middle
Ew.4 News :Agency (?III' :NA) in Cain), and other
pngraming lwavily dependent ou it I,(NX) t1IIw
library supplied to the station, primarily h\ 1 ':gyp tian
authorities.
Newspaper, have experienved zln v\trvmel' limited
cin-ulati(m, possibly reaviling less than IM of the
population, The fir\t poblit-Miorl a go\ernmt.nt
edited ae\vsslleel th ;It appeuretl in 18 6. hilt it
probably \\t'IIt out of existent.e after the 'Turkish
aitlall,arval A svvontl nt.\vssht.t't, :11- 1rartl (1 ;kith),
begun in i926 appearing sporadically ill its e;krly
years, By 10.18, it had developed into it four pa g e
Monthly pzsper t- emtaining, in ;uidilioll to occilsiolatl
articles I y tilt. Ilnarll, information ou the Imatll's
uudieatY's, ;11111Illlt.elnenl\ t11 govvnittiellt apleUlll-
nit.nls and transfeiN, the wiltvr;ahouls of
,I
notables, ;kild other (oezll new" It ;lino published the
t(-\t\ of tre4ities, its well a\ tn Islamic' anti
literary topics, In 19.11, vircul;tion \\-,Is estim;ted ill
about 3 0NI, mainly mvitil ers of the lnlilnl f ;lrllil'
and govenanent ofllviikk�
lu Ihr ni(1 il)�Il)'\, (till' lwo pthiling passes, both in
S-kWi', wt re reported ill flit vimlilr\, one for the
publication of Al horn, the other for use by the
Ministry of I'Ativatioll for printlikg rerlifiratrs,
diplomas, and imillphlt.ls, hater, ho\%vvel, t\'o
Impt'ls -�.the official Illlafllie shut :11 Nosr \'ictor')
and Saba, which colfillcd itself to povtr\ glad
e'lllogiesM- vry prillit'd ill '1`;1'iz7, indit ntiill,
additional presst's, Folr'igil paper., magazines, anti
hooks wryly vitivred the coutllr, rxrrpl on a
clzlIIdt'sline basis, In 19 the Aden based A I-
,1a1itlynI AI- Ya mall iyut A/ -KOwn ((;raid Yt
\\\teiallon) t stnblislit'd all illlt0'illl'il lit' \sp.
cilllt.cl Sato :11- Yutri i \voice of Yvlllvl \\hicll llul\
have bud solar virctllilliou illsitlr Yemru,
After tilt revolution, the rt'pnbliczln goverrinlerll
contilued to publish ;m official gazelle, illimilured
se'e'r,) dztily will \\eekly ae\v\popvrs, zind c're;ltccl the
Saba Nt'\\s Agency in 1!)711, A(v'ortiing to tilt Miuistl\
of Information, the following d;lilit's \\err pliblishiag
in 1)17(1; Al- Thalr' 'ul (The Ilevolutiotl). it `mi
Ill` \1ImI1t'r, and ,11 lunliu Yttul (Tilt lieplsbliv), a
Tii'izz. ,iollnull, both wlilt estimkllcd rilrul;llfou\ ill
:11- S110611) ('i'hr i'roplrl, Al- s tibalt 0
Morldlg), and ;11-liimlah t'i'ke Nlvssage), all
ril,caiatillg rtnlgll!> 'I vopies; :aid Al- 'I'll ltul rth
(The I "ors), \rills it cin'ulalioll of ?,U 4 lit 197'- the
kiln'' most imporliu1 dililit.\, as mprnrled b\ it
go'rl,nmi'nl s1tlkrsulan, \'err Al.Thalcl(dl, :11-
,11#11 ull-ittuh, and Ab'11110p z +1, Une \tall AI-
N'ahthih (The 1'niou), cil,culatillg 10N) i\\uc's, \\as
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FIGURE 33. Yemoni listens to news from San'a' on
Japanese -made transistor radio (U /OU)

publishitl); ill 1970, and ill mid -1972 aulother weekly,
AI- Milfld (The COkInlr�) was appearing in Saai u'. In
alddition, it military magazille castled Majollfal AI-
jaysh (Arm\ Magazine), has reeenily bt
1111blicaltion. Likewise, no information is available on
other perlotheah that acre possibly beirl); published.
All uewspapen art Controlled by the Ministry of
Information, and fon`igtt ,fourths must be licensed.
Follow�itl); the Inlamit, praetive, netts i ".lPis were, at
least initially, written aand published'N' i,i republivaul
govertum`nt. For it while. Cohltx., wars strongly
influenced by Akh bar AI Yuman (News of Yemen), a
San'a' dally published ill tilt' mitt 1460's auld written
Fgyptia n advisers ill the` Ministry of Information,
Ntattly mews articles a n` simply it whatsh of Radio
Sfln'd nut's programs, In addition, the S'ehlt`h press
has used reports from MENA, PASS, the Novosti Press
A ener, and the New Chinas Netts Ageney, all of
w'hlCh have representatives In tilt` eltltltry. Befo the
enrta ilment o U,S, atrtivities ill 1't,roetl ill 14x47, tale
Ta'ize. rlewspapen, oCCasiemullly carried items produced
b\ the U8 Information Service-, Although govern-
nlent restrictions oil publicatiols nuty havedeer`ased,
under a I$HiS press law editors may be Convicted and
jailt,d for "itflanling tribalism or sectarianism." In
addition, Imbliviltion of at newspaper or periodical
n1ay be baumed, as wars the case with AI iiuyyal Ail
,laaliduh (Thl` New i.ife), which was orfemd to tease
publieation becaluse of pro-Commumist views
allt,gedly e\pressed in its editorials.
Rook publishii; has Inativ little if ant� progwss.
I)tlrilig the 19 12 4.1 period, reportedly' mo mow than
30 books" vver` published err Yehlem, Ill 1966, there
wen� apt ar�mlly o nly font prinlitkg presses in the
evulnlry, two (it tilt g from lnulmic tithes, one of \'rsl
Cwrttl m malllllfilettlr� ill lived of 1t`liilir, atilti title, it gift
from the People's llepublic of Chinal, \%hiell was still
vraited, The govermmemt itplroved the eslablishmemt
of the Yvnit`hi 1'rimtin; will 1'ublishind Company in
1970( but this step is tmlikely to have arm immediate
impact. Ill the 11141-1940"", lilt\ one bookshop was
reported ill lilt` entire vo mltry, l,ocatted ill \I
lludalydah mid owlled by lilt 111diatm Ntlhll111, the stun�
imported a fete hooks printed In h:);s'pt anti Indit,
TelepholIP servive, although extremely limited, has
be);tml to provide imlportartl vommumleallfoms links
w'ithill Ye`1 vii, AN late its 1948, toll\' Ulm` Idephom, lime`
e\Wvd, which wits sulplied by the for the
vwltisive nit` of lilt Ilmaml. In 1951, Til,11,z had it stmaU
system with IS numbers, Ilmd the Inlamm was
evulsideritig tilt lllstalllalioll of a dial systeml. Chlly
tllr`e vities Ilml lelepholm` swrvive in 1961 `+am'1k' with
a 5(H)�mmmlber ewhatigv, hid At Ilmdaydalh aid
Ta'ivz, vaeh with it 21N)- number tie(work. 1n 1970,
I,l)t)U- number ewhan vs wen beilig installed ill both
Tal'izz and Al Iludaydah, and a 2AW- uumbersystem
in San'a'. Eight other Cities also had telephone
eVchanges which wen- in opertliom or were being
installed. The� first domestic votineetion betweell c�ilit-s
w�as opt,nrd in 1970 between Ta'izz and At
Ilutiaydaah, followed b\- a telephone` and telex link
between Salrn'a' and At Iluda\'dah. Long distanct,
service was initiated in Itki�1 helwet,n Sall'at ahel
pair, and in 14)41) plains were under way to lie Yemmen
ihtl It world cvnumunirations systrnl. In januur}
14)71, lilt number of telephones ill the oomitry was
vstiuuated at 3.550, or about 11.14 sets per 1,(XX) people.
K. Selected bibliography (U /OU)
Noah, Kathryn Dohert.v, "Yemen: Modernixallion
and Intervention." A paper presemled to tilt Seemed
Auntial Convention of tilt Middle 1 ?ass Stmtl+ps
welatioti, held in Austin, 'I'evls, kilt 15. 16 November
19(K Ili pp, A somewhat tlleorelivaal pmst,ntact its
voliverldlig the r`lattionship betw'eell tutldt`rlllJalt,ull,
civil war, and Egyptian intervention.
Itrtt il, William It. "The Yemeni t)ilt The
.fiddly Fast IfDfllYtf1, von. 17, pp, 414)- :iti;, \ulunu
1963, A thorough exanlimation kit' tilt prI )Iehls
ccafrnthig mpnblicaul Yemen.
C:oolt, C itrfeton S, "Southern ;\rabic; A Problem for
tilt' 1' liture, Nludin tit tilt- AnlllfYgw1ogy nl Q)etwwa
unfl Asin, rapers of the 1eabotly Ntuseklm ofArmeriean
Awlie(,logy ;ind Ethmolotty, lltlrvaill University, vol,
2 0. pp, i ti7 -21 14)�6 Ill hides it provocative
t`\almillalliltll of Yenlelli vultural patlerlts, t` uplulsiAlig
lilt` volitimuity betwet`m modern `etm`m told the im
Islaumic elllpict's,
C aorta tlal, i dles N. The Yo nelli ('dais, Laos Atigvles;
Institute of Inlrrnatiolud aid Fowiglk Affairs,
t'ldvel :sit of l.,aliforlifa, 14)(4;4. Alt im t of the civil
wtuv, with special referetlt`e to U.S, itivolvt`Imt`tit, l\ a
former U,S, Clamgv d'Affaires to Yemeni.
Fo Clatldie Frenrlt Donor in dw Yenfwt,
Traulsinted Its Douglas Nlcwer, I,omdola Robert liatle,
195 All eweptimially inter`stilkg, almec`dltall aveoout
elf tilt author t`xpe`I'It`llt`t's its a (lootor in Ywlletl from
1951 to tmid-1952, Cohltlirls hlalky ob servations kill
social lift Imltl eustohs,
C;erlikell, ltivilaml I talks, f'if�111n s title Yenll -n,
(,oil zig, 14161. The lest pivtoriai stttd\' oll Yemeni,
wail it short teal,
Ilelfritz, Hams, Tht- Yotimv A See�wt jouYtf`y.
Trahslalted bN N1, liertl, Lomlow,, Cworgv Allem'kill
IS
.....:.it t r� Y^ i +.M:ti,HyA1Gi'+ >YWIth�i�Nf:iro, nl..
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200100028 -5

1111win, 19i8, Cood description of Yemen's trudiliotmal
soeietY, based on a journey in wax),
I1eywtarth 1)tinnr, Jaelnes, ;.timd A/-
Yellien: ;1 C:rnrrccl Scx iul, Pulitiewl a Finamnic�
Stimey, Catint; Rettaissaumcr &)okshop. 111,13, A hrtual,
witle- ninging discussion of Yetnrni life.
111grams, 1141r1l(C The Yenien: lnicins, lildera and
11"alatiuls, London: john \lurrar. I1)ti.i. 1
disew.siotl of the recent ptclitivid siluatior,
Al Irani, Karim, "l.ltl '1'enitligntege stir le Yemen:
Scici"It' de ht Trilm des Ilashitl,"
Ettxle des Olkers de Mrit -al C.untrrtlpurriin, pp. 3 -8,
April 11M, A short, interesting Illonogr iph on the
social orl,ani..atiou of the 1 iashid tribes,
Mar�c, Eric, Y011en and the Westem il'urdd Situ r
1577 New fork: Frederick A, I'meger, 1968, A good
discussion of )'mien's relations with 1� urlpe,
Satid El Altar, Mohaune�d. I.c Staus 1)re r�luplc rn of
Emnuniclae rf Scx�ial cdti Yeira, Alger: Tier` xlloudr,
Il)(i�t, (:untaiins useful iulor!m)ulit +n eo tiring patterns
prior to t11e mroltltion atlltl civil %ear.
Schilki(it, I)aula Adams, 1'etirr, The Unknown
War, New fork: llolt, Rinehart ant! \'ill, INtiti.
Au acvoulmt of the eiril \ith rui)hatsis on tribal
Walrfare, from a t prlroi�atlist Ixlint of rie\r,
Sona�rville- Large, Peter, I'dhr�s aild I'liblilations:.1
,/)r in Rep ublirYin )'rmt�ti, hoodoo: Robert Ilatlr.
11167, Inter�ating imprt�ssions of au) Irish jotirnalist
shortly after tilt, rt�rolution,
\\'ellner, Manfred W. ,1ladt Yrnirn liltl- Itlf
Baltimore The J01211s Ilopkins Press, 1116;, 'I'ht best
scholarly ac�eotirlt of 1'enit4t's rMT111 political history,
With some r�fer to social pr!)leius,
:daces and features referred to in the General Survey (U/ 0U)
rtlunlal,rFZa
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APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP0l- 00707R000200100028 -5

CONFIDENTIAL