NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 42; THAILAND; THE SOCIETY

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• Collection: NIS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200090028-6
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w, r...,
r f
CONTENTS
This chapter =pewdrs the socfo
a: q
k r.
r
k` y Ir i 8 Structure an c h aracteris ti cs of
v 1. Ftlinic composition
2. Clan structure
3. Family and Idnship groups
4. Basic
X. Si and d i str ib u ti o n
2. Age-sex strunture
s 1
f- and wor
tj
q P
q

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4. Work opportunities and conditions
a, The people and work
b. Labor law and practice
c. Labor and management
5. Social welfare
6. Social problems
E. Religion
F. Education
Page
Page
Page
35
C. Cultural expression
51 1
36
40
1. Literature
52
40
2. Performing arts
53
41
S. Architecture and the fine arts
54
42
4. Handicrafts
58
43
H. Public information
59
48
1. Selected bibliography
03
FIGURES
ii
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Page
page
Fig. 1
Composition of the population, by
Fig. 20
Sectoral composition of employ
ethnic group (table)
2
(table)
37
Fig. 2
Location of principal ethnolinguistie
Fig. 21
Hourly wage rates ((able)
38
groups (map)
3
Fig. 22
Opium .,cooker in a Bangkok den
Fig. 3
Representative Thai (photos)
8
(photo)
43
Pig. 4
Representative tiibespeople (photos)
10
Fig, 23
Spirit houses (photo)
44
Fig. 3
Kha tribesman (photo)
12
Fig. 24
Chinese Buddhist temple (photo)
44
Fig. 6
Population, area, and population
Fig. 25
Novices accepting food from a
density, by province (table)
22
villager (photo)
45
Fig. 7
Population density (m (op)
24
Fig, 26
Missiuvary monk (photo)
46
Fig. 8
1 change (snap)
25
Fig. 27
Plain of a village scat (chart)
46 1
Fig. 9
Age -sex structure (chart)
28
Fig. 28
Hermsei,tat.ive nuts (photos)
47
Fig. 10
Mobile tuberculosis tram (photo)
27
Fig. 2r
Classical dancer (photo)
54
Fig, 11
Bang(;ok hospitals (photos)
29
Fib. 30
Grand Palace (photo)
55
Fig. 12
Class I public health cenier (photo)
30
Fig, 31
The Phm Paton Stu �t (photo)
56
Fig, 13
Bamboo -pipe water system (photo)
30
Fig. 32
Khmer towers (photo)
56
rig. 14
Earthenware urns used to store water
Fig. 33
Pavilion at Bang Pa-In (photo)
56
(photo)
30
Fig. 34
Bronze sculptures (photos)
57
Fig. 15
Rush -hour traffic in Bangkok (photo)
31
Fig. 35
Mural in Temple of the Emerald
Fig. 16
Food vending (photos)
32
Buddha (photo)
57
Fig. 17
1lepre5ent -rive rural hou:ing (photos)
34
Fig, 36
Religious edifices in a temple
Fig. 18
Home of a relatively well -to -do urban
coinpound photo)
58
family (photo)
35
Fig. 37
Typical motion picture theater
Fig. 19
Government housing project photo)
36
photos)
64
ii
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'r
i
The Society
A. Introduction (U/0U)
Generally ailecluate natund resources, at long his! �n
of national independence, and a sense of national
unity have served iit Thad Imid to promote slit WIity and
to alleviate rn:uty of ti,e social and ecvmomic� pressures
that have plagued other Southeast Asian cotioldes.
There is a Fairly high degree d cultural honiogeneily,
.with most of the popnlation professing Boddhisni and
most speaking Thai as a mother longtic or a second
language. Many of the elhnic minorily groups in the
country are amiergoing assimilation to ttatioual
cultmrd patlerns enianating outward from B;utgkok.
Moreover, in niarkedc itrnst toot her Southcast Asimi
cilindrics. Thailand emerged from World War 11
without serious impairnusit of its economy or itssocial
structure. Furthermore, an essenlially st;,hle pattern of
authoritarian political control had been maintained
by (lie nations milil ;try I wil ders singe they assumed
power ill November 1917. Despite all of these factors,
however, tiicgripnfthcurniygenci ups:autlthcirpolic
services was broken by it student revoll in October
I973, and at civiliani government was establisliecl.
The Thai economy, with extertat assistance
primarily from the United Stales, Ins developed
illip.essively since 1lr0rlrl War H. despite a rapid rate
of population growth that has absorbed a significant
proportion of the country's economic development.
,Normally lbere is ail amotial surplus of rice, and
seldom have the demands for footi omistripped the
availuble supply. Over S.Vr, of all Thai farmers
ctdtivutc their own small plots of land. Conscqucntly,
neither poverty tiro� socioccoontic disamtent among
the peasants have been widespread. Nlost of the
improvement ill average per capital real incomedurimg
tits postwar years, however, has been corice mrated in
the itrb;ut areas, resulting ill it!cn:.t%cd disparity ill
tmcvune anti levels ci'r living between the urban artd
rural populations, at p olemial source of social unrest.
Insurgencies', some of thrill fosleretl by foreign
Conanutnisl agents, Il;awe been conducted in depressed
rural arras, especially those inbabitcd b ethnic
miimrilics. Even moni;g [lie Thai lhemtselves, there is
some degree of dissalisfaction with (lie apportiorurteut
of the nation's wealth, particularly in tiro m irllicast, a
region economically retarded by poor soil altcroate
periods of drought untl flood, and ivadecivate
transportation. Nonelhcless, although grou-itig
political unrest has created hitemal 6cuitrily problems
in tits northern, norlheastemi, and southern frontier
regions, it has not yal seriously affccled the social
%lability of the kingdom.
The student revolt of 1973 apparently was causal
primarily by student. disccoolenl over both academic
issues and police repression of student and other
opposition elements in Bangkok. Matey politically
conscious "'Imi on all levels of Baitgkok society-
itichiding the Kitig hinasclf-- syntpathircrl will, the
students' detimods for releas!c of jailed opposilitmisls
and for promulgation of a iiew ccttistitutioat
establishing democratic government. The leadership
of the armed forces appears to be supporting the nem
government appointed by (lie King, which is Beaded
by a university rector, Iirofessorsariyu Thatiunasuk, us
prime minister, and which has promised to
promulgate a new cotistihition within 6 months,
However, it remuitis to lie secti whether these 1
unprecedented political c'hmigc%
will actually affect
the social composition oft lie inililary and civilian elite
groups which have governed Thailand for over four g
decades.
raAw. :,_,:.'d .T i b+ev .1:;.:+.r s i:" g`. 4i: r. C2.. P..".. t.& t' S4='.' S: La4K sFlr3" 4"'..: r4. IC. iiE6iMl.. x9uKa. wX.+% frs. C% aowox: 4: a� 2v: w'. a+ x� a4+ miK .lra:..wxu.....a.Y:rs.3sz: xt4.:m:
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4'
Fi
i`
r
Es
The Society
A. Introduction (U/0U)
Generally ailecluate natund resources, at long his! �n
of national independence, and a sense of national
unity have served iit Thad Imid to promote slit WIity and
to alleviate rn:uty of ti,e social and ecvmomic� pressures
that have plagued other Southeast Asian cotioldes.
There is a Fairly high degree d cultural honiogeneily,
.with most of the popnlation professing Boddhisni and
most speaking Thai as a mother longtic or a second
language. Many of the elhnic minorily groups in the
country are amiergoing assimilation to ttatioual
cultmrd patlerns enianating outward from B;utgkok.
Moreover, in niarkedc itrnst toot her Southcast Asimi
cilindrics. Thailand emerged from World War 11
without serious impairnusit of its economy or itssocial
structure. Furthermore, an essenlially st;,hle pattern of
authoritarian political control had been maintained
by (lie nations milil ;try I wil ders singe they assumed
power ill November 1917. Despite all of these factors,
however, tiicgripnfthcurniygenci ups:autlthcirpolic
services was broken by it student revoll in October
I973, and at civiliani government was establisliecl.
The Thai economy, with extertat assistance
primarily from the United Stales, Ins developed
illip.essively since 1lr0rlrl War H. despite a rapid rate
of population growth that has absorbed a significant
proportion of the country's economic development.
,Normally lbere is ail amotial surplus of rice, and
seldom have the demands for footi omistripped the
availuble supply. Over S.Vr, of all Thai farmers
ctdtivutc their own small plots of land. Conscqucntly,
neither poverty tiro� socioccoontic disamtent among
the peasants have been widespread. Nlost of the
improvement ill average per capital real incomedurimg
tits postwar years, however, has been corice mrated in
the itrb;ut areas, resulting ill it!cn:.t%cd disparity ill
tmcvune anti levels ci'r living between the urban artd
rural populations, at p olemial source of social unrest.
Insurgencies', some of thrill fosleretl by foreign
Conanutnisl agents, Il;awe been conducted in depressed
rural arras, especially those inbabitcd b ethnic
miimrilics. Even moni;g [lie Thai lhemtselves, there is
some degree of dissalisfaction with (lie apportiorurteut
of the nation's wealth, particularly in tiro m irllicast, a
region economically retarded by poor soil altcroate
periods of drought untl flood, and ivadecivate
transportation. Nonelhcless, although grou-itig
political unrest has created hitemal 6cuitrily problems
in tits northern, norlheastemi, and southern frontier
regions, it has not yal seriously affccled the social
%lability of the kingdom.
The student revolt of 1973 apparently was causal
primarily by student. disccoolenl over both academic
issues and police repression of student and other
opposition elements in Bangkok. Matey politically
conscious "'Imi on all levels of Baitgkok society-
itichiding the Kitig hinasclf-- syntpathircrl will, the
students' detimods for releas!c of jailed opposilitmisls
and for promulgation of a iiew ccttistitutioat
establishing democratic government. The leadership
of the armed forces appears to be supporting the nem
government appointed by (lie King, which is Beaded
by a university rector, Iirofessorsariyu Thatiunasuk, us
prime minister, and which has promised to
promulgate a new cotistihition within 6 months,
However, it remuitis to lie secti whether these 1
unprecedented political c'hmigc%
will actually affect
the social composition oft lie inililary and civilian elite
groups which have governed Thailand for over four g
decades.
raAw. :,_,:.'d .T i b+ev .1:;.:+.r s i:" g`. 4i: r. C2.. P..".. t.& t' S4='.' S: La4K sFlr3" 4"'..: r4. IC. iiE6iMl.. x9uKa. wX.+% frs. C% aowox: 4: a� 2v: w'. a+ x� a4+ miK .lra:..wxu.....a.Y:rs.3sz: xt4.:m:
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S
f
l
i'
B. Structure and characteristics of society
(C)
The hornogeneity of Thailand's population provides
the basis for a stable social structure. An estimated
835r of the population speak the 'Thai language as
their rrttive tongue, profess Therlvada (Hinayana)
Buddhism, and adhere to a common set of values and
sliamd patterns of behavior. The' Thai are consciousof
broad uatiollal v;ducs which they share as a pcople�
the monarchy, Buddhism, and the tradition of
national independence, Because the Kingdom of
"Thailand arts never dominated by a colonial power,
its society escaped the disruptive sequence of
conquest, occupaliotl, and struggle for independClive.
Thai awareness of the national heritage often is
expressed in resistance. to elements that seek to alter
the traditional way of life. Some dissatisfaction with
the (list rill ution of national wealth, however, has
arisen :uuong resicleots of Ibe Icss economically
developed areas of the country, and the Thai and
etlulic rllinllrities who hilde in such areas have been
vulnerable to the pressures exerted by pro Communist
subversive elements.
1. Ethnie composition
Peoples of 'rhai ethnic stock cosistitute the
dolllioant clement within Thailand. Although the
197P census die{ not enumerate the population by
ethnic background, it is generally agreed that the Thai
constitute about 85% of the total population, the
Chinese make up approximately IQSP. and the Malays
comprise about 15%. No other ethnic commanlity
accvurits for as much as 19i of the population (Figure
1). 'rhe'rhai are faund in all parts of the country, but
they arc eonecotrated irl [lie densely populated central
plains, the KYtorit Plateau. and in areas of northern
and southern Thailand (Figure 2). With the exceritinrl
of [he Chinese, who are prinulrih in urban people
found in many cities and towns of Thailand, Iles
minority peoples live nil [he periphery of the kingdom
and It repmsent extensions of larger ethnic
communities in countries neighboring Thailand,
Although in general a homogeneous community
sharing a common language, religion, and cultural
history, the Thai are divided into a number of regional
subgroups that are distinguished primarily by
differences in dialect, historical experience, and minor
cultural variations. Thy principal regional subgroups
are the Thai of the central plaints, the Thai in the north
(often called lhe'fhai Yuan), the'rhai of'the Isthmus
of Kra, and the northeastern Thai (frcciuently culled
the Thai -Lao). Other smaller groupings include the
2
FIGURE 1. Estimated composition of the population, by
ethnic group, 1970 (UJOU)
(Absolute number in thousands)
Total. i�I,�t :i� 100.0
*Census total of 34,182 plus an estinialed 300,000
nomadic tribespeople.
Shan (or Thai Yai), wife are concentrated in Mac
[long Sort Province near the Burma border; the
1410ttthai, Who occupy the extreme northeastern comer
of [lie country; and the Lit, who dwell in parts of
Chiang Rat and Nan provinces. The 'Thai of the
central plains historically have been (lie dominant
group politically, socially, and economically, and they
arc also tltc larg est Of the WgIOI LI subgroups.
However, distinctions among the subgroups are
diminishing as each is being affected by influences
stemming from Bangkok.
While racial differences ere fairly unimportant
Nvithia the indigeno;rs populaiion of Thailand,
differing cultural norms serl'e to identify the various
non rhai ethnic communities of the kingdom.
Individual members of minority ethnic communities
are regarded as Thai by the That majurity if they hold
"Thai citizenship and so identify themselves, speak a
Thai dialect well, and conform to conventional Thai
patterns of living. Since 1932 it hag been the policy of
the TLLi Coverriment to attempt to assirniiate
minority peoples into tiie dominant culture.
Compulsory schooling in the 'rhai language and legal
reservation of certain types of ecpnornic endeavor to
Thai citizens have been the principal tiicans used tit
fostering; this assimilation. Stich methods have proved
partially successful among the Chinese and such other
groups that share a common religion with the Thai,
but they have been much less successful among the
Muslim Malays, who have steadfastly resisted the
assimilation process.
The Chinese are the largest single ethnic minority.
Like other Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia, mast of
the Chinese in Thailand are descendants of emigrants
from Sonth China. About half of the Chinese in the
S
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PY.liOWr or
1TIINIC GROUP
\U}IOY.4
TOTAL.
POPULATION
'1 11 7.91
Chinese
3,445
10.1
\Inlay
Sao
2.6
Camliodian (Khmer)
248
0.7
K ul
1
0.4
1' ietnantesc
70
0.2
Koren
70
0.:
Somadic tribespeople............
300
0.8
Total. i�I,�t :i� 100.0
*Census total of 34,182 plus an estinialed 300,000
nomadic tribespeople.
Shan (or Thai Yai), wife are concentrated in Mac
[long Sort Province near the Burma border; the
1410ttthai, Who occupy the extreme northeastern comer
of [lie country; and the Lit, who dwell in parts of
Chiang Rat and Nan provinces. The 'Thai of the
central plains historically have been (lie dominant
group politically, socially, and economically, and they
arc also tltc larg est Of the WgIOI LI subgroups.
However, distinctions among the subgroups are
diminishing as each is being affected by influences
stemming from Bangkok.
While racial differences ere fairly unimportant
Nvithia the indigeno;rs populaiion of Thailand,
differing cultural norms serl'e to identify the various
non rhai ethnic communities of the kingdom.
Individual members of minority ethnic communities
are regarded as Thai by the That majurity if they hold
"Thai citizenship and so identify themselves, speak a
Thai dialect well, and conform to conventional Thai
patterns of living. Since 1932 it hag been the policy of
the TLLi Coverriment to attempt to assirniiate
minority peoples into tiie dominant culture.
Compulsory schooling in the 'rhai language and legal
reservation of certain types of ecpnornic endeavor to
Thai citizens have been the principal tiicans used tit
fostering; this assimilation. Stich methods have proved
partially successful among the Chinese and such other
groups that share a common religion with the Thai,
but they have been much less successful among the
Muslim Malays, who have steadfastly resisted the
assimilation process.
The Chinese are the largest single ethnic minority.
Like other Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia, mast of
the Chinese in Thailand are descendants of emigrants
from Sonth China. About half of the Chinese in the
S
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0 SO Igo I p miles
0 60 160 350 milometol
TAI
Thai
TIBET:: ]URMAN
Karen
Lahu
usu
MON�KHMER
Cambodian, Kul
Laws, Khm
MtAO�YAO
m Moo
MAILAWWOLYNESIAN
Maley
chlooto
vtotnemorse
Foil:j:j :160 =1 III&I :a N =1 I =Foit =W41111:71II-Ii II-mWel Faile N 11:111 R1101,11014

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country are concentrated in the densely p opolatel
by ati increasing incidence of intermarriage baiveco
CI ILO Mira% delta, wlthii) a 70- rllile radius of
Chines: and Thai (many prominent Th:n fiUlliliCS
Bangkok. where the engage primarily ill Commervial
have solite Chincse blood). I)y till' Itlore extensive Ilse o J
or industrial activit Another o00OX) Chinese live
Of the Tllal lungt8age in preference to Chinese. and by
rle;Ir the till mines aril nlbher plantations (if
closer social and economic relations. between tte two
pcniosalar Thailand. ;old the rertlainder live in tirhao
groups. Neverlheiess, well those second or third
ce'riters wid till' larger villages se':Ittered throughout (lie
generation Chinese who have adopted Thai nallles t
kingdom.
and become Thai citizens are still apt to consider
Chinese migration into Thailand in significant
theulsehves Chinese, speak Chinese al Itunic, alit]
nundwrs began diming the 17t.) cellttiry and increased
participate in traditional Chines!� social affairs.
sharply during (lie l9 and early 20111 centuries when
lit effect, the Chinese r)unority of Thailand is
Illc kingdom welcomed (hcin for their skills, As their
hceonling more of a Cultural cY)rmn till ity thall an
numbers increased, however, and is they took over
ethnic group. The extent of assimilation to 'Thai
certain areas of economic endeavor, the Thai
culture is greatest it the Bangkok area and other larger
Coyerutnenl sought to encourage their assimilation
cities 1kIrlleularly Cliking Mai in (ht- north; tits.
into the dominant culture and to limit the growth of
Chincse in southern peninsular communities tend to
their economic power. At till- same tines, bet une Of
be less assimilated. ludircctl%, line increasing
Hie widespread Th dls ill commercial in([
Westernization of 'Thailand urball Coln In till it has
industrial activities, the Thai Coverume'tll Ile%
i cs
encoo a inergu of the an d overwas C
generall been aware of its ecollolllic dependence in
ctlltur-s by providing a new IniliCn.1CCCptablC to 1H1111
these fields on the indtistmOns, commercially minded
and awmlingly blurring the distinctions Le'twee)1 the
Chinese. Nonetheless. during; the prewar
two.
successive Thai governments restricted Chinese
Almost all the Malays of Thail:n d �win are
immigration. instituted the compulsory teaching of
'Thai
officially called '('hail Islam by (hc government �arc
ill :dl public and private schools (including those
Musliirls. Ethnically and Culturally, they are identical
operitetl l)y the Chinese Community}, and excluded
with their cumpatriuts iu Ialuysia. Oyer 9[ .0 livr in
all IdiCnS front certain oerapatious, inclluling the
the solttliern peninsular region, 1>:trticularly in [Ile
ownership of declaods. During World War 11 the
southernmost lrovinces of I Pala. Satan, and
goverumenl adopted more rigid anti Chinese
NarathiMUt, xvllere they fora) about Wi of the
I11C:ISttres Hitt, aball(IUricd the I)OliCy mf :l SSimilatiort,
population- From (lie 1540's Until tIC and (if World
I
discouraging Ile i alelr:iliVatlon of Clllll M. and
War 11, the Thal Government attesuptel forcibly to
intermarriage between Thai and Chinese.
assimilate the Malay population by drakstic legal
e`
With (he vinergence of the 1 Republic of
meastims, including cornpldsory instruction in
China (1 Thai concerit over the snbverslve
Buddhist religions pr "Tpts and the Thai hknguage in
poteiltial of the Chinese community Served to revive
the SCheoods of the southern provinces, adOptioll of "I'llai
efforts to a ssimila(e the C hinese into Thai Society.
manses, wewitig of Thai -style Clolhing, and
Chinese seex)ndary schools, closed during World War
elimination of the heretofore legal recognition of
It, have not been permitt to reopen; C hinese
polygyny. Except For the discouragement of polygyny.
primary schools are strictly regkllated in their
th regulations were mlaxel or repe foli owing
curriculums, with periodic restrictions on tilt teaching
the 1935 ro decree guaranteeing freedom of
of the Chill0e latlgn.lge; and Chides- students
religion. Since about 19.18 the official emphasis has
entering universities are req uired to take Thai names.
been on integration raither than assimilation, based oil
Furthermore, new categories of occupations [lav been
(lie dual principles of frecdoto of religion and of
added to those previously reserved for citizens, and
improved education with stress on the standard 'Thai
(b
legislation has provided that at least half of all
curricidurn. The Thai C(lvernment has also permitted
employees In certain types of concerns lie Th ai
Ile teaching of the Malay l anguage and of Muslim
nationals. lrninigratiou of C h ines e into Thaila has
religious p recep ts in Idle se of the four
been restricted to a quota of 200 each year. Whine
southernmost provinces and the adjudication of
these legal restrictions have induced Chinese ;liens to
family and inheritance questions involving Mnslia
opt for the benefits of Thai citizenship, assimilation
by Islantic courts. In addition, the government has
has also been facilitated by the ease with which
provide small subsidies for Islamic religious and
Chinese and other alien residents may obtain,
educational activities throughout the kingdom.
Citizenship. to addition, assimilation is being effected
Ilowever, the Malays of southern Thailand still feel a
i
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M�
Y
i Vii.'
4'.
t=
stronger sense of cultural affinity with their fellow
\.tusliens, particularly the Malu across the border.
tlian they do with 'Thai peoples. Although extremist
santimelit has abated somewhat since the supprestiion
of an arned revolt b ai;da separatist extremists in
1917 -48, ionlerground extremists reportedly leave
managed to survive. Bandit gangs and the
predominantly \Mayon Chinese Ca lie muliist
guerrillas in 11 ie border area halve tried to exploit
separatist scntiment to their advantage.
Brtween 50.000 to 75,010) ,Malays live ill BangkO.c
and ttearhv areas. Most of these individuals arc
descended from slaves captured by 'Thai raidfii;
expeditions in the \.tulay peninsula between the 13111
and early 19th centuries. 111 coulmst to the southern
.talays, the Malays of central Thailand are well
integrated into Thai society, but they remain
\1 uslims.
Ahlinugh numbering only :tit estimated 70,1MO to
80.000. the Victoamtsc residents of Thailand liave
posed intenlal security problei is for the 'rliai
COvernment because of tile, influence cif prs-
Cotnmumist elentent- among them. Almost all are
either refugees from Vietnam or clescundanls of
Vicictatuese refugees. An estimated M000 cif them.
called "Old Vietnamese. are drscendcd front
"etnannsc swlio fled to Thailand to escape the won of
the 16tll century or the anti Catholic persecutions of
the Annumite emperor. during the 191h century,
"These iuunigr ants were industrious farmers, fishermen,
and artis their de eendants still reside mainly in
farming communities it' Ch ulthaburi Province in
southeastertl 'Thailand, while .1 few have settled in the
urban Ban'gA4)k area. During the lmdocitintt war of
19.1641, in estimated 75,iMM) VietnamcKr refugees
entered 'Thailand via Laos. Beginning in 1919, the
Thai Government for security reasons restricted tlmw
refugccs to Certain provinces along [he Mekong river
mud withlield resident illicit status from them. During
14159, 'l'hai alicl \orth VictnaincKe officials concluded
agreements providing for tilt- voluntary repatriation of
these postwar refugees. By the late sue niter of
~when repatriation was halted at North Victnani s
request, an estimated 38,0100 had departed from
Thailand for North Vietnam. By late 1970, North
Vietntnnew intrust in lute evacuation of the refugees
1111115 renewed, coinciding with 'Thai readitless to
expand rec iprocal contacts With C0111mllni5t 004111trit'.5.
i Octaher 1970, the two comitries agreed in prioeiple
on the repatriation Of a total of 37,0010 Vietnamese
refugees to Nottll Vietnam during the following year;
however, information is not available on tilt:
implementation of this agreement. 'Together, the
Chinese, lice "old Vietnamese," most of whom leave
acquired Thai citizenship. a.nd the postwar
Vietnamese 1`40,1;ec fiunilies virUially rnnuopoli
contmcrce in some of the northeastern orban canters_
['ht- Cambodian minority is located ire tilt- provinces
near the Cambodian border, in an area -which once
was pant of the Milner Empire. 'l'ht- Cambodians arc
1'lurrav;ula liuddhisls like the Th;ri. but they cling to
llicir own huti;uage. 'hherc has been considerable ill
feeling between the two peoples, based largely on the
Cambodians resemlincllt of their inferior polit Wal and
econ4)nlic status, but Belle open conflict.
Of much lesser signifirtrice. Llrgely because of 111eir
iltcreasing assimilation 11114) Thai society, are the Kid
(or Soai) and the .tons. These people predict- the
sanle forms of 'Ther:aada Bud(lltistrl as the Thai. 11111
most of them are regarded Its cuiturtlly Thai by the
'}'h:ti Covermmctic The Kui of norihcastern'Thailand.
who arc closely related to the Cambodians, are being
assimilated cnllurldl)' by either Elie Thai or the
Cumhodiaus, depending on the proximity_ \.tort of tike
\.tons, who are drscendcd from prisoners -of -war or
immigrants who entered Thailand front Buena daring
tike 17th, 181h, and 19th cenUlries, live in small
eommlmilies in ccutrd "Thailand and are rapidly
being assimilated by the Thai.
Except for some alien Indians. Bengalis, and
Pakistanis residing in the urban centers, the remaining
inhabilculls of 'Thailand are Iribespcoplc, The censuses
of 14(50 cincl 197() dicl nut enumerate them. primarily
bmiuse of their geographic remotencss and bee:aasO cif
insurgency in some tribal areas. \lest lribesp q, )plc
practice aminlisrn, 0111y ;L fray having bccu corlvcrtot! to
Buddhism by their 'Thai neighbors or to Christianity
by Western missionaries. An estimated 370,001)
Iribaspcuple, using languages generally classified
within the Tibelo- Bnrrrtese c;itegorv, inhabit the
forested regions of Thailand bordering on Burma :in([
northwestern I -tos. The most inmierous :aitd culturilly
advanced of all tribespeople it' 'Thailand arc tilt'
Karcns, who are locate l in the valleys and the lower
altitude uplands of western and northwestern
'Thailand. Far more backward than File Karcns are the
smaller Tilwto- Burman tribal groups of the remote
mountainous regions in the north. "These iliclude
approximately 15,tMM) Taihu, abont 11.001) List', and
lesser numbers of Akha. In addition. an estimated
?2401) Kha and about 9.0(0) I -111'-1 tfihCSpcOplc, who
slxak languages of the Mon- Khmerstock. dwell it) the
upland borclor regions. The Kha are widely dispersed
along the northern, nortlicas!ern, and eastern honlen"
while the Ltwa live principally in the northwest. Sonic
54,0100 \�1eo and approximately 1G,000 Yan also reside
411'- :a,.D.,tw1.i' w F' sszB :+':ra.:ra�ttavaX, :rtsr.rdeaS�w+,:sp c,esys: maces. aauwascsalvsr ao+. nnaue� rw+ yr .s..resaarrcatv:. "+�.'swF, Je .s.,
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in the forested and mountainnis regions of the north
anti iorlltcast. tilt NIeo isuall} It alt 1lude�s ahnve
.1.000 feet. The mvo and Yao sneak rclatccl Iuttgu:tgcs
:Ind have loos; been illfili�nced 'tiv cultural contV9.k
vitit China. Like most otlie, upland- dwelhog
trihesir_opie, the Nivo ;tut[ Yam practice slash -uncl-
bnrn cultivation.
In general, the TIIA Coyumlllellt hats luade little
effort to further the ISSiIIli1;LUOII of the tnbmpcople of
the snore remote border regions. Except for the Mco,
whose prolIonsi ties for truliltg britIA. Ihern into the
town on]% those tribcspeople living at file lowcr
allitudrs are likely to have frequent contact with the
Thai However. increased problems of tnterial
sceirity in the north and oortbeast and the
government's efforts to discourage the etl[tivation and
smuggling of opium and the deforestation caused by
slash -arid -buret type of agrieullury have brought about
closer 7`hai conLlcts with all tribal groups in recent
clecucies. wilen confronted with co11lnlunist-
instigated insurgency a11umg tie Meo ill 1967, tike
gen�crnrtacrll begat to resettle the hill peoples in
la :alioos relatively free from insurgent activity. In
these new settlements, tribcspeoplc were encouraged
to culliwale crops other 111,111 opium. These policies
and the occasionally harsh c:muticrsuElvcrsic nicasurvs
taken in the area by tilt- Thai Armed forces arouscel
\1eo tribal resentment against the government_
lleginniug ill early 1970, the govenuneilt encouraged
the ,41co to rentain in their own villages rather than to
flee when the instargents entered their areas. Pro-
(Allinitltlist ciernents also have hod sunle inflnenve oil
the Yao, tabu, and Kha tribes particularly the Tin
and Khenu subgroups of file Kim). As of late I972.
Communist- oriented tribal insurgents were active
N.
along the eastern border of Chiang Ilan and Nan
provinces, its the area where I'll ilsanuiok. I'lletehabtin.
7. aid l-ciei provinces nloet, and in "Tak Province slang
the Marna border.
While most of the indigetlom population of
Thailand are of the Akmgoloid racial Arlin, the Thai
and the principal minorit peoples repxescnt the
intermingling of many substr his throughout the
celltories. Collsequelity, it is often difficult taidentify
the ethnic origins of the inhabitants oil the basis of
physical traits :tione. Most of the ciltnic'Tltai (lril;urc
3) are brown- skinned and display suclt other
conventional "Southern \longuloid traits as a broad
head, a brand nose and it Slight cpicallttie cycfold.
llair color is flack ar dark !sown. The Thai :ore less
hirsn(c than most Eurlvans or Japanese and rarely
grow heavy beards or mustaches. The physical traits of
'Thailand's Chinese reseillble those Of the irnlabilants
r
k
of South China. Those Thai who are partly Chimes, in
descent often clishluv such typ Chineso
characteristics as yellowish skin and the pronotmeed
epicaodlic eyefold. wit hill 1`hallatul s cities, the'I'llai
anti Chinese are often indistinguishable, from each
other. particularly if both wear 11'cstcrtt- slyle`clutilcs.
as is usually the ease with the null. While the Tibvto-
Burman :ail Nleo -Yao tribcspeoplc halve conuoon
Mongoloid characteristics (figure -1), the Kha. like tkrc
other Iochmcsiai triliespeople till the Inclochina
I'cninsula, possess such typical tribal Itldonysicla
features is it very dark skill, sloping foreheads. ;rod
tightly curled flair (l`igtire 3). Genarafly spcakittg,
members of differing allelic gralips, particularly the
tribcspeoplc, can best lie distinguished by their
traditional style of dress and ornamentation.
The 'Thai lanl;tlagc is the official language of the
kingdom anc[ ;l sccrmd language for most of the
countrp S tllimlril} groups. lit 1970, over Wt of the
popillalioi had :I %corking kuoylcdge of Tha:. A
slivaking kttowledge of 'Thai is lacking (fitly among the
Malays of file soulht�Alillost provinces, the more
remote tribal peoples in the northern border regions.
:111& among solve of the C:unhadiaus. The Thai
language is tonal aid uniuflectcd, With It iVIIde11C%
toward motms\liabism, and the script is &,rivet[ fri:m
ancient Indic forms. putside Thaila11d, the� l:olgIl,, e
is file mother tongue Of minority peoples in Illinois.
North Vietuam, and China, and is spoken [I> a
majority of the inhabitants of Laos. A remarkabiv
high degree of 11tuto:ll ititelligibilitV prew,1i]S anuntg
Thai clialcctS: ill fact, it is said that a Tho trilwmia n
from North 1'icht :utl would be able to IllUke himself
oliderstood in Bangkok.
Within Thailatld file Thai Icutguage is divided into
hour main dialects and a number of minor dialects.
The principal dialects are central Thai. or Siamese; it
southern peniluular dialect; northern, or Thai Ymani
and :l iortheastern dialect ("Thai Lao) which is almost
identical with the speech of the inhabitants of
1'ienlialle, Laos, The 5iarilicse dialect is tilt official
language of Thailaocl. It is the language taught ill file
public schools, used over file radio, and employed in
domestically produced motiou pictores. Oulside the
central plains, knowledge of SiatlleSe is Inure amnnoi
among urban residcnts'lhan among villagers, although
ambitious individuals thnlughOlit tine kingdom
voluntarily Icaru Siaintse in Order to achieve higher
social status.
"The Chinesc of 'l'h�iiland speuk the dialect of lbc
area in South China [roils which their forebear=s
emigrated. Teochin, the vernacular of file Swatow
region of Kwartetong moviece, is sook vii by about
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lrl:lce of their owti cenmculars. Large mttnbets of
Caulhodiluls, however. do not kmiw Thai. The
Vi011alne.c in Thailmnd list their Own tanguoge aml,
ahhuugll tile� have remoincd larg('ly unussimiloted.
most call also slxrak Thai.
The 'Tibelo- Burniese languages spoken io Thail :old
inclt- Koren :slid Lola No -Su. As in Rnrtua, flit
Kar'.m.s of 'Thailand speak wo ntttt(lally uninwiiigibie
dialects. VWO anti Sgaw. The Lahn, Lisa. am! Akita
use closely related dialects of the Lolo -No -Su
language. The lou:ll and monos)'llallic languases of
the Moil :Ind Yao togctur: comprise flit- Aliao -Yao
stock. Noue of tilt- Tibdo Rurinan and Aliao -Yao
tongues used in 'Thailand appear to have developed
written forms, :lltunigh missionaries llayo devise(l
llotuaaizcd scripts for local Meo, Lahti. and other
tribcspeopie. Knowledge of secondary I:inguages
varies according to tribal group and region. A
sltbst :phial mmmim of the northern tribcspcoplc
undcrlmid simple 'Thai. :old tlev also frequently
learn the vernaculars of neighboring tribal com-
nlunities.
English, the second Official language, is the (inly
Western Iangu:Ige widciy aced; its usage has iocreasvd
rapidly ill Bangkok ,old other urban centers since'tlte
end of Wodd War 11. Many government documents
Moo official blrllelills arc printCd in Koglish as well as
in "Thal. The esp:lnsiotl of secondary and higher
educallnu facilities has necessitated grealcr knowledge
of English, Owing to the: lack of se'ienlilic and
technical terminology in the Thai language amt the
limited motiber of textbooks ill Thai. \lost high school
gradoates ill "Thailand helve ]laid at least 6 roars of
inslriteflon in Engiblt. A desire to obt:Iill grulls for a
higher CdltcatioR ahioad in Joe United Slates or
(A ntruomvealt comitries leas givell students incentive
to acquire fittemcy ill English. English is the latlgoap-
of inlcnluliou:ll trade in Thailand. and it is also used
extensively among the Westernized '11mi elite, as well
ns amoug university leachetrs and students. Moreover,
the great increase io the number of U.S. aaliomals ill
Thailand since tilt, 195('s has stilmfialod the demand
M ail levels of society to realm English. A good
speaking ;old reading knowledge of Ilklish facilitates
employment in upper echelon govvnintent and
commercial itositions, parllclilarly Ill the technical :Illd
scientific fields, In the cities of Thailand. there are
long wailing lists for corollrncut in k4e E:nglish-
litttgmagecla%ws offe red by lbe U.S. Iatigimp a enters.
class structure
'rite'riiai social system islomelystntctured, snaking
possible a emisiderable dcgr.,c of individual mobility.
�v i.,.'.1 c ..4. 'ren.. 5, ..5'..'. /r +s� v r- nab.'. Sv( fi: ..k- a..JeW%.R :S',...'Jn.S/f�i r'3.E' :Yr Y h...X K:Ei.", 'i6.i r:3:..4 a ..3 ..w... s.,.:..
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56'i of the Chiliese in Thailand. Approximalely 16
speak llaU n dialect of north Kwattglm and
ti
southwest Fokictt. 12 tilt- Ilaillantrse dialled, 7% tl,c
Cantonese, and. 7 the llokk1(-,1e e. Oniv an
esliinalml 2io steak other dialects. Inasmuch ;IS moist
spoken. Chiomv dialects ;Ire t lottellh' lelligihle,
there is it tendency for Chinese speaking the saner
dl ulvct to c(nlgregitV in cerlain areas of 'Thailand, to
engage ill specific occupalioos. alai to form tltc ON'll
regiomil asFP.iatimts. llec.jilsC vornmerce atld industry
within 111e Chinesv cuninl,tmity ure dominated by tine
Icocililt, flit' Teodlill dk4lect, a long Willi the 'Thai
laugupge, has become a lingua franca of domestic
Clllllnl!'rCY`. At'Cordillg itr estiwa(es ill the mid- l O's,
60%' to 80 Of lire ChilICSe 111 t llallaod have ;e
working knowledge of 'rVOChiu. lie(aase of Ilivir
success in baseness, the 'It- oviliu are becoming more
Closely associatmi with, and cultllrlily assimilated to.
lite 1i`eAvrnized Thai elite ill ilaugkok than are the
olhcr Chint-so -groups. Since u�ritlen Chinese is
uniform, Chinese- language newspapers :1311; other
publicaliolls scn c :IS a conlnlou media of c(mtlnunica-
lions for those. Chiue%e whu are literate ill their owe
language. The Chiuesc language is taught in all the
private Chittcsc primary schools in 'Thailalul.
e'.'- r;
Ilowever, the majority of Chinese in "Thailand are
literate in 'Thai rifler than in Chinese. since must
have attended Thai-language rather than C hlIlese-
Language schools.
T he a'I:1layS Of SOU111Cfn Tll.lilalld IINP tilt; Sa111e
h �ic spokeo vertlacldar as tbcir cYmlpalrlots is
I lalaysia. In contrast to Timi, the \9alay language is
atnnal and mainly disyllabic, :old its gnlmtltar is
untesllali\' siolple. While [lie (Official Malay languages
of malaysea and indan(sia use Ilottl :Mind scripts, the
trlditiomll jawi script derived from Arabic is slit!
utilized by fie Malays of Thailand. In getterll,
Malays residing in urban centers arc more familiar
will, ate 'floe l :ulguage than nerd \lalays, because
j�
the Later are relatively isOlalc -d front contacts Willa the
Thai and because facilities for primar\ cdaalliutt in
such :I r e. is ha VC lag fa bC�htlld those. alt the 'S
e Cili,
The government has taken steps to develop a working
knowledge of the Malay language :among 'Thai
Officials ill the south as part Of Its dey(!lopment
programs for that region.
As elsewhere in Suidiw0st. Asia, lice \tun Khmer
"J
languages slxiken. in Thailand: have been gradualk
l
filling, into disuse. ls'illi tilt uolahlc t:xcYrlrtimt Of
Cambudiau. The Olin have all but discarded their
vermicular ill favor of Cambodian or'Thae, iuid the
Lions, the Lawa, and those ttibmit ogle ill close
contact \vita the Thai are grtdil :Illy udoptilig Thai in
lrl:lce of their owti cenmculars. Large mttnbets of
Caulhodiluls, however. do not kmiw Thai. The
Vi011alne.c in Thailmnd list their Own tanguoge aml,
ahhuugll tile� have remoincd larg('ly unussimiloted.
most call also slxrak Thai.
The 'Tibelo- Burniese languages spoken io Thail :old
inclt- Koren :slid Lola No -Su. As in Rnrtua, flit
Kar'.m.s of 'Thailand speak wo ntttt(lally uninwiiigibie
dialects. VWO anti Sgaw. The Lahn, Lisa. am! Akita
use closely related dialects of the Lolo -No -Su
language. The lou:ll and monos)'llallic languases of
the Moil :Ind Yao togctur: comprise flit- Aliao -Yao
stock. Noue of tilt- Tibdo Rurinan and Aliao -Yao
tongues used in 'Thailand appear to have developed
written forms, :lltunigh missionaries llayo devise(l
llotuaaizcd scripts for local Meo, Lahti. and other
tribcspeopie. Knowledge of secondary I:inguages
varies according to tribal group and region. A
sltbst :phial mmmim of the northern tribcspcoplc
undcrlmid simple 'Thai. :old tlev also frequently
learn the vernaculars of neighboring tribal com-
nlunities.
English, the second Official language, is the (inly
Western Iangu:Ige widciy aced; its usage has iocreasvd
rapidly ill Bangkok ,old other urban centers since'tlte
end of Wodd War 11. Many government documents
Moo official blrllelills arc printCd in Koglish as well as
in "Thal. The esp:lnsiotl of secondary and higher
educallnu facilities has necessitated grealcr knowledge
of English, Owing to the: lack of se'ienlilic and
technical terminology in the Thai language amt the
limited motiber of textbooks ill Thai. \lost high school
gradoates ill "Thailand helve ]laid at least 6 roars of
inslriteflon in Engiblt. A desire to obt:Iill grulls for a
higher CdltcatioR ahioad in Joe United Slates or
(A ntruomvealt comitries leas givell students incentive
to acquire fittemcy ill English. English is the latlgoap-
of inlcnluliou:ll trade in Thailand. and it is also used
extensively among the Westernized '11mi elite, as well
ns amoug university leachetrs and students. Moreover,
the great increase io the number of U.S. aaliomals ill
Thailand since tilt, 195('s has stilmfialod the demand
M ail levels of society to realm English. A good
speaking ;old reading knowledge of Ilklish facilitates
employment in upper echelon govvnintent and
commercial itositions, parllclilarly Ill the technical :Illd
scientific fields, In the cities of Thailand. there are
long wailing lists for corollrncut in k4e E:nglish-
litttgmagecla%ws offe red by lbe U.S. Iatigimp a enters.
class structure
'rite'riiai social system islomelystntctured, snaking
possible a emisiderable dcgr.,c of individual mobility.
�v i.,.'.1 c ..4. 'ren.. 5, ..5'..'. /r +s� v r- nab.'. Sv( fi: ..k- a..JeW%.R :S',...'Jn.S/f�i r'3.E' :Yr Y h...X K:Ei.", 'i6.i r:3:..4 a ..3 ..w... s.,.:..
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FIGURE 1 Representative Thai MOW
4OV,
W
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R
a
In -sense, lite twofold division of traditional Thai
sucicty betwocn :a governing elite and tine great 7urll
peasant majority still exists. With the cxceptiou of the
pnpala of the aorthcusteru region, villagers in
geller:ll comprise t! socially static group with I:miled
especlatiorns tied demands. Urh:uaivation and the
increasing impact of Western political, cultural. and
economic institutions, particularly d ariug the post
World War 11 years. however, have Iccl to the
formatiaon of new classes in urbau societ Progress in
cultural tassimilution has been gratdually reducing Ilse
differem-es between Thai society and that of the
Chinese anll some of Ilse other ethnic minorities.
Nevertheless, uuassirnilated Chincsc, \I:days,
Viel tile mese, and triUspeople still nsainktin their
traditional social structures end community orgaaaixa-
lious under the superimposed administration of tits
central government.
A considerahle degree of indivillua115,11 prevails in
Thai society. Personal relationships are frccw entered
into and tcrnsinated, and roll: behavior is not dgidiy
enforced. Nevertheless. ant olahoratc lsicrarchv of
status exists itt Thai society, based on such factors as
age, acquisition of Buddhisb'Inerit, or official rank in
the government bureaucracy. A system of formalized
usages denoting respect is expressed through htnguage,
gesture, or p oshtw. Almost the first thing that arty
Thai learns about any other Thai is the latter's status.
']'his hierarchy of rank Lend status stratifies individuals,
however, rather than social classes. Each individual
tends to see himself as above or below oral seldom
Precisely ctival to chose around hills. Thus, individuals
hold the status of supetiors or "patrons" in sonic of
their personal relationships while remaining inferiors
or "clients" .iu others. Although authority is readily
accepted, superiors must handle their sobOrdinates
with tacl is order in ohlats their cooper lion. Village
headmen crud local government officials, for c:.a iple,
administer their bailiwicks more through persuusioh
and guidance Ihau decree.
The sucicty has been in .transition since the early
20th century, :tort socild 'ellunge has been accelerated
by the increased impact of Western cultural influence
during lite decades following World War 11. Before the
early 20th cc[[tun�, the 5 ructure of traditional Thai
society was geared 4o the political syslern of lire
absolute monarcliv. society was divided into a small
ruling class, whose rank and st:dus were dependent
ulxan lire desires of royalty, and a large peaslint lower
class, with slaves occupying the lowest stratum. of
society. Western i nfl uence gritdaally led to changes in
traditional class stritification and in'llicdetermireants
of social status and to increases in individual mohility
in tine social scale, While royalty is still supported by
the ruling class and revered by the common people, it
no longer serves as n instrument for tlnc creation of
status. In 1'hatland's urban society, 'moreover, loosely
structured class strala; have emerg within bolls tole
Thai and.Chinese commmuiles.
Within the greater Bangkok area and other urban 1
centers, f:ve socioeconomic class divisions, defined
principally cn the basis of income, political power,
education, and family background, are c
dcntificd; the traditional aristocracy, a ne elite,"
lie upper and lower middle classes, and the lower
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r
{d
3
17
R -11.1 1
VII
Y
t
Chinese anll some of Ilse other ethnic minorities.
Nevertheless, uuassirnilated Chincsc, \I:days,
Viel tile mese, and triUspeople still nsainktin their
traditional social structures end community orgaaaixa-
lious under the superimposed administration of tits
central government.
A considerahle degree of indivillua115,11 prevails in
Thai society. Personal relationships are frccw entered
into and tcrnsinated, and roll: behavior is not dgidiy
enforced. Nevertheless. ant olahoratc lsicrarchv of
status exists itt Thai society, based on such factors as
age, acquisition of Buddhisb'Inerit, or official rank in
the government bureaucracy. A system of formalized
usages denoting respect is expressed through htnguage,
gesture, or p oshtw. Almost the first thing that arty
Thai learns about any other Thai is the latter's status.
']'his hierarchy of rank Lend status stratifies individuals,
however, rather than social classes. Each individual
tends to see himself as above or below oral seldom
Precisely ctival to chose around hills. Thus, individuals
hold the status of supetiors or "patrons" in sonic of
their personal relationships while remaining inferiors
or "clients" .iu others. Although authority is readily
accepted, superiors must handle their sobOrdinates
with tacl is order in ohlats their cooper lion. Village
headmen crud local government officials, for c:.a iple,
administer their bailiwicks more through persuusioh
and guidance Ihau decree.
The sucicty has been in .transition since the early
20th century, :tort socild 'ellunge has been accelerated
by the increased impact of Western cultural influence
during lite decades following World War 11. Before the
early 20th cc[[tun�, the 5 ructure of traditional Thai
society was geared 4o the political syslern of lire
absolute monarcliv. society was divided into a small
ruling class, whose rank and st:dus were dependent
ulxan lire desires of royalty, and a large peaslint lower
class, with slaves occupying the lowest stratum. of
society. Western i nfl uence gritdaally led to changes in
traditional class stritification and in'llicdetermireants
of social status and to increases in individual mohility
in tine social scale, While royalty is still supported by
the ruling class and revered by the common people, it
no longer serves as n instrument for tlnc creation of
status. In 1'hatland's urban society, 'moreover, loosely
structured class strala; have emerg within bolls tole
Thai and.Chinese commmuiles.
Within the greater Bangkok area and other urban 1
centers, f:ve socioeconomic class divisions, defined
principally cn the basis of income, political power,
education, and family background, are c
dcntificd; the traditional aristocracy, a ne elite,"
lie upper and lower middle classes, and the lower
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I
elements, nlaoy oI shorn 1M a heed e;luvated at
univervilies or military schools abroad. Wcaltliy arnn'
officers and business entrepreneur. often I(vc in
ostentatious style and provide lavish entcrtainntcnt for
their guests; the expensive U.S. automobile is in
imporlunt status symbol amore; them.
In urbansociety, high- ranking government official~.
both military and civilian, have enriched tlicniseives
CIGURE 4. Representative tribespeople
i
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Moo woman cnd dilld (U/OU)
class. Except For the aristocracy and. w a lemerextent.
p
the new elite, wito are extremely conscious of social
status, little class cimsciousness exists aithia these
groupi igs. This is due largeh� to the Thai tendent -N to
view society in terms of status differences bctaccn
individuals rather than between groups.
Since the constilotional monarch� uas established
by tlic Revolulion cif 1932;' wealth, inilitary rank,
and a Westenr education rather than royally conferred
titles have provided the basis for incrnhcrship in MIM
is Imied the nca el &t Uuri,ag the I130's, political
power and the high soci:u and ca,mrmic stales
ac-voinpanying it were gradually lran.ierred from [lie
aristocracy to lrredoinina tit ly upper middle class
elements. Concomitantly, the :idstocracy has rapidly
diminished ill size and influence, although it relains
cousiderible social prestige. The cure of the new elite
C'WlSi5t1 of high musing anncil forces officers and civil
officials. Since 19.18 armed fences officers have served
as prince ministers, cabinet members, and other high-
ranking officials ill the governments dominated by the
rnilitan�, along with civilian officials on the sank and
subordinate levels. Outside the k emment, those
wealthy C`Yriese cntrepreni;urs bare close
bgtinli contivetions H'ith Thai Officials, and Thai
professional men and intelleewals are also considered
members -of. the new elite. Althoogll p r o f essors in [lie
'rhai universilies are paid approximatcl� the same
Z
salaries as s:nio: civil 'officials, the prestige of the
professors is ultra Itigher. A consider degree of
cultural Westernization prevails among all these
I
elements, nlaoy oI shorn 1M a heed e;luvated at
univervilies or military schools abroad. Wcaltliy arnn'
officers and business entrepreneur. often I(vc in
ostentatious style and provide lavish entcrtainntcnt for
their guests; the expensive U.S. automobile is in
imporlunt status symbol amore; them.
In urbansociety, high- ranking government official~.
both military and civilian, have enriched tlicniseives
CIGURE 4. Representative tribespeople
i
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Moo woman cnd dilld (U/OU)

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in both government and private commercial
enterprise, often by exploiting their positions.
Coverninent officials originally entered the business
world by dirccling state operated commercial and
industrial maaibpolies, many of them created during
the lute 1940's and early 1951)'s. Not a few officials
have awarded goverrttnent contracts to private firms in
return, for kickbacks or have participated in the
stn rpgling inns or opium. Eady ill IM2, tlee must
powerful leaders in the goventmpttt and their chief
lieutenants were aetivc owners and directors of some of
tits largest firms in the country. On the other hand,
few I'ltai have obtained high government office solely
as the result of sncccws;rt private business.
A growing uumbcr of business alliances have been
established between Thai Government officials and
Chinese entrepreneurs, Thai rrrtlitary leaders, for
examp!c, or members of their families, are often
invited to join tiie boards of directors of Chini:sc
companies in order to "pmteel the firrr>.s front
gmcrnmental discrinrinati+in. Glinese are
sometinws. hired as managers of private concerns
established and owned by Thai officials. In. addition
to b I utiressing the ec nonric position of thc'rbai elite,
these Thai Chinese commercial alliances, which are
sometimes accompanied by intcrrr,arriage, have
contributed to the assimtilatior+ of llre Chinese 4o Thai
culture. Assimilation has progressed mucit further
unums; like Chinese, business elite than among ruiddle
and lo wer class Chinese.
Itanking just below like new elite is a sizable and
growing urban upper rup+Idle class, at which level the
cultural differences between the Thai anti the
unassimila ',ed`'Chinese are the most dislinel. The
traders of the local Chinese crnntnunitV associations.
for eutrnple, are drawn mostly from upper middle
Blass Chinese entrepreneurs, who tend to be tnore
c+nrscious of their separalectlutic and cultural identity
than are ollicr Chinese. It is this class Which has
supported the Chinese private schools, provided them
with teachers, mtaintaitictl close -tics with enter
Chinese cmtmunities in Southeast Asia, attd in
general, attempted to resist assimilative pressures. The
"Phai upper noddle class is Lo rnpriscd largely of arrtn�
officers, jimior civil officials, senior commercial clerks,
schoolteachers and university inslruclon, and it fcw
small businessmen. Most upper middle class Thai
aspire lo'the status of the new elite, rimm whose Carats
their careen oftcu depend, in 'contrast, to their
hardworking and relatively frugal. Chinese ebUotl'F-
parts, ;many upper middle class'Chai attempt to follow
the example of the nc x elite by the pursuit of plcastrrc
and an ostentatious style of life,. However, upward, 3
mobility into the ranks of the new elite is difficult,
except perhaps through promotions within the
military services. A 011gree from it foreign university
has become almost a prere(Itrisite for a Higher civil
service position, a the expclsc cf higher educ Won
abroad tends to exclude from upper level positions
those who lack financial resources. Consc�rpuently,
those Ixosilions tend to remain in the hands of families
of the new elite who can afford to finance such ,in
education for t`tieir children. vtorcovo, a good
knowledge of English is considered decisive it 411c
competitive examinatimrs for scholarships abroad,
aitk the restilY that applicants from families of trite
cliteund tp have an advantage over those froth other
groups
The urban lower middle class, predominantly
Chinese in composition, encompasses S 111311 'shop
,keepers, artisans, craftsr�ten, mechanics, and other
skilled workers. Status is attached primarily to
occupational skills and to the acetimmiation of
sufficient savings to, facilitate mobility into the
Chinese tipper muddle class. Consciousness of Chinese',
culture and nationalist sentiment tends to be lacking
among this class of Chinese, nmsl of whom have
Iin.;led access to Chirim primary schools becausi'. of
the expense involved. Urwer middle class Thai include
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low- ranking government clerks and those in
occupations reserved by law for Thai nationals, such
as Taxi drivers and barbers.
The urban lower class consists mostly of unskilled
laborers and domestic servants. 13ccause of the Thai
aversion to manual labor, niauy of the unskilled
industrial workers and day laborers ism Bangkok are
Chinese. Flowever, as a result of the restrictions oil
alien immigmlion and the increasing migration of
lower class rural 'Thai laborers into the urban centers,
primarily Bangkok, a sniall but growing class of anban
'Thai laborers lias been developing.
In contrast It, the lWhan centers, there are few class
distinctions in most 'Thai villages. Almost all
inhabitants of a typical village arc fanners, and only
relatively mirror differences�in land or cash resour
exist aniong them. Other villagers usually include one
or two Buddhist monks, one or two primary school
teachers, a shopkeeper, and sometimes a rice miller;
the latter two gelterally arc Chinese. An exception to
this general pattern prevails in Ilse fertile Chao Phraya
delta region of central Thailand, where the
development of large scale commercial rice farming
for the export trade has been accompanied by a Irend
la:vard class stratification. This trend has involved
both upward and downward social mobility, in that
nev rural lower class of landless laloren and a small
rural mlddle class of prosperous farmers has come into
existence oil a localized basis. Class cmisciolL has
been notably lacking, however. 'There is no evidence
that landlessrtess has been a source of unrest, pnbably
because of the ample availability of foal and of cheap
materials for housing in the delta region.
Within the individualiietd hierarchy of status,
considerable deference is asften accorded to the village
headman. This official is usually elected from among
the elder and more prosperous farmers, except in the
n rtheuslem and southernmost proving, where he is
A-�ommonly appointed by the officer in charge of the
district, :Ise basic aalministrativc unit of government
within the province. Monks and schoolteachers, who
are sometimes the only educated individuals in the
village, also possess high prestige. Although a weld -to-
do farmer may exercise considerable infl;ueAce within
the rural community because of the fa%urs he call
extend, li may be accorded less respect than t h ose
who have shower their-devotion to monastic or hay
Buddhist activities. A 4lager who has spent many
years as a monk is expected to become a community
leader when he leaves the monastery regardless of his
economic position. As it dirt in .traditional Thai
society, moreover, the Buddhist order remains a
channel for social ,nobility, its members ranging from
the princely nobility to the humblest peasants.
Th e roles of the headmen, monks, and schoolteach-
ers in village society vary to some cr[ent according to
region. In central 'Thailand, village society tends to be
more loosely structured than elsewhere in the
kingdorn. 'There is often no clearly d0ined village area
or community; instead. the families sharing the same
Temple or primary school are the closest approximation
to a village community. T influence exerted by the
headman on village hchavior is Icsscued by the fact
that his bailiwick is an arbitrarily determined
geographic area which may not coincide with,
settlement groupings or with the clientele of the local
temple and school. Only four basic units conduc-;
significant group activities within .the village
ccannsanily: the nuclear family and other kinship
groups, the govcmmIenl (represented. by the headman
and superior local government officials), the
monastery, and the local school. 'There are no castes,
age -grade societies, occupational groups, neighbor-
hood associations, or village councils. Villager, are not
required to contribute their labor to the community,
serve as village g or respond to the dictates of
village elders.
In the fairly isolated commmities of the north and
northeast, village solidarity is greater shag in central
Thailand and group activities arc: highly structured.
For example, village scntrics are required in crisis
situations, a community notable is charged with the
contruction and mainte of iced watevand crop
irrigation facilities, and iuclicial- hearings are
sometimes convened by the village elders, over minor
offenses against both civil and criminal law. Such
group activities are not normally organized on a local
basis in central Thai villages, where those functions
describLd above an�e preempted by the government.
Class stratification arnoug unassimilated Malays of
the southernhi st 'Thai provinces resembles that in
Malaysia. 'There is a distinction based .'Z:W.ray:L":.- '....:5 :'lo- :ai.Z:'v.w. roar,' 1." L2n- h4:.�: bVk.: K- 4i: TEXk`� x: e! n'M-*4'5*'LS.rtNK+pt+�aw.wunwr sit: axv .+wcx.c- Wiw'.x..�-urev,r.vsJ att4- sti- s'R: :Ar..s'rsi +,+,:r.�
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in the ka" iiic exmcept of the tmaa�',torV character of
earthly life and its abnegation of worldly :ambition.
Apathy z�nd political opportunism are widespread in
public alfaim The elite has rarely been willing to
sacrifice for causes which seem unlikely to succeed.
Iljhetlecr in :vadare unpolitical intrigue, the desire is to
be identified with the winning side. [n most instances
the 'Thai have little udrnirtiou or sympathy for tier
underdog who shows temerity and Iworludguient in
trying to tuakea stand against supeorodds. Although
the Thai respect religious faith, almost everyone relies
on the advice of astrologers for making decisions about
future tmdertakings.
Individual responsibility for one's actions is one of
OW furtdatncntal values of'I'hai cultore. it is related to
the concept cif gamin through the belief that each
adult trcnoit is responsible oily to himself and that his
actions are of no crrnccrn to those unaffected by them,
Consequently, there is a wide range of permissive
social behavior in 'Thailand. The 'Thai attitude is
symbolized by the old Siamese proverb "to follow your
own heart is to be a true Thai. While deviant
behavior is not Condoned, it is generally considered to
lie an individual's own affair. If a villager makes
himself obnoxious to the community, sanctions suclt as
noncooperation and social ostracism may be
informally initwsed by his neighbors. Expulsion Fnurt
the village is the ultimate sanction, an it is a
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punishment usually resen -ed for persons hclieved to he
xis. crsed b ev i l s an ts.
i I p
'The 'Thai consciousness of status and aetlharity can
be attributed in part to tine karmic concept of
according status to individuals based on their merit. A
more basic cause is Iheslronglyingrained Thai rvsp ct
for the symbolic authority of the throne and for its
representatives in [lie administrative hierarchy
extending from the top level down to the local t evei.
The success (if the 1973 student revolt can be
attributed largely to the personal intervention of tlae
King on behalf of kite moderate elements within the
student leadership. Originating in the Indic tradition
i of olivine kingship, this respect for royal authority is
teased nn recognition of personal power rutherthan ott
cinnceru for law. The Thai fcc[ that laws, regulations,
and contracts may be flexibly interpreted orenforecd
by high officials as they scc fit. morcover, government
adrnini ation at all levels moves slowly beeattsr. of
personai ^,ctors all(] deference to authority. Min.ir
y' officials tend' to refer all new questions to llieir
superion, knowing; that their own advancement may
depend more upon, the goodwill of the higher officials
than upon displays of initiative and indwstry.
Tate- consciousness among the Thai is manifested in
the imi)ortancc attached to fornalired courtesy.
16
While deference is shown superiurs, at the same time
the 'Thai avoid etnburassing, intruding, or imposing
upon their social inferiors. They feel that bad manners
cause loss Of face both to tine offender and to the
persou ltc offends. Closely related to consciousness of
face is the Thai propensity to judge morality �:r more
correctly, propriely �in terms of external behavior. A
capable or clever person avoids being caught in an
embarrtssingsituution, if lee does find himself ill such
straits, he tries to maintain a calm and serene
deropa tor. A person with these attributes is said to
have a "cool heart' (chat Jeri), a term roughly
equivalent to equauirnity. A Iverson should not show
anger in response to an insult, for example, but
'through his cool manner Ire should cause his
antagonist to appear Foolish.
Official corruption on all ICVVIS (If goYCmment has
long been endemic. Its,prevalenee cam be attributed
partly to the importance attached to cleverness and
the maintenance of Face and partly to the traditional
respect for personali-ze aathcirity rather than laws.
Observer% of "Thai rural society have noted that
villagers openly admire the clevernc-cs of government
leaders ill amassing illicit wealth. Nevertheless,
exposures of large -scale corruption have evoked
adverse reactions from Thai of all classes. The
relatively few high military and civilian efficials who
h ave won a reput ation for honesty are respected.
In urban society, cultural values are changing,
primarily as a result of the incre contacts with
Westerners and a general desire to emulate the West.
Traditional nonmaterialistic Ya lucsare b ei rig modified
as the accelerated pace of economic development
provides new ()pjiortttnities for the middle cl ass and
the elite to participle in private enterprise. Since the
arrival of U.S, military and civilian personnel in the
191it ,,s jnpmcedeutcol opportunitiesJor pnifitmuking
have developed through the estuhlishment of hotels,
restaurants, stores, hams, and entertainment Facilities.
Moreover, the !r-.: :'1itional respect for authority has
been diminishing to some extent among Westernized
middle class Thai outside the government services. In
particular, Western democratic ideals have influenced
:e number of journalists, writers, and students who
have been critical of the elite for the prevalence of
official corruption, the ineffectiveness of parliameti r
terry institutions, and the restrictive police measures
occasionally employed against opposition elements.
The desire to emulate Western mores is strongest
among middle anti upper class youth. Many urban
young people are preoccupied with the Iatest dress,
popular music, motion pictures, daut�res, 'and other s
fads current among youth in the United States. The
older Thai generally ure oppose to these trernds, and
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the govenlmcol has fmdpuently balmed foreign films
and television programs for setting it bad example to
youth. Largely because of tile permissive behavioral
Patterns of traditional society and the ahscnec cif
widespread s6eioc`e0110nlie diSC011terll, the, generation
gap has heed much lass significant ill Thailand titan in
some other Southeast Asian amntries and in India.
Until rmenlly, 'Thai youth normally temlcd to be
p ol:tically apathetic, seldom showing tendencies to
launch crusades or engage in extreme actions like the
bloexiy studenl revolt of 1973, which directly involved
-it least 75,1100 students and teniporatrily paralyzed the
city of Bangkok. i\cvcrlhcicss, it is uotcwnrtily that
some of the"most conservative, traditionalist elelllents
in 'Thai society sympathized with the revoking
students, while the latter, except for it few extrcnlist
clellients, looked to support from. the King and
expressed ao desire: for mvulutionary changes in the
social system.
'Tile social values of the unassimilated uliucrritiM
differ in vurvirtg degrees from those of the Thai.
Chinese values tell([ to be materialistic and
predominantly secular oriented. Most Chinese arc
enrlemeed principally with the acepuisilion of wealth;
frugality trot] industry are extolled. The Chinese
commercial classes, particularly those elet eids who
have liven at least partially ossiulilaled, have been
more receptive to westernizalion that) any other
group in the kingdom. "Their clnscieiusness of the
value of hard work, commercial skills, sellse of
contractual obligutions, and relative fluency in
English and Thai. as well as CHuese, make them more
adaptable than the Thai to Western business practices.
Many Chinese youth in 'Thailand are almost entirely
%Vcsternizcd in their dress and ill their interest ill
ixrpulltr music, daneiug, films, fashiollsa and fads;
conversely, older Chinese tare often critical of such
Western influences on grounds that they weaken the
traditional family discipliuc.
The value system of tile Malays is conditioned to a
considerable extent by Islamic precepts erombined
with't radii ional animistic beliefs: The Ivlulays altach
considerable importance 16 charily, which is
consid'ereel a major Islamic virtue. Fatalism. face
consciousness, and love of pleasure are traits which the
Malays have in cdmtmon with the Thai. Llowevci, in
contrast to the Thai, the Malays also have a
reputation for belligerence and a hot termpee.
The vnluM and traits of the unassimilated tribal
M)rtes a re deteriWned largely by the precepts and
talxlos of their animistic beliefs: Dependence on the
dictates of the spirit world is consideinbly stronger
among tife tribespatple than among the and the
otter lowland peoples. Some of the more remote tribal
fH
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groups, particularly the Meo and the b.alw, have long
been reputed for their independent spiril tool warlike
dualities. 'those tribespeople who dwell ill the lower
altitudes, especially the 1awa and the Kill arc much
less independent in spirit and less likely to be hostile to
or suspicious of strangers.
The monare}iv amt the Bnetilllist state religion are
the main force. wrviiig to unify (lie Thai people. The
close relationship hct.veetl the throne anti the
Buddhist order is reflected by the direct participation
of the king and the monks in the celebration of 11re
national holidays. Almost all Thai political groups
profess allegiance to the throne as the primary synlhol
of national unity; even Thai Communists have rarely.
if ever, attacked the throne as au ifiNtittltillll. The
king's talc as a constitutional monarelt who reigns butt
does nut rule further enhances his prestige with the
Iwpulation.
Even in modern tunics, ate altitildc of many 'Thai
toward their govcriultent has been influenced I)y
Buddhist comiderations of merit and status. There has
lung been a tendency among the '111:0 to reg:t:di high.
official status as it nla ill festal ioll of personal mcril,
although it is rmagnized that it person may attaill a
status tolaily disproportionate to line merit which he
has acquired. While, s iperior official status may
command respect and coln Ill ialice, it has not
prohibited shifts ill allegiance, and the various
military factions have rarely felt the recd to justify the
many transfers of p:lilical tower. The militarygroups
h:nv used the uccd for combating pro- C:ontaiunist
subversion :ts it pretext for police tneusures against the
Civilian opposition, including nculleflist :is well as
leftist eletllenls. gener however, the Thai tend to
tic pratgnlalie rather than speculative ill their attitudes
toward polltiml issues, a characteristic has
conditioned theta to avoid extremes itt both stwi and
political behavior. 'I'lie uneducated rterll masses still
accept the tradition, dating from tilt ere of the
absolute monarch, that political change should he
initiated from) ahuvc by the ueltiou's elite. Even (luritlg
the brief periods of paidiamentary government h
Thailand, no popular uwvemenl was organized k)
press for reforms. For 0wir pxlrl, the governing elite
have evinced paternalistic atlittedes toward the
p)c.(plC.
Anuwg the l'llul of the fairly isolated and
underdeveloped northeastern region, there has
developed a strong distrust of the central govet'tunenl.
This attitude has been caused by the economic
depression of the northeast, the govenittlenit's
longslandi rig neglect of kite region, and theattittide of
superiority of the central Thai. local Communists
have sought to exploit this dismotciit I)y organizing
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1
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.m: -.Cale gnerrilla operation. The gover:linent has
hcitedly reacted to 0iis challenge by conducting
U_S assisted cievei0ptilelit Programs in rate nurthea.t,
in ;tradition to IepreSSive nle:ksures against the local
illsurgcnt h:ul(Is.
Despite the existence of controversial isgnes and
inmate prejudices, amicable relations are geuvrally
nuki Mai Ricci between the 'Mai and the minority
i)0,oples wjtlh whom thev (..x)me in everyday contact.
i'rotress in the assimilation of the ',Chinese
notwith.tandirig, anti- Chinese prejudice sti l exists
among; tike Thai, based largely on the ra)Pkdar
stereotype of the Chiuesc as c'Ncessivcly materialistic
and avaricious. This attitUdC has been encour gL'd hN
propaganda steimning from the governrucnt and the
Thai press directed against Chinese motlonlic power.
Some middie and tipper class Thai have been
frustrated in their desire to engage in a 0 by the
economic predolninaklee of the Ci)inese. Thai urban
laborers who have had to compete with the Chinese in
the labor market have a natural grievance again.t
then,, (on the other hand, the average Thai peasant
welc�01nes the services offered by' tilt Chinese
middlemen as beneficial.
The Chinese are also prejudiced :against tike Thai,
although Chinese community leaders all([ Chinese
language newspapers sLldoitl publicly express
derogatory opinions. Among many Chinese, tine Thai
are regarded as il:(lalent, untrustworthy. irresponsible,
and naive in their litisiuess dealings. While the
government's restrictions on Chinese cc()numic
activiti:'s have not serious affected ,lost Chinese
merchants, many nevertheless feel that they are bring
exploited by government officials, local }xw'iicc officers,
and Thai landlords. Sinct)the 1960's, anti -Thai feeling
has gradually declined, largely because o f the
adoption of mire conciliatory government policies ir.
education and alien registration affecting the Chil-w.
lloaevcr, these co nciliatory Imlicias have been
accompanied 1 )V firrr 01 Ill tersllbver -ive 1x)licies
providing for legal action against 100x1 pro
Communist Chinese. The admission of the "euple's
Republic of China to the United Nations in 1971
aggravated Thai (.onecm over the loyalties of tine
Chinese minority, Allh0ugh Thailand continues to
recoguixe the Itepnidie of China urn Taiwan and does
not permit any overt pro-Col mmunist political
activities by the local Chinese, the desire for more
trade and more persotlal contacts with tL%e mainland,
coupled with ethnic pride, has motivated local
Chinese neasp apers to exprL�ss implieii approval of talc
PRC.
In the southernmost province.., proble in Thai
Malav relations have arisen prinzi pally over Muluy
18
irredentism :Ind tilt backward soci0economie
conchl iolls of that region. Th coll ab oration 0f klalay
extiemist elements with hwids of Chinese Communist
guerrillas across the border during recent years has
revealed the subversive potential of Malay separatism.
Relations between tilt govelning elite and the
Yietnuntesc residents have heal determined almost
en tirely lay' political Consider.
'Pale Vietnamese
refugees have offered passive and sometimes violent
resistance to lire Thai Governlnciit efforts often in
collaboration with the South Vietnamese Enlbuto�
lo round tip and jail Vietnamese nationals who are
:k11CgLd to b Cotl)nllkni.t agents and, in sonic cases, to
deport their) to South Vietnam. however, the Thai
and Vietnamese seem to maintain amicable daily
relations. despite some localized Thai jealon of the
Vietnamese for their ccollonlie cenllpetitioll in Cert
trades,
The primary loyalty of "Thailand's tribespeople is
toward their own villages. Many lac-'< a colisciousness
not only of iheir Thai i0ional}ty but alsoof tilcir own
tribal ethnic stock as well, and thcrc alas bean little, if
any, feeling of intertribal solidarity. Thai civil
officials, police, and :clioalteachcrs have resented
assignment ill the primitive frontier regions anti have
frequently alienated the local t;ibespeoplc by their
attitudes of superiority and attempts to force
Conformity to Thai customs. The tribespeople,
particularly those in Elie more remote mou)ltaiuutls
re tend to Regard the provincial and local
government officials, especially the police, with fear
and suspicion. Such feelings have been increasingly
aggravated by the government's n)setil cruel) t'Policies
since the late 19 and. in recent yeah, by the
occasionally harsh a)untermeasures against villages
suspected of involvement in fi Communist led
insurgency. It is lint yet possible toassess the impact of
tribal attitudes toward the educational, medical, and
Other civic action programs conducted by the Thai
Armed Forces in the tribal region.
Since most 'rh. i have only a limited knowledge of
foreign nations, popular attitudes toward f9rcignen
and fareigm societies are largely determined by the
ruling elite. National feeling Ilas purely evinced file
hypersensitivity or defensive aggressiveness so
characteristic of nationalistic movements in other
Southeast Asialt cour)trics. Thai national eonseii7:1
ness, moreover, has seldom bean churaetcrired by
attitudes of Lhallvinism or ntcial superio The Thai
have freely adopti. 4 the products, technology', and
culture of the West without feelings of cultural
infe,iority. Individual Westerner have largely been
accepted as equals; in fa ct, ti le instinctive and normal
l
5
r
f
a
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Bangkok and other urban centers near U.S. bases have
led to indignant reactions front 'Thai officials and the
press. There is a strong tendency, particularly among
students art([ journalists. to Marne the U.S, presence
For the price inflation aatO deteriorating nuiralc aulong
the urban population.
I"or many years (lie Thai governing elite and a large
sector of Eire politically cxniscious public as well have
regarded the f liC :is the primary danger to Thailand.
A longstanding fear of Chinese domination has
undoubtedly contributed to the relative lack of appeal
of conunuuisnt to educated Thai, including lhuse
element critical of the governinent. Since about late
1972, 'however, the Thai Government has been
cautiously attempting to initiate a dialogue with the
PHC which would lead to commercial and cultural
rclutious betw een the two countries. At thesame time.
the "Thai Government has becoune less inclined to
maintain cloxe tics with Nationalist Clair a because of
its desire fora rapprochement with Peking. The Soviet
Union and Yugoslavia are the only Communist
countries with which Thailand maintains diplomatic
relations. Fete Thai have a clear impression of either
the Soviet Union or individual Hu.sians.
'rhai relations with neighlxiring countries have
gerterdly been amicable during recent years. 'rite only
exception has occurred in the case of Cambodia under
the rule of Prince Sihanouk, when spoiadic border
clashes and Thai- supported subversive activities
within Cambodia contributed to ill feeling between
the two peoples. Since the deposition of Sihanouk in
1970, the 'Thai Government has ceased to regard
Cambodia as a major antagonist, and relations
between the twit countries have improved. Thai
relations with Laos have been amicable except during
periods when the Lao Government was dominated by
left leaning neutralist factions. historic warfare
behieen Thailand and Burma has left a Iegacy of
traditional Thai distrust of the Bcrrmese. Nevertheless,
much of the "rhai, hostility toward Burma has
diminished, despite marked differences in the foreign
policies of the two countries and occasional bonder
problems caused by the presence in Thailand of
insurgent guerrilla bands opposed to the Bunnese
Government. Friendly relations are maintained with
Malaysia, the problems of the Malay minoriiy
notwithstanding.
Thai opinion regarding Japan has generally been
favorable. During their wartime occupation. of
Thailand, the Japurnese did not incur the enmity of the
Thui people largely beu(use they left the internal
administration of the kingdom in the hands of the
collaborationist Thai Government and thus did not
19
fl, Sj'. LS.' 1, YE+: rs: a: GY.` Y'. nrssvaTsard *iR- 2R3'.'N�vx+woB- :iCaa�: ',Y&+lJkNn9 +.ur:x.p:+ .,Iwwn+a +nwiw n.swiY xRx'q.a' -crra wA�.S 1a:. F= �S�ris". Mna .asYA'.Ca -1- :"A'F1i'
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'Thai attitude tuwarl foreigners is (site of respect if not
frieudlineu.
The Thai people in gcneril have hcen favorably
disposed toward the United Slates for matey yeah, and
a tradition of cordial relations has lent; been
maintained, The basis forthispersistent friendshiphas
j
been the absence Of political friction between the two
countries, the small size of U.S. investruertls in
Thailand, the U.S. renunciation of extraterrilorialily
in 1921 without exaction of compensation from
Thailand, and the record of disinterested public
service on the part of U.S, citizens in the kingdom.
i
After World War 11, the Unitexi States treated.
Thailand as a country occupied by the enemy rather
than is a defeated cncniy, and U.S. diplomatic efforts
were instrumental in inducing the European Allies to
relinq some of lhci! reparations claims from
Thailand as it defeated ally of the Axis powers. U.S.
influence ill 'Thailand rapidly supplanted that
exercised by the British during the preaarcra, when
British economic interests and political influence had
1-
predominated, Since the early 1980's, when Thailand
A became
aligned with the United State% in [lie Korean
conflict and began to receive U.S. mililary and
economic assistance, 'Thai foreign policy has been
based ()It clod' ties Willi the United Slates in order to
check [lie advance of conununtsrn. Bulb urban and
rural Thai appear to be greatly impressed with U.S.
s
technological achievernents as revealed by the U.S.
technical assistance programs. During the iutensifica-
tion of [lie Vietnam war, most politically conscious
Thai became increasingly aware of their country'
dependence on the United States for ntililary
protection. Moreover, most 'rhai students seeking
higher education (desire to study in the United States.
At the sautic time, however, there have been growing
Thai reactions against the onslaught of nutierialistic
c
Western influences, especially those associated with
1
the U.S. presence. "Phis trend lilts been particularly
p revalent airiottg t h e urban upper classes and
intellectual elements. The older generation has always
disapproved of the tendency of Thai youth'to emulate
U.S. cuslonts and; concepts of propriety, as reflected in
llolIvwood filets. Also, many Thai have objected to
the apparent indifference of Americ(uis to Thailand's
cultural heritage and traditional values: in particular,
r
they have always resented the flippancy with which
U.S. movies and publications have treated the royal
family, as exemplified by:the hook Anna and the King
of Siam. 'The augmentation of the U.S. presence in
e
Thailand durii.g 1962 -711 was accompanied by the
growth of anti -U.S. feeling in urban communities.
Barroom and street brawls involving U.S. tr(wps in
Bangkok and other urban centers near U.S. bases have
led to indignant reactions front 'Thai officials and the
press. There is a strong tendency, particularly among
students art([ journalists. to Marne the U.S, presence
For the price inflation aatO deteriorating nuiralc aulong
the urban population.
I"or many years (lie Thai governing elite and a large
sector of Eire politically cxniscious public as well have
regarded the f liC :is the primary danger to Thailand.
A longstanding fear of Chinese domination has
undoubtedly contributed to the relative lack of appeal
of conunuuisnt to educated Thai, including lhuse
element critical of the governinent. Since about late
1972, 'however, the Thai Government has been
cautiously attempting to initiate a dialogue with the
PHC which would lead to commercial and cultural
rclutious betw een the two countries. At thesame time.
the "Thai Government has becoune less inclined to
maintain cloxe tics with Nationalist Clair a because of
its desire fora rapprochement with Peking. The Soviet
Union and Yugoslavia are the only Communist
countries with which Thailand maintains diplomatic
relations. Fete Thai have a clear impression of either
the Soviet Union or individual Hu.sians.
'rhai relations with neighlxiring countries have
gerterdly been amicable during recent years. 'rite only
exception has occurred in the case of Cambodia under
the rule of Prince Sihanouk, when spoiadic border
clashes and Thai- supported subversive activities
within Cambodia contributed to ill feeling between
the two peoples. Since the deposition of Sihanouk in
1970, the 'Thai Government has ceased to regard
Cambodia as a major antagonist, and relations
between the twit countries have improved. Thai
relations with Laos have been amicable except during
periods when the Lao Government was dominated by
left leaning neutralist factions. historic warfare
behieen Thailand and Burma has left a Iegacy of
traditional Thai distrust of the Bcrrmese. Nevertheless,
much of the "rhai, hostility toward Burma has
diminished, despite marked differences in the foreign
policies of the two countries and occasional bonder
problems caused by the presence in Thailand of
insurgent guerrilla bands opposed to the Bunnese
Government. Friendly relations are maintained with
Malaysia, the problems of the Malay minoriiy
notwithstanding.
Thai opinion regarding Japan has generally been
favorable. During their wartime occupation. of
Thailand, the Japurnese did not incur the enmity of the
Thui people largely beu(use they left the internal
administration of the kingdom in the hands of the
collaborationist Thai Government and thus did not
19
fl, Sj'. LS.' 1, YE+: rs: a: GY.` Y'. nrssvaTsard *iR- 2R3'.'N�vx+woB- :iCaa�: ',Y&+lJkNn9 +.ur:x.p:+ .,Iwwn+a +nwiw n.swiY xRx'q.a' -crra wA�.S 1a:. F= �S�ris". Mna .asYA'.Ca -1- :"A'F1i'
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have occasion to employ the harsh police measures
and forced labor conscription used elsewhere in
Southeast Aria. However, there is widespread
resentment among Ilse Thai of the alleged growing;
Japanese economic domination of Thailand and a
feeling that Japanese business firms do not coutribuie
:is much as they should io local needs.
Titai altitudes toward war and intUoUtioual
conflict in general have been conditioned by
Buddhistic fatalism. Whatever their losses from wear,
the Thai gleople have evinced a tendcucy to accept
iheir lot with indifference. The Thai are essentially an
unwarlike people despite their strong national
consciousness, the predominance of military elements
in the government, and a historic background of
warfare with neighboring states. Nevertheless, Thai
soldiers have ,shown thetnselves. to be h;; a!, well
disciplined, and c'ti ruragetms in battle when properly
trained and led. as witnessed by the tffective
performance of Thai L�nntingents in the Korean
conflict and Vietnam war. Military service is widely
accepted as patriolic duly, and the trulitional Thai
respect for authority facilitates adjustment to military
discipline.
C. Population (U /OU)
Throughout the 20th ce:utury, phenomenal growth
has-been characteristic of the population of Thailand,
Which as of midyear 1973 numbered an estimated
37.8.37,X). Between 1911, when the first census was
taken, and 19701' the year of the most recent
enumeration, the population more than fluadnrplcd.
During the 1960 -70 intercensal decade alone, the
population rose by 7.9 million. an increntent roughly
matching the total population ill 1911 and
approximating the entire population of such countries
as Austria, Cambodia, or Sweden. Since 1910, the
population has continued to increase rapidly, growing
at an estimated average annual rate of 3.250. if such a
growth rate persists, the 1973 population will double
in 22 years; the population will reach 50 million in
1981 and 60 million in 1987.
Un.'I well into the 1950'x, the official policy on
population, reflecting both the popular desire for large
families and the chauvinism of nationalist Ieaders, was
pronatalist. As early as 1906, when public health
services were inaugurated, justification for such
services was based in part on the fact that by lowering
the death rate the services would promote an increase
in the size of the population. During World War lf,
the incumbent hime Minister declared that "100
Million people J were necessary[ to make our nation a
20
real p nwer," and he subsequently promoted early
urarriages to "ruake the nation pro%jier." BoutLses for
large families were authorized, Although official
pnnnution of Carly marriage was .oaudoned in 1944,
the bonuses were paid as late as 1156.
Prompted by warimgs in the late 1950's and in the
1960's about the adverse effects of rapid population
growth upon socioeconomic development, Thailand,
in 1970. instituted a National Family Planning
Progr: in (NFPp) which has as its aims: 1) the
reduction of the annual growth rate to 2.57o by tine
end of 1976; 2) the establishment of family planning
services throughout the cYunttry and their integration
with overall maternal and child health prograws, and
3) the education of the population in family planning
concepts. Despite a lack of high priority for family
planning; at (lie topgovernrncnt level and a ternporarw
setback early in 1972 when the brand of oral
contraceptives was changed, some progress has been
made. An infrastructure has been established and
personnel trained. Moreover, surcys have revealed
that the proportion of married, fertile womers aged 15
to �14 who were sterilized fir practicing contraception
rose from 11% 11 mid -1969 to 225o in mid -1972.
Nonetheless, rage specific marital fertility declined
only slightly during; the period, probably a reflection
of the time -lag; needed between increased amvptanr
of contraception and a decrotse in fertility.
The NFPP. utilizing a variety of indoctrinationa)
and informational channels, has sought to induce
Thai women to accept the intrauterine dewicv or oral
contraceptives or to undergo sterilization. Oral
contraceptives are by far the most popular among
those desiring to limit family size. Pilot stu&es
designed to assess the acceptability of condoms as a
means of family planning have also undertaken,
but the condom appears to be culturally unacceptable
to many Thai. Abortion is not a part of the NFPP
program. It is illegal in 'Thailand except in certain
inStallCBS; moreover, because of the 'Buddhist
injunction against the taking of life, many physiciaus
are reluctant to perform such cperalions even in those
instances where it is legal, e,g� to save the�life of the
mother. There is no similar taboo about sterilization;
the number of female sterilization procedures
increased from about 23,11(!0 in 1971 to 31,000 in 1972,
Thailand's fanidy planning program, whose goals
and practices are held to be armpatible with- Budditist
teachings, receives assistance from ;.k number of foreign
and international entities, including the Agency for
international Development (Alb).
Population growvth in Thailand is almost wholly the
result of natural increase. Immigration was all
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t
s
5
t
V
.Y
Y
j
r r
s
ti
impudant factor in such growth during the latter half
of the 19th century, but it is insignificant t9elay, tits
voittrnc amounting; to about 2,000 persons per year
(luring the decade of the 1960's. Emigration is also
ltegligii!c.
Because lilt death rate has declined more rapidly
than the birth rate in the host -World War II period,
the rate of natural increase has been rising, Although
Thailand instituted' the e._impulsory registration of
births and deaths in 1917, the recording; of such vital
events is still deficient. Accordingly, it k not possible
to determine birth and death rates precisely. For the
decades of the 1930's ,told 10Ws, the U.N. has
estimalcd the f ellowingi*, vital rates:
B I RTH D EATaa IIATEOr1ATURAL
HATE RATE MCREASE
45.4 15.8 29.6
195500 45.3 15.7 29,6
1980.65 44.2 13.7 30.5
1983-70 42.8 10A 32A
As tlic U.N. figures indicate, the birth rate dropped by
about fi,i during the 20 -year period, whereas the
death rate decreased' by 34 The rate natural
increase rose by over Wo, during the period,
culminating ill a 3.21 annual rate in 1965 70, a rate
which is believed to have since remained fairl stable.
'rhere is evidence of some fertility differential in
'Thailand along regional line.-;. Forthe uiban and rural
popula as a whole, tae birth rate is highest ill the
northeast and lowest in pelli'm tlar Thailand. The
birth rate in Bangkok is lower than that elsewhere in
the country, perhaps by as much as 2aSb, according to
Thai estimates. Studies also indicate one striking
aspect of fertility behavior in Thailand, namely the
persistence of births through the older childbearing;
ages. Ago specific birth rates for women ore fairly high
at all ages, bill the gicatest contrast to other cmntrie_s
is found in the 35-49 age gawps. Alxut one -half of Lill
babies are burn to women over age 30, and 1110 birth
rate for Thai women ages 4549 is nearly identical to
that for U.S. women ages 35.33;,the Thai rates for ages
35.39 and 40 -44 are both higher than lit,. U.S. ratc'c for
ages 25.29 and 30-34.
The death rate in Thailand has responded to
improved .health conditions and to increased health
services, One facet in the declining level of mortality
has been the fewer numberof deaths of children under
age f. Although the 1970 rate of 83 deaths of such
children per 1,000 live births is still quite high
cwmpared with infant mortality rates in %Vestem.
nutions, it represents substantial improvement over
those prevailing in Ilse early post -World War 11 years.
As the death talc has declined, life expectancy at
birth has risen. It rose front about' 35 years in 1937 to
59 years in izM5 70, and is forecast at 62 vears for Cite
period 1970 -75. Females outlive males Lin the average
by about 3 vears.
1, Size and distribution
According to the preliminary nsults of (lie census of
1 A7oril 1970, Thailand had o population of
34,152.000, a 30% increase over the 26,257,916
enumerated 10 years earlier.= 11% midyear 1973, the
Iwpulation had risen !o an estimated 37, 8,37,0()0.
Thailand is thus the most populous nation of
mainland Southeast Asia. It has 28 more inhabitants
than Burina and front 3 to 12 limes the population ef
its other neighbors Malaysia, Ci nbodia, aml Laos,
With an average of 191 persons per square mile at
midyear 1973, !'haihatd is more than three tittles as
d e nsely p o p ulated as th United States. 1 i also one
of the most densely settled nations a' ntaulland
Southeast Asia. The national average, howc:'cr, masks
the uneven distribution of the Impulalion. Population
density varies markedly among the 71 provinces,
having rang,-d in 1970 front a low of 20 persons per
square mile in Mac Yong Son Province to a high of
more than 5,1100 in each of the hvo pravillOUS
cricompxassing the Bangkok -Than fiuri metropolitan
complex (Figure 6). A majority of nrovincrs had
densities ranking from 100 to 2.30 persons per square
mile; 20 had densities exceeding 250 inhabitants per
square mile, while 14 had fewcrthan 100 residentsper
s(Iiture mile. Urban centers excepted, the region of
densesl settlement is the central plains area, cspeeially
the souther portiims of the Chao Phraya and Mac
Klong river valleys (Figure 7), Arc of secmdary
concentration include scattered regions in the north
and northeast, particularly the major rivervalleys, and
thise regi6eis surrounding tit) mining centers in
southern Thailand. The nioun(ainous regions along
the Thailandmllurina border and in northern Thailand
are sparsely inhabited,
Thailand is a predominantly anal country, the
typical resident living in a small, tong established,
self stis tail ifig hamlet or village, The proportion of the
population classified as urban rose from about ',2% in
1960 to approximately 14% in 1970, but the trend
toiard urbulrivalion is not strong. Moreover, the twin
cities of lkingkok and Thon. Bari, with a` combined
'\o -whe trihcipmple in the pith of northem 1'huiland wcm out
enutnerulcd in either the IWI or the I470 tvniuses, 11ey are
otimutu-1 to num1wrahout 3611,011). Popnialion datit in lhissntiou
are trtsed on MAWS mail% and therrrom ewhide the Hilo peopic.
21
x wrenro:rr+w:+rscaae,a4
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FIGURE 6. Population, area, and population
density, by
province, 1 April 11970 (UJOU)
(Populnflon in thousands,- wea in square miles)
PY.RCP. \T
YY.1tanSa
u rHer-7 Or
Or
PrU
POPULA-
TOTAL
TOTAL
%QVAar,
PnO1�INer
T1OS
POPULATION
AFKA
AIAFA
?111.1:
Central Region:
kng 'Mang
217
0,0
3711
0.2
573
Chnahveng &w
339
1.0
3,093
1.0
161
chainnt
251=
0.7
1,018
0.5
251
Chanthahu;i
-II
0.6
2,337
1.;
Ski
Chou Buri
513
116
1.733
0.9
31:1
Kanch-inahud
321
0.9
7,5 M
3.8
43
Up Buri
-133
1.3
'',544
1.3
170
Nakhon Nikyuk
101
0.6
033
0.3
173
Nokhnr PuthOm
�111
1..�
841
0.4
480
Nonthaburi
234
0.7
241
0.1
1,0:id
pathuta Thani
2311
0.7
548
0.3
425
I'hrn Nakhon
2,132
a.;?
524
0.2
5.028
Phrn Nakhon Si AyutthaYa...
501
f.i,
053
0.5
:133
s;
Phet Ruii
279
0.8
2.454
1.2
113
Prtwhln Buri
421
1.2
4.354
e.9
9.
I'Mchunp Khiri Khan............
34D
0.7
2.401
1.2
101
Rat Buri
404
1.4
1.977
1.0
231
Rkvong,
250
0.7
1,1'77
0.6
IN
l
Sanlut Prakan
325
1.0
361
0,:
1100
0.4'
324
A.2
489
Stingmhranl.........
159
G.;,
{i4
n.1
1,41:Q
Stun Burr..........
34:1
1.0
1,144
0.6
290
Sing Burl..........
162
0.5
325
0.:
4108
Supllan Buri
501
1.6
2,061
1A
272
Thon Buri
010
2.7
174
0.1
:1,2$2
Z'
Trot
91
0
1, t27
0.5
83
Total. Central Region..........
10,302
30.4
30,004
20.1
2130
Y Region:
13uriraln I I......
707
2.3
4,11.50
r.1
102
C haicaphum
026
1.8
4,165
2.1
150
K slasfn
573
1.7
2,054
1.0
104
Khan Kacn
1;025
3.0
5,1_5
�.6
588
k
Loci
320
1.0
4 "ii
2.1
ri
Mafia Sarakham
013
l^.8
2,234
1.1
276
1
Nakhon Phanom
561
1.8
3,764
1.9
140
i'
Nakhon Ratchasims
1,347
4.3
7,564
3.8
205
Kong Khal
442
1.3
2,780
1.4
158
Rol IiL
r50
9.9
3,032
1.15
257
Sakhon Nekhon
59S
1.8
3,0.'13
1.9
'6`3
61saket
.790
f:3
3,403
f.7
-32
220
S urin
747
3,39_>
1.7
Uhvn Ratchnthani
11480
.3
K,;B;
4.4
168
7
nn
Udon Thani
1,118
$.3
6
3.3
I;-1
Total, Northeaat Region.......
12,023
36.:
OS,: S
33.1
183 1
North Region:
Chiang Mai......
1,024,
3.0
8,878
4.5
115
[f
Chiang Rat
1,086
3.2
7.200
3.6
ISO
Kamphaeng Phet
333
1:0
3,4$11
1,833
1.7
f.4
96
127
l ampang
Blli
1.8
Lam phun
318
0.9
1;704
0.9
187
n a
Mwe Ilan; Son
104
013
5,105-
2.6
20
Nakhon Saran
754
2.2
3,736
1.17
203
Nan............
310
0.9,
4.515
f?:3
69

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lopulation in 1970- (if about 2.9 milliou,.make up well
over h:af of the total urhall po pulation and accounted
for almost all ti the increase in the urban p o pulation
during the intereensal decode. of the combined
population of the twin cities, between 70% and 75%
live in Bangkok proper, on the east !rank of the Chao
Phraya, and the rest live in Thon Bud, a ma jor suburb
e oil the west bank. Only three other cities, Chiang Mai
in the northern mountains, Nakhon Ratehusima on
the Komt Plateau, and Flat Yai in the south, have
populations exceeding 50,000. As estimated by the
Thai Government in 1968, the 120 urban raters were
distributed by siie as follows:
50,000 and over s
40 000. 50.000 7
30.1700.40,000 11
24,000 .90.000 14
*s lr 10.000- 20,000 42
Under 10,000 41
As ascertained by the 1960 census, 11Sb of the
population lived in a province other than the one of
their birth and, :recording to Thai authorities, the
proportion probably w-ll be significantly higher when
the final results of the 1970 census are released. Except
for movement to Bangkok, however, the Thai show
little inchi n!ion to move great distaper_ Thirs most
internal migration is within regions, often to an
adjacent province where economic opportunities may
be viewed as better. Although no measurement of the
vo +lime of internal migration during the' 1960 -70
dreaJe is yet available, a comparison of growth rates
of the provinces shows some indir-ation of direction
(Figure 8). Presumably those provinces registering
inercuses above the national average have gained
population as the' result of fn- migration; while those
showing decreases or increases below the national
average,have lost population through out- migration.
The sluggish growth rates in the provinces surrounding
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FIGURE 6. Population, area,
and population density,
by provir4w, 1
April 1970
MOW (Continued)
Jt
PKF1l'I:NT PY.IIAO \tl
PLACKNT OF
OF
YEN
Pr11 -V1,
TMAL
TOTAL
NQUAIIK
PltO\'[\CY.
710%
Voi- ULAVOv
AREA
ARKA
111LP
North Region (Continucd)
Phetvhnhun
513
1.5
4,311
2.2
119
Phichit
440
1.3
1,739
0.0
252
Phit xnllulok
-102
1,6
3,729
1.7
132
1 1 hrae
305
1.1
2,25s
1.1
162
Sukllothai
304
1.2
2,0;1
1.3
1.19
Tnk
217
O.Q
6,U27
3.0
36
Uthal Thaiii
177
0.5
2,409
1.3
71
Uttaradit
321
0.9
2,9!0
1.;
100
Total, North Region.....,.....
7,468
21.0
65,639
S8.1
1111
South Region:
Chumphon
235
0.7
2,219
1.1
100
Krabi
148
0.4
1,785
0.9
83
Nakhon Si Thanunarat...........
q-
2.7
3,920
2.0
236
N'arathlwat
320
0.8
1,032
0.9
200
Pattani
330
1.0
777
0.4
�125
1
135
0.4
1,583
0.8
R5
Phxlthalung
208
0.9
1,262
0.
236
1 1 huket
100
0.3
300
0.2
324
Hartong
59
0.2
1,323
0.7
45
Satun
131
0.4
1,031
0.5
127
Songkhllr
621
1.8
2,576
1.8
241
SOW Thani
434
1.3
5
2.5
88
_1
Trang
320
0.0
1,009
1.0
171
Fnla
199
0.6
1,821
0.3
log
Total, South Region......,....
4,200
12.0
27,009
13.7
lab
Total, Thaihlnd
34,152
100.0
498,4:5
100.0
172
lopulation in 1970- (if about 2.9 milliou,.make up well
over h:af of the total urhall po pulation and accounted
for almost all ti the increase in the urban p o pulation
during the intereensal decode. of the combined
population of the twin cities, between 70% and 75%
live in Bangkok proper, on the east !rank of the Chao
Phraya, and the rest live in Thon Bud, a ma jor suburb
e oil the west bank. Only three other cities, Chiang Mai
in the northern mountains, Nakhon Ratehusima on
the Komt Plateau, and Flat Yai in the south, have
populations exceeding 50,000. As estimated by the
Thai Government in 1968, the 120 urban raters were
distributed by siie as follows:
50,000 and over s
40 000. 50.000 7
30.1700.40,000 11
24,000 .90.000 14
*s lr 10.000- 20,000 42
Under 10,000 41
As ascertained by the 1960 census, 11Sb of the
population lived in a province other than the one of
their birth and, :recording to Thai authorities, the
proportion probably w-ll be significantly higher when
the final results of the 1970 census are released. Except
for movement to Bangkok, however, the Thai show
little inchi n!ion to move great distaper_ Thirs most
internal migration is within regions, often to an
adjacent province where economic opportunities may
be viewed as better. Although no measurement of the
vo +lime of internal migration during the' 1960 -70
dreaJe is yet available, a comparison of growth rates
of the provinces shows some indir-ation of direction
(Figure 8). Presumably those provinces registering
inercuses above the national average have gained
population as the' result of fn- migration; while those
showing decreases or increases below the national
average,have lost population through out- migration.
The sluggish growth rates in the provinces surrounding
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1

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j
d
Bangkok and extending northward reflect the limited
Capacity of these heavily settled areas to provide
additieoal residen's with opportunities for social
advancement. Overcrowding in the region has already
brought about extensive fragmentation of landhold-
ings and encouraged many to move to less crowded
a reds.
2. Agc-sex structure
Tkailand's population has been steadily growing
younger, the result of a continuing high birth rate.
Wilh an ever increasing proportion of children in the
population, the median age fell hum 18,6 years in
1960 to 17.2 years in 1970 and is expected to dechir
further, as -ire age structure of the population is highly
conducive to accelerated growth in the future.
+he population pyramid for 1970 (Figure 9), typical
of those for countries with rapidly growing
populations, has a broad base, representing the large
birth cohorts since 1u60. Each subsequent age group
tapers off slightly, reflecting both flit smaller w1mris
of births in the past, when the population was smaller,
and' attrition by death. Of the total population in
1970.45_? o were underage Band 56.2% were under
age 20. At the other extmcme, only 3.1 were age 65
and alder, and only 10.3'7 were age 50 and older. All
together, 48.35; of the population were in the
6MI3 3-74
FIGURE 7. Population density (U /OU)

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IF/
28
201 '/16
2
2
70
1 11 63 T 59
I] V
38
8
5 21 9
76
69
67
19
62 57
60
v
i
41
32 22
23 31 '40
LEGEND
47 52
44
Annual Growth ra
`53 '64 4.0-6.8%
3-0-2.99%
36
6
2.0-2.99%
INDEX TO PROVINCES
1. Ang Thong 37. Phoichubun
2. bustrom 39. Phichip
10 Pr-Ince (chan
3� Chadmenipao 39. Phlisanutok
boundary
4. Cholnot 40. Phro Nakhon
S. cholyaphorn All. Phro Nokhan
46. OtonphoburF Si Ayu"hoya
6
7. Chiang Mal A?. Phroe
0
a 1 43 Pbuket
i., Chian Lr a
44: Pratchin B
"h-ph- 4 5. Prochoap Khl,I Khan
1 10
Kolosin 46. Ron"
61
Phol 47. Rat 0.1
3, Kanchanoburl 48. kayong
14, Khon Keen 49. Rol Et
5. KrabI 50. 'ctkcrt Nakhon
:6.
fi
27
Lampong 51. SORWI Prakunt
17. Lamphurn 52. Scrawl Sukhan
43
Is. Joel 53. Sarni Songw..
19. top Burl 54. Sara Burl
20. moo H.9 So 55. so"
25
21. moho sorokhom 56. Sino Burl
22. Nakhon Noyak 57. shaket
23. Noithan Pathan So. saftakht.
so
24. Nokhon nonorn SY. suhholhal
33
25. Nakhon RaftfiasUrro 60. 5uphon Bud
2F- Nofto Suwon 61, Surat Thonl
27. Ncimhon Si Thomwncrat 62. Satin
71
29
28. N*4 63. Tak
29. Narathl.vt 64. 71mo Burl
30. Nang Khoi 65. Thong
31. Noo?h.buri 66. Trot
32. ?a*-vm Thani 67. Ubon Rotdm*aM
iw
33, pultoni 68. Udon Than]
34� Phaingnou
FIGURE 8. POPu lOtion dionge, 7960-70,
69. Uth.1 Thuni
35. hammiung
by province (UJOU)
70. Warodit
36. Phet Be. 71, Yala
tj i
25
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Age
70
and
over
65-69.
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40 44
3"5,39
30-34
25-29
20.24
15-19
10-14
SA
0-4
10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10
MALE hrtent FEMALE
FIGURE 9. Age -sex structure, 1970 (U /QU)
Y
f
k
t
dependent ages (0 -14 and 65 and older), compared
with 51.7 in the working ages (15 64). The resulting
r,tio of 931 persons of dependent age per 1,000 of
working age was not only 11 higher than the ratio in
1960 but also more than 50% higher than the ratio in
the United States in 1970. In such countries as
Thailand, however, the formal dependency ratio
overstates the actual degree of dependency, as many
children under agil 15, cspmcially in rural areas, arc
engugcd in some form of work endeavor, and many
persons age 6.3 and over continue to work out of
economic necessity.
In 1970, the population of Thailand comprised
17,002,000 males and 17,150,000' females, or 99.1
males per 100 females. Sex ratios varied markedly from
Province to province, ranging from a low of 92,9 in
Kalasin to a high of 113.8 in Chumphon, the site of
several important tin mines. In general, low sex ration
were registered in those provinces whose rite of
intercensal growth was below the national averlge,
suggesting sonic out migration of males from these
provinces, On the other hand, most of those provin-,es
recording high sex ratios had grown more rapidly than
the nation as a whole during the intcreensal period
and, iwplicidy, were areas of male in- migration.
Although data from the 1970 census with respect to
the.age�sex structure of the poiiulatinn of Bangkok are
not yet available, a 1968 survey of the twin cities of
Bangkok and Thorn Burl reported 105.4 malcs�per 100
females, thus indicating a preponderance of males
among the migrants to this large metropolitan area.
26
D. Living and working conditions
1. Health and sanitation (C)
Health seivims and facilities in'rhailand, expanded
to a considerable degree since the end of W,nrld War
11, are superior to those found in neighboring Burnla.
Cambodia, and Los. Nevertheless, the general level
of health of tlae majority of the population remains
low, and there is a high incidcfw.s of preventable
diwase. The spread of c ninninicable disease is
furthered by inadequate waste disposal facilities.
cont aminated food and water supplies, and, in tlae
urban areas, na ercrowded housing. Despite consider
able progress ill recent .decades, shortages of medical
equipment, facilities, and professional personnel
persist, particularly in rural areas. Rapid population
growth. moreover, is outstripping available health
resources and impeding health grogranis.
The continilous heat and humidity in 'Thailand
further the propagation of numerous insect vectors of
disease, in addition to many human and anitnal
disease organisms. At least five species of mosquitoes
are known to he vectors of malaria; seven species, of
filariasis; and two, of dengue fever. Flies arc carriers of
enteric diseasm. yaws, and Irachoma: lice, fleas; and
insect infested rats transmit typhus arid. the plague.
Additional threats to health and safety are caused by
larger forms of -minim life, including app-.roximately
25 different species of pnisonow; or otlienvise
dangerous sea and land reptiles. As of 1972 the
recorded incidence of rabies in Thailand was one of
the highest in the world, atith fatalities from rabies
numbering between 200 and b00 ai)nuall%'. Although
Thailand has one of Southeast Asia's largest and hest
veterinary sere; ices, the attention given to the health of
livestock continues to bi inadequate.
According to official st:tistiex, respiratory diseases
are a trading cause of mortality am ong all age groups.
Tuberculosis is particularly prevalent,in the more
congested and crowded urb areas, although its
incidence has been decreasing as the result of mass
prevention and treatment programs conducted by the
government (Figure 10). Common colds, influenza,
pneumonia, aiad other respiratory ailments arc
:widespread during the paak of the rainy seasa :n, Many
deaths also result from dysentery, typhoid fever, and
helminthiasis. Morhidity rates (or gastroenteric
ailments are 'high, with as many as 80% of tlee
population being afflicted during; the course oaf a year.
Malaria has long constituted a major hrAth problem,
although an eradication program initiated in 1949 has
greatly reduced the incidence of the disease. Cholera,
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rte;
1
y` t ,N
we lt7
FIGURE 10. Mobile tuberculosis
team used In the govemment's
campaign to prevent and treat the
disease. Despite official campaigns,
tuberculosis is still a serious haollh
e.
problem. (C)
I. 171:1g11C, illl(I SnlalllHM, l+'rtiClt 011CP OCCi1RCd 111 Approxitliately we third of all registered physicians+'
r', epidemic form, have becotile increasingly subject (to :uc employed by the \Ministry of I'uhlic I lealth. While
e t
t= ffccli' !tave lwvn voris1ruelvd,
disifihi'0011 %%sivin In it tvaela�s tht` cntlsumer.
Indiscrimiti:lly duftY'41ti[111 is c�tmutilm. am] rivers and
P erso ns hvinti; in Hicose src� linus of llic cite not li(m'idrd
c:nla k oftvii sert'c as di�lulsitories of h91111:I11 waste;
With piped water ticpoUd opol, sulrplivs f rom
Moreover, the cities if,) Not ha\ zccagc trv;thncnt
hydr ills, arlesian hells, slored rainwater, orCHIAS. or
plied. ur effcctiry modern sewe�rlge systcn]s_ \tarn Of
lhcr III)% w�:drr from dradnrs. alottled tsalcr: "Ithoniil
the .hln[cr fitlildinvs and Uppi'r e�la%s hClnles, ht �vvcvr,
s:if it) ll ;int;k�k. is tno 10 be wiclelV Used,
are erplip1wd with cvs.pnirls or se111ic t:Uik�.
�e� r
l
FIGURE -;pipe Bamboo pipe water system often utlliaed
At
s
a r
in rural areas (C)
F IG UR E
GORE Earthenware en are ems used to 'store tore (U/OU)
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1
E4
:i
.w
r
.ce
Say
.Ff'.
..?ir
s,
Ili the cities and larger lawns. monicip :d
.14111irkistrklions collect garbage and trash, althungh
nol ire nil secliom nor ken regu ar schedules. In those
sections where there is no regular colivetiun Neel ice.
bonieowilers often likely their ref11sc in pits. Ilut
dwellers alongside the eanlda sinitlh� (11111,1) their trash
into the water. 'Trash and garbage are allowed to
acennadalc� IH'lleall, l,unacs, serving as brev(Png
grounds for rats flies� momillirnes. and other pests.'I'he
gavertubeut Iles periodically volidac�lud ,latiouwitle�
c�ivanlincss e;unpaigils, in which villagers ure eiirectcd
to lolled the debris around the llumes mid Inlet it. in
greater Bangkok, loth air pollution� caused timinly
by wolor traffic nn the co11gcstcd streets(Vigure� 1a)--
:knel walcr pollution� vamst-d hr t }le factors described
shelve, as well ;1s by like tl11nlpiug Of iudmtrial
wklstea �are t }eve i nto major pro In recellt
ycars, the cite of Bangkok has filled he muse of t11c old
canals in order In utect the increasing need fur new�
roads (is relieve traffic vongeslion. However, [leis
process leas interrillited tile natural flaw of the tides
tFirerugh llle iutercO,titcctetl cavials which formerly
carried much of the wustes out In sea.
similar)� precautions fullo ved ill food handling;
prlclices are inadcetnate. Iscept fora few cold slonige
facilities in Kmgkok, then: is a gvllolll lack of
rcfrigerkliom. \'feat niarkels and vend,m in tirbun ;111(1
rund cron ill told lies alike display fish. moui, vegetables,
and fruits ill the open where they are cxixrscd le, heal,
flies, utul dust (Figure 16). Slaughlcrhouscs Anil
reslalmilits :are subjtkct to goserkl,licnl irlspecho11 rut
s:tiiitary cemditions. hell rcgulaliuos :ere irregu]udy and
iaeffectivel euforecd.
4. Diet and nutrition (ujou)
'I'll;liland is norlmiliv a fonts stirpihis eO11kelry, with
rice irtlportant boll, us a staple food hind a., the largcsl
single sotirce of foreign exchange. In addition to rice.
Thailand's foot) crops include cnnn and other
vcgclables, sugarcane, autl coconuts tlnd Other fruits.
I'he Only signiflemit food imports have Itt�eu dairy
preulncls, wheat flour. and coffca, destined primarik
for the R:ukgkok market. However, the fillet naliIll"
detmmd fur rice in the w Orld inarkcl and droughts and
floods withilk 'I'hailalltl leave contributed to a
retluctio i ill recent years of the amuukel of rice
nv; ilable for export. 'I'lle resnllaut shortages of Fier
b :ti�c led t0 luc;d hoarding of sleeks mul specuialing
elver price Ircuds. TO rurluil hoarding and speckel:tling
and to insure aeleeluale domestic supplies al
ncceptable prices, the governnu�nt has mnintaincd
c�nustuter price cuistruls On rice. and in mid -15173 it
imposed rcwtrictiom on rice exports. By Atig,tsl 1974
then.- were indications Ilml a favorable rice crop in
M13 would alleviate the pressures on domestic
supplies :tied prices and h!atl to renu,v;d of the cxpoit
restrictions. \'onethcless, in the lung run, pOpulat'iau
growth is likely to iketemify= dnrnaslic dcniand for rice
anti thoreby raluee the cxptrrt surplus further, thus
affecting keot likely export earnings but also
cKUUponents Of read incotne dependent on itolorls or
on non:lgricilllllrl ccKnunuic growth.
A'L(1ritklriliuri is cvnitliti11 ill '1'hail;tnd, particularly
in (lie northern and northeastcr11 regious, bill
starvation is rarely if ever eneowitered, The average
diet lentk to be Itigh ill c:trbollydrtles Itut deficient ill
prutein, vitamins, and minerals. There is evidekece of a
cunsidemble Illi;tmine dcricicncy Its the diet, Primarily
because of the topkilar preference for polished rice
ln�cr the n,an> nkltiitin115 u,tueilled rice. Tile Biel also
shows i deficit of ribofl b;:t rii;teir, rind vitatniri E:
le1'ela arc :ldctt(tMV, loditic deficiencies are wide-
spread; bcimg especially acute itt the north ;mid
northeast. As in muoy otherserutheast Asian cntintries,
beriberi is tl Fairly c orli,non disease.
The basic Thai diet colt 's ists of rice, fish, vegetables.
and fruits. This diet is high ill starches, time to liter
consumption of cassava, sweet polalo, amt corn in
.addition to rice. Common vegetables consnnied
31
is
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FIGURE 15. Rush.hour`trafficin Bangkok: Eethaust -laden
haze blankets the area. (U /QU)

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t
i
Mon paddling- preporod food Ili fie Bangkok area. The overage
city family Is reported to spend 10'K. of 'its food budget W meets
said by such vendor.
:;2
include� brans, spinach, peas, and onion,: the
principal fruit~ caters arc covotuits, bananas, papa }:ts,
.tnd ntang(40. Misty is constimA mart wgidarh lham
meat, pant} beatuse it is less expensive and tncrrc
rvadih available. except in [lie trtonrtlainulls north
and arid northeast. Moreum, the Buddhist reluc�tanee
to take animal life discourages colummiptitm of beef.
lwultr%, :tit(] pork. and the Mala observe ill(- l:amie�
injunction against pork. Sttt rea}tcs Ilia ;nTrage
Thai maim% in the form of soft dr'itks While %cater is
the principal Thai bcceragc, coffee, soft drinks, awl
milk arc becoming morn� pillular in urlwit art-w.- Most
(.Ilinest� ill "!'hailactd h;tcc it better halawy d diet I hall
the Thai, 11wir dirt c�ontairting greater arnonnts of
meat and Fat. Furtbenrtore, b% drinking It-. made
front boiling %voter, the Chim�se largel% avoid the
e5fects of n,ing polloled %caller.
In lw -1 -wi, the most regent d ;ttc� for which
comprehensive and fairix rviiabk information is
available, the da'tl per capita c�ousuniutioo of adaries
amounted to 2.2flK Although thi figure is lower than
lite ?,�Itlti calories reconuncnded by FAO, it is
relativek high wllcit judged by southeast As'iats
Aandauls. Grains, particukti rice. acconofcd for
about three "tivarlets of the total c;tluric intake. Foods
high in carbohydaltes comprised well over folly- Fifllis
of the total calories vonsunied. Protekm intake �"less
than onc�tlU;irtcr of .chid %v;ts of animal origin �%vas
%�cry low, I)icts of urban UPper arld oliddle ckaSS'i hili
,tre tiluch more uotritiotis plan tl(osc of till' rural
village s: protein intake is imtch higher, wmwenlly
because of the collstumption of inipotud canned
meals. lit metropolitan Bangkok. inatty varictics of
foods. partictdarly iinimrted cottlmocbties, are
available in mo;lern .upertmirke�ts palronivtl Isy
affluent Thai will Chinese.
The nutritional deficienciew in the 'Thai diet are
aggri ated by certain tntditional dietary practices.
"I'hc 'I'bai custom of overcooking rim, for exartiplc,
leads to a considerable Ios of vitanti,15 and minerals.
Pmi;naiu or lactating Svotnen sillm eggs; inning
mothc>1 are not liermitted by tntdilio� to eat;ulytltitlg
lint rice ;aid inilk. The resulting lntlritioli_il
(Mic�iencies arc thus lt;tsscd on to their offspring, dice
is often include in a child's diet withitl a fe�w (lugs of
birth. Ymang children arc more scriouslc affected by
protein nudnutrition aitd deficiencies of vilatilill.'
minrds than are older me+n0 rs of the t3cplilatioll.
'I'lie '1'liai Government has roxived advice ;and
assistancwr from W110, All), and a titirnbcr of V-S
voluntary organizatious in its efforts ht raise
mutritiotial standards. Ali Anemia and Malnutrition
Research C:culcr. temablished at Chiang: alai
s
0
I
U
3
w.
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,Women In smog boats peddling (roils and wgeroblos to house-
holders along a tonal in Bangkok. The larger boats bring
agricultural produce to the city.
Woman selling product; in o morketplace
FIGURE 16. Fond vending fU fOU)

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4
t
f
j
4
I
i l
l iz
g
University louder U.S. sponsorship, serves is the
leading iminlion research Wwralory ill �'ltailaocl.
11C.11111 ecntcrs throughout (lie comitry instruct wouten
ill 1111160011 Well fund preservation teehniquc Some
School horcl' programs flirilisil milk ill one form (or
another he 1972. uareovvr. there were 30 special
niltriilou centers in the northern �lad northeastern
provinces which offered food to tilt, ellildreit of Ill"
tribespeoplc rind pro�jded cYluratiore in nnlrition to
Ills local adtolls.
3. Housing; (U /OU)
Ilomiug ill 'I'ilailand reflects tilt wide variatjous in
living cYrnditiolis betwc -en the ilp1wrand 1(merclasscs
and bclwecu the urhau and nlrll sectors of society.
114111sing norluaily is not a pressing problerl in rtortl
areas, where focal ua ;lterials For the couslruction of
lints are ch":,p .111(1 abu11lallt. In urban Centers.
110"Ver, the housing situation is critical, being
marked by overcrowding; caused I by ilornaul
popedatiou growth 11111 by the cototiouirlg rural to
t:r ).M oligratlinn. This is parlicularly trite of Bangkok,
where the sizable number of rurai migrtnls in search
of c111p1m�menl have created a major hilusillg
shortage. In 1971, the housing; shortage ire
metro wlitan Ilang;kok was cstinlanted to approsim -me
lilt). {I{H� uleits.
The most corrnrtlorl Iv of loran house is a
rectangular structure wlllt pailnl 111alling walls. .1
tlydchell roof, Weld a 1111111610 or wood -slat floor. Sueh
hmise'. usually ;ere built oil fool to lU foot I >iliilgs for
1 tedion against flood, mild. snakes, will rodcuts.
The Spam, beneath provides shelter for livestock and
serves as a storage area. A typical rural house consists
Of a living nxall, often containing a small space
gxirtitioned off as a kilehcn. _wd one or two bedrooms.
Monies of fairly well -to -do rural resideoIs telay be built
of teak and. amfed with tile. Ilowever, stechJuntesa:s are
hccennilig inerJsingly rare, even in file trak- growing
northern regions: as trek, like other hardwo iris ill
Thailand, has 1' cco me very expionsive Iecausc of its
ex1ur! 'value. Trilms! Anhabjtunts of the nu utelaiuous
regions of Thailand customarily live in raised huts.
Dwellings Of tilt, Mcu differ froul those of the either
tribal groups; th6r huts are usually neif boil[ on stilts.
Typical rural -homes are shown ire Nigilre 17:
Urban. hurries include !xtli the traditional tylx of
wooden house and murclern residences cxnlslnleted
purtially,or tut -tIly of brick or ariterete. Some rtliddlc
and ilpper class elements in Bangkok live in Western
st+ honks with concrete floors, ecmen:t bhx:k walls',
and file ")fs; Nonetheless, the typical Meese (if a
middle inetime fnillily is a small t'u shlried slructire
with woodell walls and .1 tile roof. The kitchen is
usually scparulvd from [lie house bat coml(Tted to it
by a (tvcrcd passat;C ay. as of 14Hi?, 54r of :ill
dwellings in the Bangkok -Thon Bad area were
detached houses. 3G t were row leotlscs, anti the
remainder vere Mher apartments or were ill haihclings
which also served as shops. In areas of major t :hinesr
eoncento-a ion in Mistgkok. mos( streets :Ire li11col will'
two to three -stun houseand slurp buildings which are
overcrowded and arc in poor physical conelitiou.
\liddle class Chirtcsc. however, have been rapidly
nlovittg out of these glielto like central ellel:r�cs jilt")
suburban zones thin are populated prxiominaotly by
middle class 'I'lyd. In these areas, hoosioig Condit w'ls
are fairly good. 11 of wealthy Bangkok residcllk
often. ;Ire Western in slylc, wilt masonry walls Weill
uunnutoleel by Fcneex! ur ;tiled connpavods (1'ignre
I S).
The growth of shorn conditions bas 1AT01311' all acute
problem ill Baiigkok. By mid -1971 there were an
estinla:ed 100M ill the capilalarea livirng ill
slums, On the aterfront, migrant laborers live in
squalorou sampans or ill shacks built on stills over the
mu ;)rC_
teacher I[ailli LV 11Ieg w of t1111Vei11t[t's: 01111 3. 1 Vii, IWd i
rs'
aEld let 1 (1oa1;rl Cltll llrll occup:tllons by ISf. As it
attelldell (I`Clltlical sellools+I.,
i
tlropurholl of the total work f111'cc lite Ilona};rlcllhllfai
1
111 'PlLlll.lnd's O 'Cr1V11e111111ig;11' 111111p11;CI'ntll'ic
ucl to inereased �rims 17 n to 2W, (lrigurc 2tly. Ahtoog;
;Igricultuas- basest tvurk force. there is a ten- 'shorl�
tit,! Ill111:1 rTlcnitllr ll %Y'tors L't11 )10 \in 11 least 20 0.000
E, E g
supply o skilled workers. An, eslilliated 10%, or,"
i'
pe.rsoos' io IWA tit. realest increase ill c[I111IQ
iippror inli(leh''RthlHK1 l0 41{?,UIIO, of the lvctrkars its rite
1,ls cxltericuce(I ill seniccs, (9IS) :utd LVIIIInercC
14)71 inclustri lahbr force could lit clwsifivd as,
(685; In the first half of tu� i9(i;g's, the g ruxlh rite in
skilled. Even, the approximate nunllxrs of skilled 3,
n milk k lfacturigig ellIploytueitt h:ul exceeded Thal of
porkers ill other area tatianul.sectun are not known
l
services, :ultl commerce; llolvtiver, it (Iccliuett lol:irt[s
'but :(re Imdoubtedly comp Irkhl}' small. In reccnl
tits slid of the dt c'ide. aild recorded tilt gre) alca a
vt Irs, file �I'ht4i (aov CrllllllTEl h is expanded its prig Rllll
Yuucuse for the whose t l -)'car period.� I'hc hook
,1f providing lrchrltLnl, vataUun:il, and nturtagemcot
r`:'
pick 111 induslnal 'cports and inve.�Iloolits -plat-
t I
trailting Pith the IssistatliCe Iif V:Irialls itltennititltlall
F
marked Ihc'eotmtr% s evonornie perfo rmance nice ill '.IM2
find U.S:...kguncieg..Aside IT0111 gradIMICS of VO&Jtional
alld teelnocal schools, :1 _prillle'.Sl1l1rC L` flit recruitment
FIGURE 217.:5ettoral corrposl "fin of employment
1 1
'11f skilled sS Urker% \Cjth blest lCJlllillg !nil CI',ilC rl e'1cL' Is
y
(U/00
(percent of total employed}
anlulg, forlsurr '1'lltii "em1)lnvccs of U S. rmlilit y
a
estahiisbinents. 5uell persons hare C( Eoglisb-,
xrc -rori 11tu0 t(tuo 1971'
I.Enyluk};c .tblliEy and one or more modem ciecupsr
b
lkonul skills. Another g roving tiourcc of skill i
x
tr
,lgricutlure,,..,.. SP.0 79.9 77.4
lllvelopill nl is :the nan
lher of larg,t "foxign firim
Mining', citearrYing 0.? 0.3 0.3
\JanufaCturing..;; 3.4 4.7 4.8
d0illg buslticss ill Th:llland.
;t;
ewollatracnon 0:4 0.7 0.9
The toiskilletf work force empht \ed in II:HlagIlCOI-
,l
[:lectrieliv, walcr.......... 0.1 0, 0.�
turd occupations IS recruited infitrmulIy, fresluenfh'
Cmne eortution::. 1.3. 1.4 1;9
1
1 CTSa
l
111rang1l thCi!(l(liflflkl of rc'latiVCS elf plls J1TC11d_ti' fI.
Commerce 6.0 7J/ 7.4'
3.o b:b 7.b
the .existing u�ttrk forts�. ,Tile p(ltll A such jolt
z
other acrvicea,..`,
I
Totn1 100.0 100.6 100.0.
"I'l,r vdin., i4mal dtt tiumr;lt i1f 1.3% of lilt uth:ut wotk farce %va%
I
Libelled "Iiiher' nr "+nll,nott
37 a
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c,lndidaivs is drawn largely f;'orn migrants from r+iral
fnrve ;W(' are civil arnaals- �mceives ri- gularac;igvs or
areas, For many. how -vi-r� die village relmlins kill
salaries. Molt's of pay in 1411 hld the most plan' Nire 1
snlvcc of durir li;tsic sccuriEy: :old outpiuyen of meal-
csluhlishnlclile are less clurcly to lulc(1 la i ffielcncy
urban migraoits frtmo oitiy flood that he return l lollle
plan to Snell traditionall valkicd facture as age, slittlte,
in tilt' pLilling and liarvesting seasons or oil the
Seniority. :old blood tics. Prior lei IM2 there were no
oevasiuli of faluily and Illoge rc%livais.
legal provi% illrls for it rlllll{EI1U111 1 ldgt'.
A 196S gall F {lIC earl'C of 11o11sehVldti Ito 1110 rural
'I'lle alust InU(lertl USCO11lesysteltl in Thailand iS 111.11
!Irea5 IlldI (111 llllt'lllplo1 ritrot rite of only- th(ve^
{Irllyl(h'd memb Of the el \']l service. 1S l'e r} ill the
te'llths Of olle pervviit -a proportion which appearsAo
Context of fair11 dvilliced fruit~(� }1e1144lh. llf)\ ever
corroborate IIt(! COCIVi'llt it) lsad :ISS11111 Ill ioll d1:ll
Civil si'mim salaries are loll' Ili rclatioisship Math to
imemplo}'ruent is \'i rt Bally liutiesiste to itl 1114�
Ihlali fl4 :i hill l% toad Ill CS}k, Ultilills. l'.frective I f llllt'
agriculNlyd s(clur of kill, iEehnr force. Undcreutplrky-
1$73, :I lieu' monthly sal schedule ilivreased the
1114411, llU lvl'1'l'("ie \1'idcil' mid chit rlde prC \';llel}t in
lowt'St grade ill dte Civil 5l rvicebv almost 10ri, n to
lit rllrll a reas, Where most of E1lC :.iai14 fUTCI' iYllltiE5l3
fill[) ahl, atld other grades by Imverarllomit\. A St inky'
of lltl :n(I f :(Ir11I1' 11'oriie'rS. Ott the 11aJ11 111 :1 survey
released Ill j1111e I} }17; Im the Natimial Itl'ti4!a Tell
CovCfl the period of lull! 1967 to 1`114 11 }I)S. SonIP
1.111lllcil' of 'I 1wAalllI follikd 4hu4 or1 the lver:Egl' tb['
35 of tht' Wow furl' N':cl estimated If,' Ill.
a }}l�tl {htnrl'5 111 :1 l'u'll._Sf'f\'allt in t11c l(11`'l'el- gr+dl'
Ilutil'YClllpltlyt'(l: 1'.1 rrnE'rS \t'ho u'ilrked csclltsi \'4.11' Ili
['Scecd('d his 'llcullle, illeliidilig frillge bCII444% Lod
agrlcllltllr0- --Whrl L'ollsllt nlCd tilt' ITlalllrll'- 1\'f'rt.'
Spoll.m.s salary, by about -_1 2, 1 C 1 ;111(1 deal S jlfrflt \1'efE'
found Iu hs_urldcnrlu }]111 "e'd t12 Of ;111 t' tl ll:e dllrkllg
twedcd if lot; %yer4� to Il+allltaln the f Ssetil+:d basis of the
liar slick se ason of Fi-bruary- April_ Saline fanners
living standard Vuslnrnaril) :ISS(x'iatcd \yiih h0,
estllilated at abflllt 1tl'.'r Iltga}!e rll,der ulf eE'a5oE1,111
ietYA]IkItI11I1. r,
In the private sector, incur i" dkjll :lL it raliulml
eh loyal Ilifarmltog activities as llrlckintiking, petty
tiu lll
l'.ullllllerc6: (:Irp(r 111T1', :told haskt'llllaking. t rll'bl'
grldalloll based Oil 1161:1lifle:,tielll dlffercntl Ile amolig
:SClivities sollieti1iivs involve hitorrll'ral lrligrktion The
broad oectlpallouid all'gIIrICS, 11111 aT(` l'i Ia RIC'll'I'I %t'sl
inlruducliou of tlic trarlur in the l('Idral`pl;iiils ail
by witle disparities lyithinthe' lower }i,lidcalcgnri4S.as
;E
recelll y'C.Irs Iris iocre tsed the' aver ke aimmeot of
Heil as h\ marked wgion:d diffl retiiials. Uc+ring the�
1
made rVial l[ll'Tllent ill dt ll :ere' :1.
N60's av('r. It11 :]IV, %v jgvs for :Ill tvorke�re In
.l
UtiemphI ill. whiell is (imeenlrated largely in
IEl :lllltf :ICt ll rift r Intl ll':t rll'e lh[I 111 "11111 t1 110('. e't 11111tfy.
uuijor nrh :all ar4as, has not btrn a serious problem in
Ireclud rt alilried f I1l)luyecs, ilm.1 M 3 A9 1xrlrl
Thailand dimnlg the.posl- World Wair II period. In
0L I) cyuilalenl to obotiLlf L ducation, exercises snrlle
Control over (he argalnirltional structure of the faith.
Headed by a stlprelne patriarch, tile well organized
f e
sdngkha has scyzral rebel ion: the lak/lnn(llrltrl
oF;walrtl Thailand. which is hasevl 1121 folk tak, From
the Panrrlw fainka, is Fairly t}0 cal To show
g,alitlulc for rceo ven� front lilt Mile" a persoll will
snrnrlinus litre a trollpe (if Chalri players to give this
type of hikhon for the benefit OF his neighborhotx
f'h[r interpretive dancirlt; in :ill of these dritmis is a
highly developed ail, un frmn gVneralion to
passed
gCneration. Over a 11midred prescribed sleps and
pI)stnr[�s ir.lrlr(y (�iffcrelit moods and ideas, and the
loth; heavy coswinvs are as varied as the roles of tho
players. The tivilc roles of monarch and gcncral
FIGURE 24. Classical dancer with an elaborate headdress
mgnire the par }ral'A of (hgility, rage. .luld arrogalIM'
detn Ilion(] tm) nke y- uarrinrrolescallfores :hibilionsuf
representing the rne'ru spire and 'o richly ornamented
costume "sifatlar t0 "anclent co a pparel. JU /OU)
cullning. fernci'y, and mischief and for skill' in
%1vordplay. VjII1;aTlty of },(turn is strictly avoleied,
The most popular form Of folk drama is the li1ay.
highly slylized. whill, the stage setting is kcpf :t) a
iellicll i5 often performed :it village festivals tied
tilt llil m llln, i'h;ll all mill rltlUli f(lr (leCOCIt1Ul1 ES CS])res.SC(1
temple Fain: it sir( sses ciao t :iol and huffoimen' and is
I!1 lilt' S]Jlell {tf ;r Of thd. dallC'er5 C'tlStUml'. all(t
(Istlidl) acconlpaIll I)+� a %inall hilt Strideot.prphal
ornaments (Figure 29)'
orchi'stra, Unlike 11ther tirunatic furrm 6ltp ttaill,4
The principal dnit :alie form is the, khan. wilieh
gods and dClllo +15, :11 k/lfJcharacters :arehmll;![S, tilt!
ports) "SSCClII'.s]1'[illb tlte. .l]aritrt This y'ii t Rama
lilies- heiilk s1wken and sung by late actor dancers
epic.- which has over 2010 eltaraclus supplies
themisilves. The .diatOgot! is improvised. 'l'he pl s
litendreds of drlm,[tic episodes. 13ecilisc `:ill Ill:(lE:
It10SC`ly folloll' }JlotS dnlien frotll llmStofleal rofSla EILCS
ellarlctC rs ill tile. khon are masked, tllc dialogue m5
ame5('
and :i {h'l'tlt ill. stories o :[H�d nit SaliSk[lt timid Cn
spoken by concealed recite sllptxirted 13 a :O ortls':
ht(!raillrl`; alt hough rllo re rE'lXalt t :ItCSlir:t\\'ti from Thai
Silent actors }x)rtraj' "the slues ntit'iny; crests au(1
}listEirc are used :is well. The plays, most uFlcn
anti$alnal .sCalt.�s I)1'. lj a ns t f in chi
p rll{Yl ill short seines following title avolk r 'ill
hre tive
accrtrnp.ulic(! by the toil. is F I p iehir
rapi(I' succession, I me itstialiv �LYoowdies Witt 'uftell
ElIate cast$ were 'Originally wilsidered FlmvSS:Ir\'`
hrcallse of the strelluoms posklldpj4 and leapiuk,
inquired ill the roles of demons. nusn�(ey \vurriurs�
:3. Architecture and the, fine arts
huntto rivals� and royal contest iits.'Srmcc alto }lt the
Exiril. 19th crnttiry. houev :'ejew aledaliter5,ll:ave al5i)
CiilSUcal Thai a Uri} fn Illy reflecting all
pariiciiJ:itet
adaptatioli of molt n an(I, to a lesser cxtenE. Camuese
Less formal and amore t+npular is the Whorl -non
infltirnc(�s, rein. mtediargelcmnellat- ;ed
R:mce dra ins. it differs from the klum ill 111 1lt asks
of tile ti Ill ecol1IrV, exce for till s ld)settl lent
St arting in the Isth
are IISiI :dIV N'oYlr bv the' :I ill 111 :it and :demollie
ire troll ncllml of the Kllmer,(towe r.
ell:iractell as well a$ the 111idl, perfi)rlllef5, set 'nes a[[:
peri[x1 of drterioration sett in. C'iln. rrlaltily
54
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b esccy a ornatncntution. Attempts to renov.11,
IM(litioa :d :trcllitcchrre it) tilt. laic IS ?ill ceutur\ Were
frtostroled 6%. the adoption (,f Western style eoile�retc
;111(1 %teel structures. Since file 103U's efforts to
harruoni %e trldilional 'Thai and 1110dern Westenl
arthilcclure. ;IS exemplified the h1lildirlgS of the
e
University of Moral :uul I'oiit3cal Sc'iene,s in Hangkok
alld I1y it few hotels :lild retita11r1ilts� II.IVC Il:t(I ol!IV
t
lirllitt'd tiuceess. 4IIM helte�Is, colnnlcrcial buildings.
arld 1 4 11 `9 reSldellces. moreover. arc slowcnllstrue'ted ill
till' %Vesterll St because it is ]letter adapted Ill
inotlerit It viog. .Ind vollstruetion crostS :Ire relalivel`
low. Clily'lcal Thai architecture is linlite(I to Icmpics,
*P-
p:Ihlccs. pavilions, and a few public huildings.
The uulst distnc'ti,e fealures of classical 'Thai
btlihliugs :ore (heir roofs of gl ;l%ecl the ;old slender.
I
r
tnerir spires, %lost temples ;111(1 palalt h;,% Iludtillie
a1`
roofs: there arc five, for ,xatnple. oil ]Vat
r
13eneharnahopltit. ']'ht, roofs of provincial ienipics are
Covered with ordinary tile� hall nn nlally of the ro
lenrples :Ind pilluccs each roof covering consists of
gl :e%ed tile of contrlsling culnrs, such as yellow or red
bordered by harids of green or li 'I'lle };:toles of rued
mof ris, to a st,rpenfs tail. which looks rullch like :t
horn or (,rest. Tilt body of tilt serpent undlllatcs
cl uioug the edgroe the nl(lf to 1114 eave where
j,
it ends in all upwared head. sonoctimes Ill, rl(fge of
FJGURE 30. Grand Palace enclMre, .Bangkok, showing
the roof is adorned %villa gexunctriv figures or It rmr of
the gateway's multiple roofs and owu spire (G]-
birds. Sluall brass bells hang from the eavesalld tinkle
its the wind. Cable ends and faeadts hove onl:de
pastels of carved teak or of nlolcled plaster L
settetlse�lltS. and on tilt griruncls of even� lculple. \1osE
with gold paint� latricate figures in Iles- relief (lclliel
are lncnlorials to Middha. Although directly inspired
I ill( Ceylonese glll);l its [nclian
Indrl ou his Ihn�e- Ileadrtl cicphalit. like ilalf honlart
guriula biro!, the peacock. alit]
and prolul�Jle, tile
viassival 'l'llui stupo, Called the plrrrr chedi, is a
mythological creatures;
Fnliuge ill tile background is art {ngcd ill chiborltc
d islitletive Thai arcliiiccturil achievesaeitl. It emisistc
designs. Class nlosaicc ill d "W orcnt colors are often
of a (lrurrllik, base supportirog %hail- shaped durue.
lntersperNoxI witil tie raised desigus of the faca(Iv ItI(I
;t })nVe %,hich_ IS a clihiell' enclosing- the 111nllte of lilt-
also devorale theserpents forming the edge of the roof.
Buddha aneC it slcudcr Piullacle s%- mbolic of a m-.Iny-
The %leader golden spire oil the top of Inany nival
tiered Ilrllhrella. Ill Ilortheru Thail.ul(I stnhas
and religious e(lifices is a kind of crown, adorlle(I wills
sanleHirlles have gents.or religious ar nn:d nrlics cached
serivitlx and other embellislnnuuts. It represetils
within the spire newt flit, top :Intl larger objects ill a
4lounl ,Meru, Ilse center of-the Iliutltl cosmos, uit(I
scaled chumber inside Isle -base: Isolated sttlpas usually
thus syulooii %es hoitor and Iligh aspiratiotts. Tile
e
Grand Palace al Bangkok, Ims these spires on the roofs
havv her phindered by Thieves. Sortie $111*01, slulsas
Within lemple
of most of the c.mllsolleiil huildings, such as [lie Dilsit
grounds colitain thrashes of liken made
f;un(nis by their rank or piely.
NI:dla P:aSad alld tilt Chakri Palace: it is also folunl
St 1111'as rlllge ill size insist tins' milliatltres to the 37 5-
-LIJove the ltl {{'il1'S, paYihlnls. Ii hraq'; ilntI Is ll tower,
alld aver mthly dnor$. I ll(-
F(xIt strllettl at lNukhon- I Which 15 taller tl;lll
l'ItldoWs aii(I (Figure 36).
CII Ikrl Palilcc itself. d�nllleted its 1810. Is Loiisidered
the celellrllvd Shave Dagom Pagoda of 11:111goon and
has',l stl of %el]
(1110 (7f the flnCSt em.11111]1"i }f. Ll.txSl Th Eli
gla 'elhl%' the lI Igllfc 31 111e
original situ$ al_Ma!illtnl Pathorn wax a sillall orle
arcltillctu c�
Sh tunterilti +of:111rclighllt �edlfli(will
built iy tile duns in CCylollcse Slyle> :Itld later
lrllisfomled into a Khmer tower. lidos the lute
Thad:ind, Cara he fuirtld oil hilltops, im'lhe s lcuf old
ce liun' '1'hui kings rneautl the lower in the present
53
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e
FIGURE 33. The fGmous .pavilion, Flt Bang Pa -In, :'he
FIGURE 31. The Yhro Patom Stupa tit Nakhon Pothom. f
was slkown mm r d Brus sels Fay in 1 repi i ca OU)
The surface is covered with glazed yellow tile. (U /OU) P o
'w
I
great stulm. Distinguish for its sillivilly. it is the
olliet't of anu�al pils;rioiagt". mitl of resil(xifnl Ilous
Y
from passe �werS on passing trlins.
1 �otncr type of st upu is the more nut �i\ c prurh or
hl�tter to\r( shaped sonu�n lkat like corncol at the
tuft, a\ i- ntplified by tilt eornvr tower, of Angkor
11'at a�d !ne ciklll ImrcrS of the 't'entple of thr
F'Anc tld l3mldluk in Ii:ol.gkok {hit;nr(' 'I'hc best
known ac Ill0St 111t1r�Clltelktal prjlll ill 11Clliatl(! Is
the 2 .13 -foci lower of 11at Ar �n l'I'ertiply (if the
i G
I)at1'l4). Overlooking the Chao Phraya river ilk t'Ison
s
11116, this porcelain- eucnisicti, per olid -like strnctur(
horizon.
is a promillcnt fcat�rc o1, the liaiigkok
lj
4
Solos (rorlfed corridors, or 11;lVili(InS) arlr corlunon ill
4
temple :1�(i CMITUttlon grotlltds.:St nilat'1:111(li ll>s. 171[1
all tived slit lier froin ruin
alld. 1 1v ke.sellax adjaveat Ill till' �l:lill I)tlildirigs
of Wat 1'11r:l K4-o arc (lf the tiswil reetangolart) pe \\itb
pillar aiPllorlink the lclnplc- slyleTour. Royule'(rluxart
.4oincti;" vS ertieif(tTlll in s)t:lpe tit are vw.' 'red b1'
Itloltipic toofsdecorated witit colorA tilts (his urc;iil. l
In villages. salua ofte� :irt' >ilnpl: drjb Struct �rr:: of
dead a'itn roofs of corrugated iron.
'I'llailall(k sculpt tire isill1pressivebtCU �se trf 1S (lse.
1
\'a Tilt P, alld tpr ;dlt!'. Not all of It is tliC! atlli goo d, bllt
W
si/nlc of tit( oldest is 1�1otig lht best. 31c �nisi uacien!
fbwtd.i�
csatlOECs of Stolle and brolize scuilit a arc.
FIGURE 32, One of the eight Khmer towers in,Ik- com�
sontheni Auld et lltral 'I n Illao(l particuV. -ith oni
I :kth.
p rid of the" temple of the EmeroId Suddha, Borlgknk (C)
\uknon .Si

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t
Loll Ili iri, and Silkhothai. F-Nva 'ations at \akhon
llathoai re vvalcll Stolle will tun s of deer srul of
r whecis, milrescnliug fluddha and tilt- late�, which elate
l)01,SibiV fwrtt tilt, 1bi.d cenUtrv. Over a perind of lb
centu Nlim. Khrncr. and Tliai ;trtist have
produced hetttdwds of chous:inds of sc n l p tl ued fig IT( s.
The \atiomil Musentrt ill Baivkok Itas onv of the
finest collecliuus of Br lim i dvities, Imagew of
Vishnu. ]nclm. and Canysh:t udom many tvnsple
ccalls, and it bronze follutaill figure of Ille goddess
s "hosed gnlces Batlgkok's ct-ntral plar I. BuddlIM
temples in rtorl1wris. Thailand are vspecinlly rich in
witlptured trod bas�relivf figures of angels, fitctholfigi-
cal Beings: twit, lions, -orpvii;s. birds, ;fuel fll nevrs. A.
fvw seilptowd forts, chiefly dragons aitd lions, were�
adopted frori C;I na.
A diseus:;i;u of Thai senlptsrre ilieviulbIv evilie,n
"Unit figc!rvs of llty lit idd1w because of tkteir
prevah�nec and im pir1 ;mvv (I figure 34). The principal
fin[Idbn ir: the uWcr,l} c "I'ltai tctuple is srvrrall !it[Ies life
size, and gold- co ;'cre�d figures of cliccil7lvs ill attillit[
of woiship, as well as siusll ^r fit mes of Ilse 1 ;uddha
may ht- gioulmd around it, The malty gmthitiosis of
size include ilnages suitable for ilsv on tables ill public
hiildiiigs or homes. lesser o ws for niclivs or ncvhvys,
aid ver small odes for use as amilt�ts. llal
Beochalualle hit in Bangkok has over 60 Boddltist
r; 3
r
isn:tCe�s choselt for their diffeu,nl 1)(WI c�s :etul for the
st vlcs :itul p -tiod% which they rvpreseol, Among these
Slone and bronze� figures :Iry vumples of early ic�pes
front Cvylosl, 111elntICA.1, and lkinna, as well as those
IlMdt, ill ThAiluod before A.D. 1000.
After a period of i xcrssisv oruu itcsti:dinn bvginnir :l
:,bowl 1750. Thai se�ulplltry rronaint -d stagoala front
tilt, oriel -Will ceitnry until lilt- varly post- 1Vorlcl W!Lr
11 t>rriiul, srltcn Faklun Mmiti snrulmon, it "I�hai
sculptor vducaled in Fmnev. it Western
steles
ill 111mbly nod granite. Althr)ugh iimst postwar
Tllai sculptor. have also used Il'e4ern fortes and
rnedia, a fen� ftav(e sought le) revive the c:lstitrg of
bronze, prodiciog images of Ill(. Bicldllu and other
religions sibjvctz.
In geueraf, Thai ;laiitings in dW classical tradition
have thellty? drawn frolo the llndcllitsi syriptures and
from the 11ametyelow. Of the aassical puiotilli1v uu
these sobjecls. tilt most e,\lcllsive and artistic art, the
murals on Iumple and palace walls. Typival of Illvw
ntt,rals art- those of Vat Yhra Kuo (Figure :35), Wat
k'hr:r ChOuplioi, aid brat Artrii. a feu old`pairsliigs
depic�Iillg historical battles or'faiuits persmsages arc
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I'uund ill 1111 hornes of the aristocracy. Tile port meal of
persons is gor!�pled by st.11ns dwi net it) tt,. like
ee It Sllill lsCl]IgS. roi ;Jl per>(illiltZe5' :Ire Chssie.dlv
toovenliooalircd in form arnl iesttmr and .ere�oely
e517rt�SNfillll'SS.: 'l lie C�fait1 oit lmllple�. 1131 'tile ')tilf'f
'I�ratlitian
`ye
IiII are porlr,iyetI more realistic ;dly, :tl
1'llui lairctias tcridstn he �dinseissiomd alld to klaec
i
alimm iio pmpet�tive.
SirlCl' 1915. p ;tir{nl(! IIWs hrcn the r111Dsl 171`0 lifie of
`I
lhr rriuvenaled '1'11 a arts. The h'ading cooternpar;trc
1 w t
I) Iititt r it .(atilt Bil llliHa)a. former dirrclt 11f_ till'
j t S
7
Schaal of Arb and Crafts. Irho has cnconrl ccl 1111.
lrb
df�v1.loprncnl of 1 ,I scllool of Wi- stc,�n orirnit'tE
k.
nrtisls- A Fen' 60i,k'< on trolitional.dnmil< and
5
pniotin:; Ilavc lieen puhlisllcd by tale U`nitersity of
Visit- Arts;uul list \linisln of I;dacatioa to eueonrai;r
artists to create %dirks in.tlte classical tradition,'1�bese
Ifc \ls, Ilmmeer, shoe till� inflneace of 1\'eaern s1ylt
Mid leelini[ple. tlarlicularl% in the material till colelr
applicnlinn :lull 3- di MC] l,ilillal forth.
4. ifandicraftz
The Iiloo ootst:lldiltg 'Thai curltrihiltiIlls to the
FIGURE 36. Religious edifices in a temple corlpound
ducor:llive arts have heen lacctner :old vol(IN%ork and
Showing their ornate decoration (UfCUi.
st.
]Mother- of- pt itil;ays. ;\It1(lf tt; filler 1nit :llde forllls of
tilt' It smr :Iris ;I;( Work In gold and silver.
nith molhrr- of-p� :ul elesiglts Slttlil ;lr Ill %tt'10 :111(1
haudue;iviog. poller%. and e'04111CLr ing. At:lhollt the
tithC.tee' to tilt� hest laclltjer aatl goltltcork. A coarser
r
begitming of ill(- present eentltT%' 1 cr:=ftsnuilt5hip
varktitt of this art is ftloild ill mosaics t'(11111114111 to
pearly stimorribed to the [111S1alMill Of tllt 11MCIlille-
11�lllpl(� facades, plll:l and alt tVigtlre 361. The
made products of Wi-ster i c�uhllrr Mid fo (Kllilpotitiort
Goldeu SWIM at \%'at NMI KC-41 is 1.otirelc snrFaced
front Chillr+c artisans produc�ins; ehealx r products.
With a lilosaic of small.(ltmrc. of g las underlaid Itith
Bea i1tiFIJI hllnd%kolI :ini in ilarti ell lar appeared
gold Ivilf.
doollied. \1ah arts iuld crlfIs. however. have heal
Of the lesser arts and crafts. sil%vr howls ;1nd hn,crs
ri'viveel Willi assist:ut(e from the 'I 11 111 (.IIPI'rI1111C11t.
111 re'p otisse are produced io I.tfg('titirllher% ill the speipi
Local ;ind forvij a markt�la. moreover, have been
of Bangkok and ..tithing \1;ri. Mello %cork is a
fomid for h:ruclinadc pnidrn'ts ell .Wraclive de :igii and
variulioo of silter cork in which till� traditional de signs
of the, gn(I, hldrl, al :g he (�ls, daricers, t ;N /IrrJ liif(!
'1'11 1)4-.%t emilil of lael tilf'r and gold :I rt appear _oil
t�let1II and Floral patte Ctis aEpearin silver rep[ul]se
lealllll� df H1h :111(1 \'lll(lf1 \l' Shulters, oil %wall plast
against a .lxillslml haekgrullrid Of Mack ftUC'd-111t't:ll
1 i
;llld o boukea Ses, hook covets, and mosival
sell F '1 ides. ratlllimml im%v1r:' is also Ilill:lble.. t lie I[-
I Ilt rlllrll'lits, ;IIn[ Ill Oh)('c �1'hr deh(':Il't'� grace,
11100 CIIa TaClerls {l(� e \allltlles :I C(' 5t'1dt� lacl'-h k('
sC'Inrlll'l C1 .111(i Vig Ilf tilt' liL�SIg115. all tl'Illple' doors
brooches studded with rtll )ieS. Lild gold filigree l
e ;m mareelY he exculled. Some l miels llti Vv dialTltflld-
hlfllow. ll ant fill vlothing liras v ardligs. 'Thai j4v5 'rs
shaped a eirelllar desi Using jw,111ille and olher
prodhi'r Boole piecek thtcurete'd .\Litt vii :inivic ill red.
111itccrs as motifs. The most [lis {iaetivrd( ago is the
hide, :Intl o {her cdnrs. Tmeitiolialh'. jewel %Aere l
krrnuk which coulhiues .chat looks like leaping Haulms
palislied rather thou eat,
i(b ac itims leaves hilt is S:dd In he derived frt it 11H'
1 h(' f1116Ct li milwovvii silks prodircedl art tod
6 e blossom. L arge ilallltl portriiv gods. Camels.
Nakholt ltalvhaNitllli Gild Lamphirn vall I.A. clasm-d as
nlous{ers, heroes, aml tovalt'. agiiiiist a backgrlHind of
mortis if art. Iligl, o f hc'la l- voillirlued to W e ar thc'Zur-
celestial p:aaces and al forests risasst -d Otll lacy
ar3ng tmtdt> of this silk mitil about i934. The u'untell
foliage.
till Is'(�:.: ii Mild of s:ifong called Im- .sill, %viiich is
1 lt-moh doors of'1Y :1t phra K o and \Val i'lml
eitlirely coven-Cl witli designs uovi�Ii of gold, silrc`, or t
Cheltiplson 'in Bittigkok are of Black lacill :1.r inlaid
colon*d thread. 'I'ht 'immul variety of (lesions
as
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ill hid IBlnnte_ #1:1111(1111 -,lkl ped figures, hordeis of
All 111:is,s inedia most be IICensed by t lie n k l: Iet 1.
irllricatc points.and spires. and dMicate bti(terflics or
St.i Of go old set off by tno:ld exp:ll"ses (of light blue
govt
Almost all 11w'spaper.:Iaii prrirldicals are private
-v il
ald
ttrt]boise.
Owned col'mere enterprises. I)Ilt Illost nalio ;1111#
Two types of Thai polvehlitl have suffi 6etlt merit tip
tCi!'1'ISilm otitlels ;Ire operated or controlled I)1' -life
}o \'1'rEll11 (!Ili. ;I #thoEil;h Dress CI']IS {1!11111) [fas 1ti11g [fCCII
he considered lttiselllTt .pieces Sawaflkl"a!ok w'lirv.
pro(hleed frlti1 1.611{ 13 0j) to ].j{}(), has:! Mile or grey
Practiced ill modern ThailaHd. I lllitler rvvviil
;lII UII I1
t Lree' gIUM under which appear 'igurrs eillber incised
I11St fU /1115. the press Ilas [feet) allowed all
iticrvasifig degree of freedoa) wit}1 lhC i:IC]I
Or drnw'lf Ill hhic'k brown. or bible pigmi�lit. The
andeIstalulifig drat journalists restrain theircollimcnts
seron(l iypr, dating,olighiy from 1 100. consists of ri cc
fill snhjects that wMild scrioasly embarrass the
howls alcd l:ll %'C"VIs in:Idt to order Gonr 'I'lla[
li +'ernnlruL %tell as at(acks of foreign polici' or on
designs ky artisans ill:('arlioll fCllina lI1nIC of IIIe
high offiVkd s..t.ivelV ef]tlClstil Ilf spceific Kovernnlrnt
desiy;ns portray figures of worshipping :ult;cls find`
prograrl ;s. however, is tolerated.
C'''alllfes llalf- U1igei iuld half beast: these ;irt laid (oil
fit'glilFltioll of [lie press rests on Hu' I Act of
in thick enamel. with 'junk, dark [flue. fir black`
19-11, sonlet,Enes e;lllod tilt! ress Act, which i ldildes
hackgromlds an(I are slirnrilnded by the fl: it v -;ike
provisions to silence criticism of the goVernrltrilt: oil
kartok dt-sii ii or by c�(mvellllonal Clouds..
;inn nmcrmclit \ti. Of the Revolutionary. Party,
Most wood can I el 11' dt'VOtctI to Ivak p:I nels
prolnul);altd ill IS); w #lirh de tails ]imI]shruc'ut for
SI:ItCllr(�n(S Ill(tl Offelld tilt Kilig. discredit
an[i scroll 1111 dce'tlrltin>;. Hlc dtion a R(I Gl eii(1es of
Ihl!
government, or Contribute to Ih('_ rfl w'[h of
I: mplrs. .Chian); !tai I'rcr\'I liv has, pro il aced
11- 61sallds (If e,4mxI leak elepliallis and t�I!�plia,it
c 'oinjillnlisrh 51lI)V['!SI0IR; :1110 UII till' 1968
!Amltit'S for Iht.' 'I hat illarkel.. bot ill genera the
C wIlich provides for freC(loln of specell
any! of the pn�Sli htit Stipulates {hut these righls ea' IIC
workinanship dries toot c'oplpare with Iliat of C o1on of
rcwlrirlcd b} sPeeific laws' vilacled for (Itul irpose of
S
C.}nlla. Plaster molding Is largely confillr(I to tell,,
%deptarding liberties Of Other ermlins,
_t
o11LIlIlI'n I:l lllnl, whl'n' it :1 1)1x':1 r5 oil allam, fal�:IIIC.S,
afld 1)! #1:115 In the (mill elf itTl:"l;('S Il11(IiIII:1
1 iIverling a state
of elliergenel�. Illailltailling ptlllie orde,, (it good
s
(if a!(# of
mornk or protvctFlit y011lhs al;ail'Si EIIUf:kl dCgl'll!'Ya-
niy[hofo];ical crcalnn's.
lion." liowever. the interim umstiltrti()':_pmlllul-
91IN -d to DecWtaber I91 Wid Ill forve until a may
H. Public informati (C)
prrrn:ut!ul const]lultlo is furuullated.. Makes if
nu''lion of h Isic free' donls.''I'hus as III tnid 3. (tic
In relation to many other: Asian c�ou'tries.
'I'lluil:nlcfs `cvn"unicaii[llls
legzll Ims]s of linfilatiutls on frcedoril of spoccll and of.
Tnass media are well
the press wa s't'dear.
diroClopc( Ill (lie past deride: nuircovc'r. pre"
Etifnrccn"cut of press ret;ulallunr' is vested wiN, the
circuhltioa allc the dumber of radio ;lnd'television
Rational Police within Hie ,tilinislry of interior. Since
sklllolis have incrvas(`t# sthslantiaily... Althotigle tale
16)(13: however. m, newspaper has been permam'ml
principal media rcniait collvelitrited in urbali areas�
closed by gov('rtn)cnI tinter, although ticrusionaliv a
Iwplcl.tlly in Ranl;kok and 'I'ho1l Run the o:lliunwi(It
jourr) ll t)tty be temporarily suspended -(Ii "w� r l
distribOlicill of R:algkok newspapers has improved
for cnliciiing s: nsilive pc >lieirs, ntiLli >Iv 'i'hadanel's
markedly, Ille IIse Of the tfilnsislor radio is wiJesprr�a(l,
felatltillsllil) wltll. the L. Stat es, A string
"I'd :J1 11(!1111wr of powerful _RI(lx) :k'(l _television
revislori of the I'nlltieeg Act propostcl by (lie
IF:nISlillltef5 "Ira Ve ht'l:Il conslrucled to sireng1lien
gu \'Crf I1T1('llt It1 I 9 1 0 was.dropptd [ftY'a'SC of Sfnlllg
reception ti111side the (emtral vegioll aucl to Cnabie
'filial
oppositiut from the press:
"hroadvash. III cill"Pele.: _will) th "se'� 1`1*01211
neighboring coolltries, The provincial press, nlllreover,
-'i Ptiblit Relatiots Department of tilt! O ffice of
[lye Prime Minister Is ellarged with preventing Zile
U011tintt(�s to grow in response to the Pmferrncc�of the
bniadc:lst of offelove news reports over radio anti
snti:dl lown. and ritral PIIpidali in for lOC:11 nett N.
t
telev ision. All stations, moreover, fire refltrired to carry
Rmitist� (If the� traditional beiief thul informatiori
:It least the local porlion of daily liewscas!s prepart�c!
"I`I ;killCd fUCC to f tcc is "'tire reliable. than that
i)v tlir department. Television films 'are reviewed by
disun]iElatcd b. (lie m ass 'lee \void- of- lrwlll}l
it
spacial ewtstirshili 1;r(rup. totiun picUucs. [folh
IY1nlrIlll111CaliOTl FI:JEIUIIIS :111 Illlportallt Cliallad (if
inf )O,I?gt). is voitside red miperior to its comiletitors ill
frclluenll stimulates heal'?' s;El(�s.
layout, printing (pualit :rid color work and contains
Intense compe�titiou for ri'aders his sparred :I strong
the Sallie anay it[ fcatnn�I. lVitlliu the limits of currcili
Preference for 5elisidiomil news reports t 11icll Ofl!
D ress re strictions. .its editorial stand' is cansiden +d
highlight cioleiice and venal imaeks oil lltkblic figilws
leftist Or "progressive." Amither morning daily a'itlt a
not :n poSilions of political IXI%Ver. Thai journalists
sabst:uitial c�ircolatiorl (fiU,tH)ti ?.is Philn 77mi. T1 it- .tU-
h:,ve long, evidellet:d a Fondness for rumor and
Old newspatter. Pracltathi tlntai..irlil'slinnally
1aa11jectorv, and reporting is oftetk inacc�urltc, laekhig
afterlooll Imlicr, aplN;irVd under ne%% nlilliagemeni ill
iii del:jil, :Ind uccasional,ly iildistTh11in01e it, its li +c of
March 197.3 os:' sCrious rnurniilg llclszp:lpNr. L':trtially
sources. Arltlther taCtie, eSptY'Sall\� irldillgif�(1 ill 1ri' Ilse
opened by sowel 1'1:1 rElpileitlgSaat. l)('pAlt 1'. i'lTlanCe
lucid p1Ct�.SS. II! tnN'1!s Il Car U.S. nlllita r 1 &1 Ses. ]s
Ilnlslcr. null 1 CC(? C.ballublintl lokol. heir to the
F(' T!':11 or (allel ;io;ls 1ini} ranks
incindes fiinlc
hitaceu citv;ind ctimltryilaeilcl`. mk residents
Illcs"kiou rrlcrlainntcllt })mgrunlining
1h'ectcro -ty1H milsic, a"il[le S'Itai full: still an
ant! plays. masic. variety shows, aa(I sin:rls featllws.
prefer
loom Pupnlar ill ti rural :teas. Foreign nccs and
fhui I(Ic\''tsion has borrouvil .lit -ih� front 1
spirts have large andicisve in iiafigkokl whereas
television, lin)adeasting a minkhcr of }wpularserios,
iI
rent iuu> prllgranls arc Faviued ill the. cotmtrrsid;: rile
such its \4od 5a }Wad and \,urcus.11'1lbr, \i.l).'
t
Chulahsng4nrn lfn \ersity 1' \l slaliun tit 13angkok;
japallese television. bc(ause of pfcater meessibility r
\+�Mich briade.ls;s Classical music, is es pecially Impular.
maki+ig inmt inla the I hai
and lower flirt, ha heed nm
.vilh file 11'cstenlizit! e lite. !)aylilncscrialiu�tl (lrintuic
m :irkct. with their can Series Pr OLt,ISionally.
appeal In bulil Ilrlrul aftd_nlyd audicntrs.
},uvciumc tell-casts arc ritandawo '1 National
for
'F
sl of 1hc.Chiolse in tilt- lian};kuk ari} recei\e
E.mt�utive Council ureter of 2 l)cc(rliblr 1941,
Jilin
trot sraim. Iil.the Chilled d+ak t5 thr111gh file f:lt�_liti CS
t l+
example. fe(itlired all te`leviSlPll Statinl)s to c irry
4.
of tht� Thai Rediffmion Company. which operates a
cli}� of III Public vNecntion of a murlerrr.
in IlGil In ad(litiorl lu flit. mle ill Chimsc,
On _?7. 1)Ctrntix�r 1942 tie hat .1)1'e:nfESl
Chafln
a liffllsioll bnlik& :Xts :1n' IllMllellsive and Pupnlar.
appmved a 3 -year television expansion pilgrim w hich
[12
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will ercrrtiaH ulln nationtcidc \i(:uing, iuchkling
adl 011tivillg A total
turning unit gtiut;litirs of the chea 16�111m. films.
provill es, of 1 telrrisiolt stations
will he coltstruc'led ill the north an(I south regions,
!!Thine Thai films retain their populariti' it, rur arias,
%%'!rile +l;k 11:1115 ill L ampallg anti Slam I lluni will be
Iher are. rarely patrailized hr tilc educated :1114
Westerlli%ed 'I'Itai it, the cities.
sminovc�tI to penoit IhC 1r1I151nis5fQn of a (i2i- line`
additinn. a lell'rlbilln A\:stem c eviltvir
1. Selected Ilibliograpliv {'I1/OU}
E
will he, set np ill 11a11 gkok to sdeet I)Mgmrns for
tr elf Yeglrnial %)dot sl ahl)rIS 171 LaiIIIJatlil,-
Surat '1'hanl, :ukl Ilal 1lol
Baselic, J:illevs, T hailand. land of the i�ree..
'I'h( nia�Ih of the tnolinil nlr.lum :ntaiencr snore
l �I'aplitiger. 1970. A iol)lc:tl (Ilsetlssion of uslx�CSs,
19-55 has hcert rapid, In rile mid If) =,ti s the e�ilhnllr%.
'lf Tillai sociely, including art interesting chapter oil
('rmtained 1211 Theaters lvitlh a scatilig a pacit of
IiO,U(Hl Perslills- afid in 1972 there were .1.50 lllcatcrs
!Benedict. 111101. Tbaf Calirrry and l;chavior.
lrilh a x'utiilg caE)acity iif .500,000 (F 17). In
Sirull3cas( :Isla 1'nlgrtnl: I)a1a Paper No. 1, llhaca:
addition. 120 ciminl rerll Mobi "oils catered in 107?
Cornell Utti\- crsity %'less. 10-52. Provides basic
to the rlee(ls (1f a burgeoning rural attdientx. 131 the
information nn 1'hui rubies, attiludcc. and cinimils,
:1nk rear, an estionaled annelid al+dicuce of ovel
parlicillarl} !hose relating 141 family and kinship
nliilioli viencd iUfibns, 200 of trhiell wereprodj, .(I
patterns.
ill the United States. I(H) ill �1 'wide the
rclnainderimported from I urupe, in(liu,
liurvau of Labor Statistics, U.S_ Depatt mcm of
Japan, Ilona;
Kum.. Snlgaporc, an(1 like ilepublic of China. About
Labor. Labor Law vied 1 lit 7
11r11shiligtorl. 1).(,. U.S. (:u'cnuncol Priming
six of tit" !bialy In lkmgkok regularh� sho Chikesc
films mode ill I long Kong alld Most
Office,
1972. Standan! and systcinatie siescriptiair of working
e
'Siligapme, of
"'es' filllls ;lrP dnhbe(I .111 TeUClllli, (lie primip al
C011diti(}ns arid labor, oirgarli ..atinrl5,
Onighlilt, Richard Donbic.
(dialert of talc Cliinrsc c nnlinuuil+`In Ilangkok. OIher
J. Itluntity. ill,' tari)r('.SP
foreign films are shown evilh the original solm(Itrtc�k
in Alodem Thailand. Ilong Kollg: liorlg Kong
University Press: 1Slfitl, }'rn\'itle s raivablc information
and sulAitlrs in both 'Thai all If Chiliese or are (tubbed
otl euitiml characteristics (if I hr overseas C:Iliucse
ill Thai oidy. Sometimes sclecled scenes are (mrislated
an(I
oil their relations Midi tit(.
t`
r
after tilrni ig off the` siiontilraek, or c�onlrnentary is
provided during imerillisslon
I- Atteational Devclupmcnl in 'Thailand 1960
oraftl'r completion of
the film Ifence. Slapstick eornetlios
1970, Rldletin of the U ESCC) Illegkm(rl Officer for
all(I ziclioll
pictures eYmlaining siolple plots. "Ilell as the U.S.
Education in a.vla, pp. M-201, March 197�.
I: ill t)llasi cs I)Ilgoiilg. alld Manned
11'eslcrrls are cspec�ialiy popitlar. part!}' bccallw they
projects for ilia
ing)re)l'enat it of e(Iccatiou :(f gnulilr,
ire more re;l(ih undentliod Ibroulli visual nual)s
alnkC Spy fillil5 and Plchift-s With
tis'ers. Ilans- Dicter. ed. 1,00sely Struclured Social
warthelttesarea
popular.
S+tsterns: Thailand ill Comparanut pt�rq)ectk'c.
The fleelyhng �I�I};I! {iltlt Ind tilt althnkgll
Struth(asl Asia Shldics: New l hivell 1 :dc Ulli ersity
Mainly
characterized by prod tict!oos o{ Nn1r (111ality
Press, 1969. A _wrics (of :IrtivIes (1kcal.s}i iii;. �1'hei social
and"
bedeviled hr Iligh t Ixcs oil ticket s tics and 1 >nlc(hse(1
film, is h(gimmig to vAlihi( technical
struc�lutc:
I 'Thof)las Vl,, Jr. Rusenibilan� .A Malay
pmficicnev,
:I1d(d by a ant of $OS on,lh ingwrt dulyuf fillri:.
Fishing Village i s rthern Tltailrrrrd 1th.leai Cnriu'11
rrs\
noire Prliduciinm am brio!; filmed in '3i -n)m, so
University Press. 1966). l:zhaustic snciulogic l uud
F
a
low -cos( firl:lncillg is reporlvdl) available to.,
etrmolnie stud fadlitat(A by the authorcJcuglily
star ill Ill(' village.
flllllma r5.tI11T)Ugh tIlC:Itltillstrl d I'Ulallc1.. Cory)ora-
u'oldsteill, Sidney. Urbauizatnik ill 'I'Ilaili111ti,
,6
IIUII, AlS11, [lit- lllfnti111rL 1 }f n ew hltl[Id CYkd(1 111.1 it
ell rinnr
g point for [Ile indt"try. l lmvvver. coillillkillg
1947 16)67�" i)Crl':agrr1phy. 1)1), '2O;) -2], tail\' 19 1.
dlfflc'1lllieS Iii wcuritig atiegnale financing f11r
Uiiliizcs Cell"t's alld plll)Illati(Ir) register data to show
t1C I.Igh rate of li rll:tai] {tlOR.
y'
Prlxluring high gle tllh i -rims: films hare forcillThai
fil
C:riffitll, 1), u Thai Fillil: 'Doan!' A Break
pr(Idnceirs to iiinit .the numler of such
}inidnctinns. 1n
Through Ilrlsbltss In Thailand, p;). 20 -24. \farc�h
cYlntrast, a griming �umber of
iudcpemfent ntoric pnniucers. wi th-a Ii
I97?. I)isetlssc+ encauraj;ingde\t`Inpntenls it: thc'f ltai
ready slor}' lie
eldled fmn) rildio mmP operas: a
fill,, irl(lhistry; the problems (hat Imiltintic to hamper
s.e.
earlierrnla" (or two,
professional actor:, and .1 111illiml1r11 of equiplucill
the production of'yualitj: filrrls, amt filin pre(creiiees
�Tilcli
are
of the 3r1ECh CnCC.
.v'.;.::AF...
9,b::.d,., 1 i::: ]kr,. ..:.:.s. �'sl'.JNe a:.'Y:M -.'LR MA..' '>