NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 26; SOVIET UNION; SCIENCE

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: NIS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200090037-6
• Release Decision: RIF
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 46
• Document Creation Date: October 25, 2016
• Sequence Number: 37
• Content Type: REPORTS

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U+S*S*R*
CONTENTS
This chapter supersedes the scientyfc cover-
age in the General Survey dated March I97I,
A. Genera!
1
B. Organivitie,s, planning, and financing for
reseama 2
1. Organization 2
2. Planning 4
3. Financing 5
C. Scientific education, manpower and
facilities 6
D. Major research fields 7
I. Air, ground, and naval weapons
a. Aerospace systems 7
6. Ground weapons and equipment 11
c. Naval weapons 12
SECRET
No FOREIGN DissEat
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Page
2. Biological and chemical warfare
13
a. Biological warfare
13
b. Chemical warfare
14
3. Nuclear energy
15
4. Electronics
18
5. Electrooptical research
20
6. Medical sciences
21
7. Other sciences
25
a. Chemistry, chemical engineering and
sciences
metallurgy
25
(1) Chemistry and chemical
35
engineering
25
(2) Metallurgy
27
Page
b. Physical and mathematics
29
(1)
Physics
29
(2)
Mathematics
31
c. Astrogeophysical sciences
31
(1)
Meteorology
32
(2)
Space and upper atmospheric
sciences
33
(3)
Terrestrial geophysics
35
(4)
Geodesy
36
(5)
Oceanography
36
(6)
Hydrology, hydraulics, and
coastal engineering
38
Glossary 39
FIGURES
Page
Fig. 1 Organization of Soviet science and
technology (chart) 3
Fig. 2 Organization of the Academy of
Sciences (hart) 4
Page
Fig. 3 Model of Backfire bomber aircraft
(photo) 8
Fig. 4 An -22 long -range heavy logistics
carrier photo) 8
Fig. 5 TsAGI wind tunnel photo) 9
ii
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Science
A. General (S)
'rhe U.S.S.R. from the time of Lenin has
emphasized the importance of science and technology
to industrial progress and as it means of achieving
national political, military, and economic objectives.
Th Soviets have encouraged the improvement and
advancement of both basic and applied research and
the expansion of scientific institutions and support
facilities. The rapid growth in scientific and
engineering manpower and facilities, particularly
since 1965. is evidence of the large investment the
reginne is making in many branches of science. The
U.S.S.R. has applied its growing scientific and
technological capability to solving problems of
national importance. Priority is given to the
development of new weapon systenns and the
improvement of existing weapons and systems as well
as to the space program.
Soviet science, despite its considerable progress,
remains second to that of the United States in main\
critical areas, and Soviet civilian technology generally
lags that of the leading Westem countries and also
that of some other Eastern European countries, at least
in some sectors. Nevertheless, the U.S.S.R. has made
some spectacular advances in military and space
technology through concentration of its efforts and
resources, and overall scientific and technical
capabilities are improving steadily.
Soviet control over science and technology is
maintained by a nationally coordinated planning
program, but in spite of these efforts, leaders have
been dissatisfied with the "bility of science to provide
it basis for it stronger and more versatile industry. A
joint resolution in 1968 by the government and the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), aimed
at increasing the utility of science to industrv,
introduced the concepts of profit and financial
incentive to motivate institutes to increase the
applicability of their research to production. 'There has
been some resistance by scientists to the efforts to
redirect their research, however, and it is not evident
that party- governnnent pressures to strengthen
industrial research capabilities have produced major
benefits. There have been definite emphasis on
applied and less emphasis on basic research in recent
\-ears. According to Chairman V. A. Kirillin of the
State Committee for Science and'r,chnolo* ((;KNT)
on 16 July 1973, about 85% of the research and
development effort in the U.S.S.R. is applied, i.e., in
industrial rather than academic institutes (80,000
research workers in academic institutes �basic
research; 570,000 research workers in industrial
research and development institutes and universities
applied research).
Improved relationships between scientific theory,
experimentation, and application have been in large
measure the objectives of several reorganizations of the
administration of Soviet science and of reforms in the
educational system. A related program, still underway,
is the geographic dispersal of scientific facilities and
activities to help advance the economics of Siberia, the
Far East, and other regions.
In additit,n to extensive acquisition and exploitation
of Western technical publications, the Soviets have
employed intelligence and snhterfuge to obtain
technical information and designs to assist in
overcoming important research and (it velopnrent
problems. M nch has been obtained from open sources,
however, as well its from samples of foreign
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equipment. Numerous Soviet developments have been
based on original Western work, and in some technical
fields progress also has been accelerated by aggressive
technical intelligence collection programs. In
addition, the U.S.S.R. has drawn openly on and
exploited to some extent the scientific and technical
resources of Eastern European and other countries.
Science has been an important tool of political
strategy. Soviet achievements in space and other
aspects of technology have increased national
scientific prestige. The U.S.S.R. has attempted to
exploit this prestige in the East -West power struggle by
cultivating the image of the Soviet system as hest
suited for achieving social and economic advancement
and military strength. This image is projected through
propaganda, trade fairs, exhibitions, and technical aid
to less developed countries.
In recent years Soviet leaders have increased their
participation in international scientific affairs,
including exchanges, meetings, and some cooperative
projects, and they have become more aggressive in
obtaining positions of leadership in international
scientific organizations. However, Soviet leaders are
still reluctant to allow some scientists to travel abroad
and from time to time have taken restrictive actions
that discourage scientific cooperation with the West.
Among the East European Communist countries the
U.S.S.R. has fostered the coordination of national
research plans and cooperative scientific and technical
programs under the auspices of the Council for
Economic Mutual Assistance (CEMA), partly as a
means of satisfying a desire for international prestige
and of increasing the flow of scientific and technical
information into the Soviet Union.
B. Organization, planning, and financing of
research (S)
1. Organization
Research and development are controlled by the
Council of Ministers and administered through
various ministries, state committees, and other
agencies, including the academies of sciences. General
policy is set by the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union and controlled through party representation at
Lill levels clown to t1w individual research facility. The
party concentrates on establishing general policy,
expediting high priority projects, and monitoring plan
fulfilment with the objective of solving broi.d
problems. Management of the overall effort is left to
the governmental apparatus, which is organized to
insure that most research and development projects
a
directly support specific sectors of the economy
Figure 1).
The research structure has undergone a series of
reorganizations since the major decentralization of
1957. Reorganizations in 1961, 196 3 and 1968
resulted in a partial return to highly centralized
management. Since 1968 greater emphasis has been
placed on improving the efficiency of research and
development and speeding their utilization in
industry. The U.S.S.R. has about 5,000 scientific
institutions, most of which fall tinder the following
elements of the state administrative structure: the
Academy of Sciences and the 14 union republic
academies of sciences, which together are sometimes
referred to as the academy system; the Ministries of
Defense, Agriculture, Health, and Higher and
Secondary Specialized Education; a large number of
industrial ministries; various state committees; the
State Committee for Science and Technology; the
State Planning Committee (Gosplan); and various
administrations and main administrations.
The Academy of Sciences is the leading scientific
institution in the Soviet Union, and many of the most
important scientists and rescar ^h facilities operate
under it. The academy has the prime responsibility for
basic and theoretical research and conducts applied
research in key technical fields. In addition, it advises
the government on such other matters as the
exploitation of resources and on various aspects of
econornie planning. It also provides postgraduaw
training for some of the best students, as well as other
training designed to increase the capabilities of
scientific workers. The academy has four sections
Physical- Technical and Mathematical Sciences;
Chemical- Technological and Biological Sciences;
Earth Sciences; and Social Sciences �with 16
subordinate departments (Figure 2). Each department
acts as a national coordinating center, responsible for
guiding research in its specialized fields in institutes of
the academy and in other institutes throughout the
country working in the same fields. Recent policies
have stressed the development of the resources of
eastern regions of the Soviet Union. As a result, the
Siberian Department, the Far East Science Center,
aril the Urals Science Center were formed in the
academy. "These centers, which are organized on it
regional rather titan a substantive basis, are
subordinate to the presidium and have their own
general assembly and presidium. They are responsible
for scientific and technical activities designed to
benefit their own areas, especially those furthering
economic devclopme'it.
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FIGURE 1. Organization of scienca and technology (C)
Most of the academy's research institutions, which
represent between �1 and Sl of the Soviet total
number of 5,000, are administered by the depart-
ments; the presidium administers Borne directly. The
academy also has 10 affiliates, which are separate
institutes or groups of institutes little "academics of
science" �often in remote areas. The primary function
of the affiliates is to study the natural resources of the
local regions and to aid in industrial development.
I our of the affiliates are under the Siberian
Department, and the other six are administered by the
presidium of the academy.
"There are also 1 -1 republic academies of sciences.
The Academe of Sciences has considerable authorit
over the planning and financing of their research,
primarily to avoid duplication of effort. The republic
academies do research in depth, usually on problems
of particular concern to their own union republics.
Most of the applied research and engineering
development is carried out in facilities subordinate to
the appropriate all -union ministries and state
committees, councils of national econonn, or to
similar agencies of the union republics. Military
research and development are performed predomi-
nantly by facilities of defense- related industrial
ministries, including the All -Union Ministries of
Defense Industry, Aviation Industry, Shipbuilding
industry, Radio Industry, Electronics industry,
:3
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Presidium of CPSU
Central Committee
I
Council of Ministers
UNION REPUBLIC
Al4UNION MINISTRIES
STATE COMMITTEES
ACADEMY
MAIN ADMINISTRATIONS
MINISTRIES
OF' SCIENCES
Agrladture...
Avllu o Y
of Atomk
Geodesy and Cortogrophy
Cotrrnunicnt(ons
Daferw Inclu
Defetue
y
El"drpiks IndusM
Hydromeleorologkal Services
Ferrous MatoRurpy
vaneral MadtMe Butlding
Silence and.Technolopy
(GKNT)
F inance
Mkrobiologkal Industry
Fop Indultry
Machine BWWIp
Health
Mad(wn Machine Building
PlambV (Gospion)
Highs cw d Specialized
Radio Industry
Secondary Education
Nonferrous Metailrrgy
Shipbulldirp Industry
CiNters
4aiards''
Research
Raseardt
Rewarch
Research
;;,,Mstltutes'.
IaMeufes
4attlnles
Ibtitutes
histimes
Union Republk,Ccunclk of Mfniften
MWshles and Union Republic
Slate Committees Academies of Selene"
I
Higher Educational Research Research
butbutes NwyI Wfutes Imithfies
FIGURE 1. Organization of scienca and technology (C)
Most of the academy's research institutions, which
represent between �1 and Sl of the Soviet total
number of 5,000, are administered by the depart-
ments; the presidium administers Borne directly. The
academy also has 10 affiliates, which are separate
institutes or groups of institutes little "academics of
science" �often in remote areas. The primary function
of the affiliates is to study the natural resources of the
local regions and to aid in industrial development.
I our of the affiliates are under the Siberian
Department, and the other six are administered by the
presidium of the academy.
"There are also 1 -1 republic academies of sciences.
The Academe of Sciences has considerable authorit
over the planning and financing of their research,
primarily to avoid duplication of effort. The republic
academies do research in depth, usually on problems
of particular concern to their own union republics.
Most of the applied research and engineering
development is carried out in facilities subordinate to
the appropriate all -union ministries and state
committees, councils of national econonn, or to
similar agencies of the union republics. Military
research and development are performed predomi-
nantly by facilities of defense- related industrial
ministries, including the All -Union Ministries of
Defense Industry, Aviation Industry, Shipbuilding
industry, Radio Industry, Electronics industry,
:3
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PRESIDIUM
FIGURE 2. Organization of the Academy of Sciences (C)
`tedium Nhic�hinc Building, General Machine
Building, and Machine Building. "These ministries
control it large number of research institutes, desir' n
bureaus, testing facilities, proving grounds, and
experimental production plants designed to meet the
needs for new and improved weapons, support
equipment. and supplies.
Soviet agricniteral and medical research fall within
the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture and the
Ministry of Ilealth, respectively. 1 ?ach ministry
controls research institutions either directly or through
corresponding ministries at the union republic level.
The most importAnt research institutes of these
ministries comprise specialized academies: the A11
Union Academy of :Agricultural Sciences intent V. I.
Lenin and the Academy of Medical Sciences.
The Ministry of Ilighcr and Secondary Spceialixed
Education supervises research at higher educational
institutions (VU %y), although inany \'UZ\' are
administratively subordinate to vario agencies Lit the
anion republic level. Pundainental and theoretical
research at the W-J'Ly, as Lit other organizations, is
guided by the- Academy of Sciences. Much of the
applied resc�arcii is done on it contract basis for
industrial organizations and is guided by them.
Although the duality of research is high at it few
VU %y, they play it lesser role in the total Soviet
research effort than do higher educational institutions
in Western countries. One reason is that the system of
Soviet academics of sciences has assumed leadership in
research areas held in other countries by universities.
2. Planning
Scientific and technical plans are an int( _wl part of
national economic and military planning and are
developed by Gosplan bused on policies laid down by
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Councils
Commissions
c
Physical Tedeikal and
Earth Sdences Sedlon
Che Tedmologkal and
Social Sdences Secftn
Motbema cal Sdences Section
;:000gkol Sdences Section
Deportnrnts
Departmams
Departments
Departments
'Modcamatks
Gerlogy, Geophysics,
General and Tedeical
History
adbmiitr*, and 0 ihft
Chemylry
General PAysks ad
Phyda of the Atmosphere
Physics� ChemMry, and
Phllosophy of Law
Oceanology, Water Balance,
Tedewbq; of harganic
and Gera by
Materials
Economks
6a myli
BWiemistry, BbphyAa, and
Literature and lcspuages
a+eshY of Physbbgkally
Physical and TecleYcal
Alive Compounds
Pewee. Problems
Mcdtanks and CybemeHa,
PhYo9Y.
General Siobp
Sdenlirk kaf hoes
Sd iNdIrk hntitule,
saenNflc Instltutss
SeantMlc hutble support to areas such as agricultural meteorology
and especially Arctic studies, probably because it large
portion of their territory is located in polar and
subpolar regions. Research carried out by military
personnel or sponsored by military organizations is
noticeably missing in Soviet publications.
32
Soviet research in numerical weather prediction has
kept pace with U.S. work in the theoretical aspects.
"::.vever, the Soviets have fallen behind in the
applied aspects because of a shortage of sizable
computers. The need for more advanced computers is
even more keenly felt in the associated area of
atmospheric modeling, in which the soviets have been
able to run only a few models on computers. The most
significant research on theoretical numerical weather
prediction and atmospheric modeling is conducted
under G. 1. Marchuk, at the Computing Center of the
Siberian Division, Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk.
Applied research in the field is concentrated at the
Hydrometeorological Center of GUGMS in Moscow.
Soviet research on weather modification is
conducted largely by facilities subordinate to
GUGMS, tinder the leadership of Ye. K. Federov.
Early in their weather modification program, the
Soviet policy was to direct large efforts toward solving
specific problems. Accordingly, a sizable program was
carried out in the 1950's to develop operational
techniques to dissipate cold clouds and fogs, followed
in the 1960's by work directed toward protection
against damaging hailstorms. The Soviets claimed to
have solved the hail problem in principle by the latter
part of the 1960'x, using antiaircraft shells and rockets
loaded with cloud seeding nuclei to induce premature
precipitation from potential hail clouds. By reducing
hail storms, lest cases have shown that the gross crop
yield could be increased by 5% to 10 A project for
dissipating fog at airports progressed so rapidly 'that
operational programs are conducted at several airports
in the Soviet Union with a high degree of success.
Creditable work is carried out in precipitation
augmentation; this work led to attempts to t.se the
technique in controlling serious forest fires in 1972.
The results of the efforts are not known, but
newspaper reporting did not attribute any great degree
of success to them. The Soviets also study methods for
dissipating warm clouds and fog. This work appears to
have significant military support, particularly by the
air force, but details of the extent and nature of this
support are unknown.
After considerable delay the Soviets began devoting
attention to satellite meteorology. Although an
experimental weather satellite program has been
underway since 1966, it was not until 1969, when
Meteor I was launched, that the program became
operational. The Soviet satellite was equipped with
television and infrared sensors that provided cloud
photos of both the daylight and dark sides of the earth.
The IR set;sors also were employed to provide data on
earth and cloud surface temperatures and on the
general radiation balance of the earth. Through June
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1973 the Soviets launched 13 satellites in 0ic Meteor
series. This program has been carried wit ur
GUGMS, although the military v !so clearly is
interested in the developments and uses the data
collected by the satellites. The military may also
participate in planning some of the operational
procedures for these satellites. The Soviet hydro
meteorological service operates meteorological satellite
receiving stations tat Novosibirsk, Khabarovsk,
Moscow /Obninsk, and Tashkent.
The development of instrumentation capable of
determining atmospheric temperatures at various
altitudes represented a significant advance in the field.
Such instruments were flown successfully by the
United States in 1969 and by the Soviets in 1971 on
Meteor 8. This instruntentadon was not used
operationally by the Soviets, however, and there is no
evidence that similar instruments have been flown on
later Meteor satellites. Nevertheless, such instruments
are expected to become standard equipment, with
measurements being made both in the infrared and
microwave regions of the spectrum. 'rho Soviets have
also indicated that they are developing radar and laser
instrumentation for future weather satellites. Such
instruments could provide data which could be used
for sortie very sophisticated research in atmospheric
and cloud physics. The Central Acrolegical
Observatory, subordinate to GUGMS, is the major
facility engaged in instrument development for
weather satellites. The Ilydromcte.orological Center
and the Main Geophysical Observatory, also under
GUGMS, are the most important facilities engaged in
analysis of the data. However, the Academy of
Sciences and university facilities also are engaged in
data analysis and research, but to a more limited
extent.
(2) Space and upper atmospheric sciences �The
Soviets have maintained a very active scientific space
research progra;a since 1957. Strong support for lunar
and planetary exploration has been demonstrated
consistently, and it is clear that this aspect of the
unmanned scientific space program receives high
Priority in the U.S.S.R. Nearly every available
opportunity hats been used since the early 1960's to
launch planetary probes to Mars and Venus, and
many tines two or three: spacecraft have been
launched (luring a launch window. Although the
success rate. of the planetary probes has not been high,
the Soviet Union has been the only country to obtain
in situ data from the atmosphere and soft -land a
pacecraft on the surface of Venus. The Soviet lunar
exploration program has been highlighted for its use of
automatic, unmanned devices both to pick up and
bring back to earth small hrnar rock samples and to
investigate various surface features in the vicinity of
the landing site.
Soviet space research in the vicinity of the earth has
received lower priority than the lunar and planetary
program, although the scope of the program is still
fairly broad and second only to that of the United
States. The Cosmos series of satellites, ostensibly
launched solely for the purpose of carrying out
scientific investigations, in reality is used primarily to
carry out missions related to military intelligence, such
as photo reconnaissance, electronic surveillance,
navigation, communications relay, and geodesy. Over
500 Cosmos satellites have been launched through
1972; only about 7% have had an entirely scientific
mission. The Soviets have included piggyback
scientific experiments on many of their photo
reconnaissance satellites that have helped compensate
for the low number of purely scientific launches. The
photo reconnaissance satellites provide stable, earth
oriented platforms for the scientific package, but they
severely limit the altitude regime over which the
scientific measurements can be made. The time in
orbit is also very limited (at most, 14 (lays), since the
scientific package ceases to operate after the
photographic package is returned to earth.
The U.S.S.R. appears to be placing added emphasis
on cooperative projects with other countries to carry
out their scientific space program. They have
launched nine Interkosmos satellites in cooperation
with several East Euro countries and the Orcol
satellite in cooperation with France. Aside from the
piggyback payloads on photo- reconnaissance satel-
lites, these five cooperative launches constituted the
bulk of the Soviet unmanned scientific program
(luring 1970 -72. The Soviets have established the
Interkosmos council, headed by B. N. Petrov to
initiate and carry through these cooperative projects.
The Institute of Space Research and IZMIRAN, of the
Academy of Sciences are the most important facilities
for conducting scientific space investigations.
Many of the measurements carried out by the
Soviets its earth orbit recently seem to be directed
toward collecting data pertaining to the effects of solar
phenomena on the environment of near -earth space.
This has involved measurements of solar particles,
together with simultaneous measurements of
ionospheric and magnetospheric conditions, with
emphasis on conditions in the auroral regions. Such
measurements have been made on several of the
Interkosmos satellites, the Orcol spacecraft, and
Prognoz 1 and 2. 'I'hc last two have very elongated
orbits that have allowed the collection of data from
relatively close to earth through the magnetospheric
33
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boundary region and into interplanetary space with
the sar .e satellite.
The program for lunar exploration has been marked
by several successful flights during the past few years,
beginning with the Luna 16 mission in IWO, which
successfully returned lunar rock samples to earth. This
mission was essentially duplicated in February 1972
by Luna 20, which soft landed in a mountainous
region of the moon. The amount of lunar material
returned by these two missions was limited, but it was
sufficient to contribute to an under'anding of the
early history of the m.,on. The sample collected by
Luna 20 was particularly important, because it came
from a region that had been inaccessible to any of the
U.S. manned flights. Luna 17, which delivered th
automatic Lunokhod mobile laboratory to the surface
of the moon in November 1970, probably was the
most successful Soviet lunar experiment to date.
Lunokhod carried out a series of surface measurements
over a time period that far exceeded the design
lifetime of the vehicle. Lunokhod 2, which landed on
the moon on 16 January 1973, did not last as long as
Lunokhod 1, but covered much more distance on the
moon and provided considerably more data.
In planetary exploration, the Soviets have had their
greatest success in exploring Venus. Venus 4, launched
in 1967, was the first Venus probe to penetrate
successfully the Venusian atmosphere. Although the
Soviets originally thought that Venus 4 had reached
the surface of Venus, they now privately admit that
the landing capsule probably imploded before
reaching the surface. Venus 5, 6, and 7 were also all
intended as landing craft and met with varying
degrees of success, but Venus 8, which landed on the
surface in July 1972, probably was the most successful
of all the Soviet probes. The Venus program has
provided Soviet scientists with direct measurements of
the atmospheric conditions on Venus whereas in this
area U.S. scientists have relied more on remote
measurements by Mariner spacecraft.
The Mars program has been far less successful than
the Venus program. Man 2 and :3, which arriv d in the
vicinity of Mars in late 1971, had primary missions of
delivering landing craft to the surface. Mars 2
probably crashed, and Mars 3 apparently landed
successfully but returned almost no data. However,
Mars 2 and 3 also contained instrumented capsules
which were placed into orbit around Mars and
returned a small amount of video and remote sensing
data, somewhat similar to the U.S. Mariner.
The Soviet solar flare prediction effort appears to be
making some progress. A. B. Severnyy and his group at
the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory (CAO) have
3 -1
modified their process of solar flare prediction, which
was based almost solely on the magnitude of magnetic
field gradients in active areas. They include
information on the spatial distribution and time
evolution of these field gradients, as well as other
fac'ors, such as radio emissions and X -ray bursts from
solar flares. Severnyy has stated that he can predict
important flares over a 2- to 4 -day period with 80%
success, a figure questioned by Western solar
physicists. Some of the recent measurements by
satellites, particularly Prognoz 1 and 2, should provide
us(1 inputs into the Soviet flare prediction effort.
The solar telescope at the CAO reportedly was
modernized and enlarged and was to have been
operational in the summer of 1972. A large solar radio
telescope is to be built near Irkutsk. It will be a 128
antenna cruciform array, with each arm longer than
600 meters and each antenna 2.5 meters in diameter.
Both instruments should provide useful data for
improving the flare prediction effort.
The program for conducting earth resources surveys
from space is presently closely linked with efforts to
establish a long -term manned orbital space station.
The first comprehensive earth resources observations
from space were conducted during the Soyuz -6, -7,
and -8 mission in 1969. The Soyuz -9 mission in June
1970 repeated the experiments of the previous Soyuz
mission but covered more extensive areas. The most
comprehensive Soviet earth resources investigations
from space were conducted during the Soyuz-
11 /Salyut mission from 6 to 29 June 1971.
Observations included multispectral photography of
approximately M6' meters resolution, polarimetrie
measurements of reflected visible light, microwave
radiometry, and spectral measurements of light
reflected and emitted from the surface of the earth.
Improved camera systems, microwave radiometers,
and spectrophotometers are scheduled for future
manned space station missions, and the Soviets plan
eventually to include scientific specialists among the
crews to assist in the observations.
The Soviet vertical rocket sounding programs are
designed to support satellite measurements by
collecting a wide variety of data on the structure and
composition of the upper atmosphere, on charged
particle concentrations, and on characteristics of solar
and corpuscular radiation. The Soviets rely primarily
on the MR -12 Yo-ket, which is capable of reaching 180
km airs'' the M -100 rocket, which can reach 100 km.
On se-. oral occasions, heavily instrumented rockets
with a 500 -km capability have also been launched.
Soviet vertical rocket launching sites include Kheysa
Island in Franz Josef Land, Kapustan Yar (Volograd),
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Molodezhnava in the Antarctic, and several ocean-
going research ships. In addition, the Soviets have
launched approximately 90 M -100 rockets in
cooperation with Indian scientists from the Thu:nba
rocket launch station.
Soviet space instrumentation generally tends to lag
the Western state -of- the -art, and, together with
associated data processing equipment, may well be the
weakest part of their space program. In fact, in a
recent report a prominent Soviet aeronomer stated
that the major limitation in Soviet upper atmospheric
experiments is their computer capability. Although the
Institute of Space Research has a BESM -6 computer,
apparently only the smu ler and slower BESM -4
(8,000 words and 20,000 operations per second) is
available for their af.- ronomy work. In a few instances,
however, especially with their scientific payloads
piggybacked on photo- reconnaissance satellites, the
Sw. have performed un;_-ue and advanced
measurements. Microwave radiometers have been
flown on three Soviet reconnaissance satellites and
have provided significant meteorological and
oceanographic data. Similar microwave radiometers
probably will be incorporated into the Meteor weather
satellite system in thy near future. Another instrument
which may become a permanent feature of Meteor
weather satellites is a visible light polarimeter flown on
Meteor -8 and the Salyut -1 space station. Its primary
function was to determine whether cloud tops were in
the liquid or frozen phase, but it also has possible
applications to aerosol studies.
The Salytit -1 space station carried two additional
notable instruments, a spark chamber to record high
energy particles and the Orion telescope to record the
emission spectra of stars. These are indications that the
Soviets will use manned space stations to a
considerable extent in the future to collect scientific
data and to test advanced instruments because of the
spacecraft size and the presence of a human to operate
and service the instruments. The Soviets appear to be
far behind in the use of satellites as data relay
platforms for information collected by remote ground
and sea sensors. Very recent information, however,
indicates that this lug may not be as great as formerly
believed.
(3) Terrestrial geophysics �The U.S.S.R. maintains
a large research effort in all areas of terrestrial
geophysics, and in some areas this effort probably is
the largest in the world. Despite this effort, however,
the quality of Soviet research somewhat lags that of
leading Western nations, probably primarily because
of a weakness in the development and production of
very accurate, highly sensitive instruments. 'There are
also shortages of sophisticated data processing
equipment and high speed, high- capacity electronic
computers. The Academy of Sciences directs most of
the theoretical research on terrestrial geophysics.
Under the Academy of Sciences, the Institute of
Physics of the Earth and IZMIRAN are two of the
most important institutes involved. The Ministry of
Geology plays the most prominent role in carrying out
applied geophysical research, most of which is directed
toward geophysical prospecting.
The geomagnetics program has become the largest
in the world �the excellence of Soviet geomagnetics
research has received the acclaim of the worldwide
scientific community. The Soviet program enjoys a
high priority in the allocation of both scientific and
monetary resources. The Ministry of Defense is a
prime customer for this research, because the military
is well aware of the many potential applications of
geomagnetics. The Soviets have the largest
magnetotelluric observational network in the world,
and they have established several stations outside their
territorial limits, many of which are operated in
cooperation with other countries. One such station has
been maintained for many years with the French on
Kerguelen Island in the Indian Ocean. This station is
magnetically conjugate to Sogra in northern U.S.S.R.,
and coordinated observations at these two points have
resulted in several significant contributions to the
understanding of geomagnetic micropulsations and
natural VLF emissions. Such research contributes to
the knowledge of plasma interactions and can also
furnish useful information on ionospheric physics and
electromagnetic wave propagation.
In 197' the Soviets plan a cooperative project with
the French that will involve a Soviet electron
accelerator placed aboard a French rocket launched at
Kerguelen. Electrons are to be directed up the
magnetic field line, and studies will be made at Sogra
on the effects of these electrons as they reenter the
earth's atmosphere.
The Soviets for many years have carried out a strong
research program in seismology. Much of the work has
been used to study the structure of the earth's interior
and to advance the state -of -the -art in seismic
prospecting, particularly for oil. Other seismic research
has been carried out to support the nuclear detection
problem, and the Soviets have established a nuclear
detection network. In recent years it appears that the
Soviets have begun a large effort in seismic
engineering and earthquake forecasting. Gravinietric
research in the U.S.S.R. has lagged leading Western
work for many years, apparently because of the rather
poor instrumentation. Possibly for this reason, the
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Soviets have riot stressed the use of gravity methods for
mineral prospecting. In recent years, however, the
Soviets have developed some respectable instruments
which are being placed into service. Soviet gravity
measurements at sea have suffered also from
inadequate instrurnentation as well as from poorly
stabilized platforms on which to mount the
instruments.
(4) Geodesy �The U.S.S.R. has an extensive and
continually expanding research program in geodesy.
Coordination of national research in the field is carried
out under the auspices of the Multilateral Cooperation
of the Academies of Sciences of Socialist Countries, the
International Observations Program; the Council on
International Cooperation in the Studv and
Utilization of Outer Spacc of the U.S.S.R. Academy of
Sciences.
All civilian geodetic activities are conducted under
the supervision of the Main Administration for
geodesy and Cartography (GUGK), which controls
the Central Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial
Surveying, and Cartography in Moscow; the recently
established Research Institute of Applied Geodesy,
Novosibirsk; the Novosibirsk Institute of Engineers of
Geodesy, Acrial Surveying, and Cartography; and the
local acrogeodetic enterprises. All local agencies and
organizations undertaking projects which involve
geodetic data or surveys must obtain supervisory
professional guidance and approval from the
corresponding authority. GUGK schedules all geodetic
control and mapping projects, with the exception of
migrational boundary areas, certain strategic areas
within the country, and foreign mapping. These
exceptions are the responsibility of the Military
Topographic Administration of the Ministry of
Defense, whose activities are highly classified. Active
research programs include geodetic surveying,
triangulation, leveling, astronomic determinations,
gravirnctric and magnetic observations, spatial
triangulation, and the construction of necessary
technical equipment.
Goals of the geodetic effort are to extend the
astrogeodetic and uni0T.d coordinate system through
the country, to resolve differences between tire: Soviet
data and recently adjusted Western European data, to
establish firm connections with the North American
data, and ultimately to establish a world geodetic
system. The Soviets classify all gravity data for the
U.S.S.R. and European Communist countries. As a
result of published U.S. data, the Soviets enjoy an
advantage in the reduction of geodetic error
contribution to the rniss- distance of future ICBM
systems and probabiy will reduce these errors further
36
with less difficulty than will the United States. The
Soviets have recently begun a geodetic survey by
means of satellite tracking to tic precisely in a line.
from Spitsbergen in the Arctic to Mirnyy in the
Antarctic.
Soviet efforts in satellite geodesy have expanded
c'msiderably in the last few years. New overt optical
trade ;ng stations have begun or >on will begin
openuion in South America and Africa; the Soviets are
approaching a worldwide optical tracking capability.
At least one new covert station also has been
discovered. All of their tracking stations arc registered
with the international system Committee on Space
Research.
In the fall of 1971 it was discovered that as part of
their geodetic program the Soviets have been using
flashing lights aboard some satellite vehicles which
had been considered part of the Soviet navigational
satellite program. Based on the location of these
satellites during the times of flashing, it appears likely
that several more covert stations exist than arc'. r own.
The flashing lights on these satellites allow the Soviets
it greater time period for tracking, since they are not
dependent on reflected sunlight. The Soviets plan to
improve their geodetic net accuracy furthcr with the
introduction of laser tracking, which was scheduled to
begin in 1972. A prototype laser ranger built in
Czechoslovakia has been used (in Czechoslovakia)
with U.S. satellites equipped with laser retroreflectors.
A similar instrument has now been set zip in Riga, and
the implementation of laser satellite ranging into their
worldwide geodetic program may begin within the
next year or so.
(5) Oceanography �The U.S.S.R. ranks second in
world oceanographic research, closely following the
United States but well ahead of Japan and the United
Kingdom. The Soviets are expending tremendous
efforts, using large numbers of scientists, technicians,
research ships, instruments, and oceanographic
facilities to achieve their committed naval and
economic objectives. Their outstanding effort in
applied oceanographic research has increased
significantly.
Much of the Soviet oceanographic research effort is
in support of the marine fisheries industry; however, a
considerable part of the research is applicable to the
Soviet undersea detection program. Particular
emphasis is placed on the study of marine fauna and
flora and their ecology. The Soviets have been
concentrating on food protein technology, and its
ultimate goal is to he the world leader in oceanic
fisheries. Soviet research and development of fish
protein concentrate still trails leading Western
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countries. The U.S.S.R. is giving attention to the
exploitation of Antarctic fishing areas for krill, which
they consider it fish product of great potential.
In addition to the coi derable effort in marine
fisheries research, significant emphasis is placed on
internal waves, htrbulence, and hydrooptics. The
Soviets have it g( capability in the theory and
ohservation of oceanic turhulence. Their internal wave
and turbulence instruments are adequate for a broad
range of these studies and are operated from both
buoys and ships. An increased number of these studies
arc directed toward support of naval operations,
especially mine. bmarine, and antisubmarine
warfare. The development of underwater optical
instruments is wc'1 advanced. Dolphin research, which
continues to receive excellent financial support,
focuses on methods of underwater navigation,
hydrodynamics, and target discrimination. Naval
applications for the studies of echo .ovation
capabilities of dolphins are likely to be the
development of complex sonar equipment.
The fioviets are making detailed synoptic surveys of
various large oceanic regions. To accomplish these
surveys, they have been adding about nine modern
research ships a year to their fleet. Finland has just
completed seven oceanographic research ships of the
1,500 tons DmiMy Ovtsyn class for the Soviets. The
acquisition of these ships may indicate it trend towa -I
smaller Soviet research ships. However. three modified
Akadernic Kurchatov class, 5,460 -ton ship,, have been
ordered from East Germany, and at least two have
been completed. The Soviet oceanographic research
fleet now consists of approximately 200 ships (naval
and civilian) of more than 100 displacement tons, and
this does riot include an estimated 125 vessels assigned
to fisheries research.
The use of underwater habitats capable of 100 -foot
depths for subsurface observations is it relatively new
research technique for oceanographers. Habitats
capable of 300 -foot depths are presently being
developed. Several deep submergence vehicles have
been designed, but the Soviets have reported
production of only one 2,000 -meter vehicle and have a
second vehicle capable of operating to 600 meters.
Meanwhile, the Institute of Oceanology has bear
unsuccessful in its attempts to purchase vehicles
capable of 2,000- and 6,000- foot -depth capability
front the United States, Canada, and France, it]-
though the Canadian purchase is being renegotiated.
For several years the Soviets have been rising
automatic buoy arrays in the Atlantic Oce,sn; the
arrays are designed to provide synoptic temperature
and salinity data and information on air -sea
interaction. They have also established i hydroacous-
tic buoy system in the Barents and Nor,vegian Seas its
well as in other areas. They plan to use buoys in the
Indian Ocean to collect and transmit data to their
meteorological satellites.
The. Soviet polar oceanographic program does
significant research in ice and ice forecasting, and
active oceanographic, meteorological, and geophysi-
cal programs are conducted from several drifting ice
stations in the Arctic Ocean. The Soviets have just
established a new drifting ice station, SP -21. The
U.S.S.R. deploys approximately 15 to 20 drifting
automatic radiometeorological stations in the Arctic
each spring and the same number in the autumn
under the direction of GUGMS; however, nearly all
are demolished during the severe Arctic winters. The
active Soviet Antarctic program coptinues to include
studies in oceanography, seismology, geophysics,
meteorology, and glaciology. The 17th Soviet
Antarctic Expedition (1971 -72), their largest survey of
this type, utilized research ships from the Arctic and
Antarctic Scientific Research Institute, GUGMS, and
the Institute of Oceanology. They operate six
permanent stations in the Antarctic region and have
recently established a seventh station.
Several institutes conduct geological studies in the
Bering and Chukchi Seas. Offshore oil exploration in
the Black Sea promises to open an extensive new field.
The U.S.S.R. has a very active research program in
earthquake prediction and is developing forecast
techniques. Extensive seismic work has been
accomplished in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The
All -Union Scientific Research Institute of Marine
Geology and Geophysics, which was established in
1967, is responsible for ocean bottom mineral
exploration.
The Soviets are hampered by problems of
maintenance and development of instrumentation for
their oceanographic program. To overcome these
constant problems it rather large group of engineers
has been formed at the Institute of Oceanology in
Moscow. The group has developed sonic rather
specialized and sophisticated instruments, but the
majority of the Soviet manufactured irastninients are
simple and rugged. Elowever, it number of research
ships are equipped y.ith sophisticated electronic
sampling and measuring devices.
'I'll(- recently established AII- Union. Coordinating
Committee for Oceanology in Moscow coordinates all
oceanographic research conduced by the various
Soviet and republic academic; of sciences, the
Ilydronteteorological Service, and the Soviet Na%
Directly subordinate to the Council of Ministers, the
37
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coordinating committee replaces both the Inter-
departmental Committee for Oceanography of the
State Committee for Science and Technology and the
National Oceanographic Committee of the Earth
Sciences Section of the Academy of Sciences. The most
important organizations responsible for oceanographic
research are the Institute of Oceanology and the
Acoustics Institute. Academy of Sciences, both in
Moscow, and the Marine Hydrophysies Institute.
Sevastopol, of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences; the
Flydrographic Service of the Navy, Leningrad; the
Ilydrometeorological Services; All -Union Scientific
Research Institute for Marine Fisheries and
Oceanography, Moscow, under the Ministry of Fish
Industry.
Probably the most significant recent development in
the Soviet oceanographic program has been it greatly
increased interest in conducting cooperative surveys,
international projects, Ind foreign exchange of data.
The U.S.S.R. has long been an active member of all
the prominent international oceanographic organiza-
tions. Iceland and the Soviet Union agreed to it
cooperative oceanographic program, with emphasis on
geological and geophysical research, to he conducted
during the summers of 1971, 1972, and 1973. Chile
and the Soviets concluded it fisheries research
agreement involving exploration of the Chilean
Continental Shelf and spawning grounds. Although
not a member of the International Hydrographic
Organization, the U.S.S.R. is cooperating with
member countries of that organization in the
compilation of it General Bathymetric Chart of the
Oceans. Japan and the Soviets are conducting a joint
seismic exploration of the offshore waters of Sakhalin
Island. The United States and the U.S.S.R. recently
signed an agreement for cooperation in oceanographic
research and scientific exchanges.
The Soviets have been giving Cuba oceanographic
support and cooperation for over a decade in general
oceanographic observations, seismic explorations, and
fisheries investigations. The Soviet Union and Cuba
are participating in the Cooperative Investigation of
the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions under the
auspices of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission, UNESCO. The U.S.S.R. is interested in
developing an international ocean buoy data
acquisition systern in cooperation with other countries,
particularly the United Slates. In October 1972 the
Soviets agreed to participate with the United States in
the Deep Sea Drilling Project.
(6) Hydrology, hydraulics, and coastal em incer-
ing�"'lie U.S.S.R. ranla second to the United
States in hydroiogical and hydraulic research;
investigations are directed toward practical ap-
plication aspects. Hydrological research is focused on
problems of river regimes, seasonal variation of river
discharge and runoff, regional water deficiencies,
extension of test -well networks for ground -water
studies, ice phenomena on large rivers and reservoirs,
evaporation, hydrothermal characteristics of perma-
frost and frozen soils, protection measures against flash
floods and mud and debris flow, and reclamation of
swamp lands.
Hydraulic research is directed toward three
dimensional electrical modeling of seepage flow,
superturbulent flow and rolling wave movement,
routing of floods, and initiation of new techniques for
hydraulic construction by using conventional and
nuclear explosives. Research is directed also toward
hydraulic construction in regions of subzero
temperatures, unsteady regime in downstream pool,
hydraulic resistance affecting head losses, developing
pumped storage techniques, and aerated flow in open
spillways and pressure pipes. Computers are used in
studying discharge rating curves, plotting critical flood
waves, programing reservoir volume, and estimating
seasonal variation and control of reservoir balances.
Several high quality instruments, such as remote
control recorders, neutronic moisture tracers, gamma
ray donsimeters, and underwater TV cameras, have
been developed.
Practical application of research is directed to
problems in five broad areas electric power, inland
waterways, irrigation, diversion of north flowing rivers
into arid regions of central Asia, and water pollution.
Continuing construction of clams and locks on major
river systems enhances Soviet capabilities in
hydroelectric power, navigational inland waterways,
and irrigational systens. North- flowing rivers are
diverted to irrigate and sustain regional water levels in
portions of the Oh River basin, and the Pechora -Kama
Canal is planned to be constructed to divert one -third
of the Pechora River flow southward through the
Kama and Volga rivers into the drying Caspian Sea.
Soviet hydrologists and hydraulic engineers, some
world renowned, are very active in national and
international professional organizations. Several have
been chosen as members of various working groups for
the International Hydrological Decade (196 .3-74) of
the International Association of Scientific Hydrology,
which is under the auspices of UNESCO.
The U.S.S.R. ranks second to the United States as it
world leader in coastal engineering research. New
study techniques and equipment that facilitate
exploration of shallow water mineral deposits have
been developed. Also, new research techniques and
equipment have been developed to assist in the study
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of littoral drift and sedimentation effects. These
studies help to determine the type and placement of
protective structures needed to prevent erosion of coast
and beach areas and silting of ports and harbors,
especially in the Black and Baltic Seas. In rw:rinc
dynamics and protective works, emphasis has been
placed on the origin and occurrence of storms and
their effects on coastal and protective structures.
Special emphasis has been given to the development
and use of continuous- printing current meters to
record storm currents and the dynamics of waters in
the coastal zone of the Baltic Sea. A proposed dam and
breakwater would enclose the Gulf of Finland and
protect the city of Leningrad from these storm
currents.
Glossary (u/ou)
SECRET
Coastal research and engineering programs in the
fields of marine dynamics, shore processes, protective
works, and instrumentation are carried out by
approximately 40 organizations and establishments.
The leading researcher, V. P. Zenkovich, heads the
Laboratory of Dynamics and Morphology of Shores,
an element of the Institute of Oceanology in Moscow
under the Academy of Sciences. The Soviet Union is
playing greater emphasis on the study of seas and
coasts and plans to increase its research and
engineering efforts. Recent studies, especially of
shallow coastal waters, have achieved international
recognition. Scienti:-ts participate fully at interna-
tional meetings and conferences on coastal research
and exert great influence on research conducted by the
Eastern European countries.
A nno.v. -np(
RVBBIAN
ENGLISH
GKNT........
Cosudarslvenyy Komitet po Naukc i
State Committer. for Science and
Tekhnike
Technology
Gosplan.......
Cosudarslvenyy Planovyy Komitet.....
State Planning Committee
GUGK........
Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i Karto-
Main Administration for Geodesy and
graJii
Cartography
GUGMS......
Glavnoye Upravleniye Gidrometeorologi-
Main Administration for Hydromete-
cheskoy Sluzhby
orological Services
IEOS.........
Institut Elementoorganicheskikh
Institute of Elemento- Organic Com-
Soyedineniy
pounds
IES...........
Inslilul Elektrost,.,rki imeni Ye. 0.
Institute of Electric Welding imeni Ye.
Paton
0. Paton
IZMIRAN....
Institut Zemnogo Magnetizma, Ionosfery
Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism,
i Rasproslraneniya Radiovoli
Ionosphere, and Radio Wave Prop-
agation
VINITI.......
Vsesoyuznyy Institut Nauchnoy i Tekh-
All -Union Institute of Scientific and
nicheskoy Injormatsii
Technical Information
VUZy.........
Vysshiye Uchebnyye Zavedeniya.......
Higher educational institutions
SECRET' NO FOREIGN DISSEM
39
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