NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 11; SWEDEN; SCIENCE

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• Collection: NIS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200090022-2
• Release Decision: RIF
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 35
• Document Creation Date: October 25, 2016
• Sequence Number: 22
• Content Type: REPORTS

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i
NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY PUBLICATIONS
S
t
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SWEDEN
CONTENTS
This General Survey supersedes 'the one dated Sep-
tember 1967 copies of which should be destroyed.
A General 1
Facters contributing to a strong research and de-
velopment capacity; scope of scientific research
effoiis; membership In international scientific or-
ganizations; international agreements for scientific
and technical cooperation.
B. Organization, planning, and financing of
research 2
Informal coordination of research effort by various
cwit oils, boards, ministries, and scientific acad-
emies; function and organization of the National
Science Advisory Council; funding and expendi-
tures.
SECRET No FOREIGN DISSEM
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1
Page
C. Scientific education, manpower, and facili-
Page
ties................
6
Higher educational institutions offering scientific
instruction; degrees; number of students in tech-
3
nical training; adequacy of research facilities and
Royal Institute of Technology photo)
equipment.
Fig. 3
D. Major research fields
8
1. Air, ground, and naval weapons
8
Weapons development situation; aircraft de-
19
velopment, production, and marketing; missile
19
program ground force weapons and equip-
(photo)
ment; nbval research and development.
2. Biological and chemical warfare
12
Restriction to development of defensive capa-
20
bility; scope of BW research; CW research
and development capability.
3. Atomic energy
14
Nuclear research facilities and equipment;
22
nuclear power projects; uranium deposits.
4. Electronics
16
Research and development facilities; signifi-
cant developments; projects and programs
underway; computers
Page
5. Medical sciences, including veterinary
Page
medicine
17
Areas receiving primary emphasis in bio-
medical research; efforts in biochemistry; bio-
3
physics, microbiology, physiology, and cardio-
Royal Institute of Technology photo)
vascular research; pharmacology and psy-
Fig. 3
chiatry; research facilities; veterinary medical
research.
(photo)
6. Other sciences
19
a. Chemistry and metallurgy
19
Efforts in biochemistry and physical,
(photo)
ganic, inorganic, and analytical chemistry;
scope of metallurgical research.
b. Physics and mathematics
20
Research activities in solid state, nuclear,
plasma, laser, atomic, and molecular phys-
ics; mathematical research.
c. Astrogeophysical sciences
22
Efforts in astronomy and space sciences,
meteorology, terrestrial geophysics and
geology, geodesy, hydrology, hydraulics,
coastal engimering, and oceanography.
Glossary 28
FIGURES
ii
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Fig. 5 Armored recovery vehicle, BGBV -82
(photo) 11
Fig. 6 Armor,,d bridge launching vehicle
(Photo) 11
Fig. 7 Selected sites of scientific activity
(map) 27
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Page
Fig. 1
Government organization for scien-
tific and technical activities chart)
3
Fig. 2
Royal Institute of Technology photo)
7
Fig. 3
Chalmers Institute of Technology
(photo)
7
Fig. 4
IKV -91, mounting a 90 -mm gun
(photo)
11
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Page
Fig. 5 Armored recovery vehicle, BGBV -82
(photo) 11
Fig. 6 Armor,,d bridge launching vehicle
(Photo) 11
Fig. 7 Selected sites of scientific activity
(map) 27
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Science
A. General (U /OU)
Sweden enjoys an impressive position in the field of
science and technology, ranking well ahead of the
other Scandinavian countries. It has made 111.111%
important contributions to science, and several
Swedish scientists have been recipients of the Nobel
prizes, derived from funds provided by the Nobel
foundation of Sweden. Because of the rapid grog% th of
scientific research in mat:% ether corntries, the overall
impact of the Swedish Scientific effort cm worldwide
Science and technology has decreased, but the duality
of scientific research remains very High. A country of
the size of Sweden with a population of h million
cannot have the financial resources or the number of
technically trained personnel to compete effectively in
all scientific fields with such countries as the United
States, the United Kingdom, the U.S.S.11., or West
Germany. Nevertheless, efficient management of
limited resources, well equipped research facilities.
and excellent scientific manpower have contributed to
a strong research and development capacity.
Swedish leaders "re, aware of the rapid progress of
science and techtology and of the inipact of
advancing technology on social progress and economic
development. Because the growth of the population is
slow and the level of employment is high, further
expansion of the economy must corne mairIv from
more advanced technological methods, the develop-
ment of new skills, and improved utilization of
manpower. Research is being deliberately stimulated
and directed toward meeting national needs, and both
private industry and the government are cooperating
in the endeavor. The government has set up it
rnechanisrn to give greater direction to the planning
Mid coordinating of research and has undertaken
programs for the expansion of higher educational
facilities.
Most of the research is of am applied natitre,
although some excellent basic research is done in the
medical, biological, and physical sciences. Outstand-
ing research ;s underway in biochemistry and
litri Sweden is (-lost to attaining world
leadership in these fields, paralleling its traditional
prominence in the bionledical s(+ noes.
Sweden cooperates internationally in scientific
affairs on a bilateral basis as well as with mnitilaleral
organizations such as the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA). the European Nuclear Energy Agency
(ENEA). the European Organization for Nuclear
Research (CEBN and the Southern Euronean
Observatory. It is it member of the principal
international astrogeophysical organizations. Sweden
also participates in the European Space Research
Organization (f.SRO), hilt is not it menber of the
European Launcher Development Organization
(EI.DO). Although there have been some indications
that Sweden might discontinue its FSRO membership
and concentrate on a national progra in of space
research, it has agreed to participate in the various
programs at ESRO at least until 1974. Sweden is a
nember of the International Council of Scientific
Unions (ICSU) and the Scandinavian Council for
Applied Research, which was set up in 19 -17 to promote
cooperation in scientific research and development
among the Scandinavian countries. Swedish scientists
take an active part in international scientific
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conferences abroad, and many internatiotal scientific
meetings are held in the country.
Sweden has numerous agree for scientific and
technical cooperation with Western and Cornmuutist
countries. fit 1967 the Drench initiated the formation
of a Swedish French Research Association as �.t means
of furthering scientific contacts between the two
countries. Several scientific agreement have been
signed with the U.S.S.R� in January 1970Sweden and
the U.S.S. R. s ;greed an agreement relating to economic
and technological- sci(!ntific cooperation, The
agreement covered such areas as construction.
shipbuilding, electrical equipme transportation,
and forestry, and provided for an increased exchange
of researchers and scientific information. Individual
agreements �re signed with Hungary in Whip).
Cooperation among the Scandinavian countries in all
matters has been a long- standing tradition And is
promote by the Nordic Council, N Cultural
Cornmission, and the Scandinavian Council for
Applied Research. One of the principal fields of
cooperation is the peaceful us(- of alorn;c energy. As a
result of action taken by tit(- Nordic Council's Cultural
C ommitte e, the Nurdi,. Institute of Theoretical
Atomic Physics (NORLITA) was established ill
Copenhagen. Swedish scientists have participated in
important fundamental research conducted at
NORDI'I'A.
Sweden aas one of the first countries to use special
attaches to follow scientific m tivities in other countries
and has such positions in Washington, Paris. Moscow,
Tokvo, and Frankfurt.
B. Organization, planning, and financing of
research (S)
Research organization and guidance in Sweden,
although diversified and decentralized, are effective.
Government research councils, industrial research
councils, and the universities and learned societies
closely coordinate the scientific effort so that efficient
use is made of the limited number of train(
researchers and limited financial resources (Figure I).
Four types of organizations guide and coordinate
re search: I the research councils and research hoards.
operating under relevant ministries, which guide
certain fields of research and allot government funds;
2) the ministries of the government, which oversee
st ate research inst allations; 3) the sc ientific academies.
which operate on government and private contrihu-
tions; and 4) groups of scientists and industrialists,
w hich often operate with some state aid.
i
'I'll( research council an� important govemnent
agencies which supervise and fitance research. The
councils usually have eight to 12 rncrnhers and act as
advisory agencies to the government ert matters of
science policy in their fields. '1'1c specific aims of each
council arc to oversee the research in its field, to
initial(- and review proposed projects, and to promote
needed research by allocating go:enttnenl gra i... The
Ministry of E(]ucation and Ecclesiastical Affairs
directs most of the important re search councils. which
are the Atomic Research Council, the Natural Science
Research Council, the Medical Research Council, the
Social Sciences Research Council, and the ffumanistic
flesearch Council. 'I'll(- Ministry of Agriculture has the
Agricultural and Forvstry Research Council subordi-
rata to it. The Building Research Council is under the
Ministry of the Interior,
An increasingly important agency for industrially
orient research is the Board for 'Technical
Developtncttt (STU), established in July 1968, The
STU is subordinate to the Ministry of Industrial
Affairs ;end is concerned mainly with thcr support of
applied research, tit(- industrial exploitation of
research results, and the adaptation of innovations to
the needs of society. It also supports basic research
insofar as it advances technological developrnfnt. The
STU essentially replaced and absorbed the functions
of the following organizations: the'I'echnical Research
Council, which made grants for applied research,
mainly to individual:; the Foundation for the
Exploitation of Research Results WFOR), which ;.tided
researchers and inventors in securing industrial
support; the Institute for the Utilization of Research
Results ONFOR), which provided financial support to
industry for undertaking deveioptn (-tit of promising;
new methods and products; the Iron Ore Foundation
(Malntfonden), which supported relatively large
development projects, using funds (about US$2
million annually) received from the government
owned iron ore raining company in Kiruna; and the
Swedish Inventor's Office, which assisted inventors in
patenting their discoveries and in making contact w ith
industry. The STU supports the Scandinavian Council
for Applied Research and directs the Council for
Scientific Information and Documentation.
The Ministry of Defense directs one of the largest
government scientific research gro!tps in Sweden, the
Defense Research Instituter (FOA). Stockholm. it is
supported by and serves the three artned services. The
FOA coordinates the basic and much of the applied
research effort of the entire military estaW ?shment and
conducts re-arch in its four departments, two
divisions, and one laboratory: Department for
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Chernistry and Medicine J0A -I it Sundbyberg,
Departnu-nt of Phvsies J'OA -2), Deparinu-tit of
I ?Icctronics and Conunlmicutions (I'OA 3), Depart
rnent of Nuclear Physics and Nu(lcur Clivinistry
J*OA -4), Materials Division (1'M -M), Division for
lieseurch Planning and Operations liese arch J'OA -P),
and Ntilitary I ?Iectronics Labomturv(1'i'L). I'OA is
concerned with cherrnicuf and biologic warfare
studies. I'0A -2 undertakes research rebated to wcapous
sysIvins. F'OA -3 is engaged in ;all phases of
transmission, trunsform;ttion, and processing of
commttnientions information and systems, as welf as
h,isic radio research; special attention is given to wave
propagation, antenims, and electron tithe. It also clots
work on electronic warfare, radar, and sonar. The F'I'I,
is part of I-M -3, ;ind its activities include electronics
testing and standardization of electronic components
and systems. I-OA cooper;ttes %vith the universities in
supporting research in nuclear physics and nuclear
chemistry. The l'0A cooperates with other orpniza-
lions concerned with v;arions aspects of defense
research, including the Swedish Defense Staff, Defense
Services, Royal Swedish hortific ition Adininislniticm,
Defense Medical Board, Medical licscurch Council.
I)ireclorate of the Naticnul Defense Factories,
universities, and industries. Defense- oriented
organizatiolis which arc subordinate to other
ministries include the Notional Aeronautical licscurch
Institute, Ulvsundu, and the Stole Shipbuilding
I?xlmrinumlul 'hank, Goteborg; both we under the
Miiiistry of Industrial Affairs.
The Nalioual Aeronautical liesearch Institute bas
wind tunnels for static nand dynamic testing of airplane
models in the range of subsonic to supersonic speeds, It
also has cciuipment for testing complete structures,
structural components, and test spe iniens under static
and dyuontic fatigue loading.
'For diacritics on plat" names set� the list of manes at the end of
the chapter.
3
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I tdI
++w
PRIME MINISTEP,
llado/utl
pt
National Sdontd:c
Advisory Council (NSAC
Cabinet
Sciences KVA)
Engineering Sciences
(IVA
L
tVBrMa
Corbatisrae
I1jNwltnrr
#ndwtetlJ IiAri"
Cayt!rihtunlatlav,
tMarlor
Defense
Board for
Swedish State
Agricultural
r
CiflMrc /1o
Research
Technical
Power Board
and forestry
Atomic
Institute
Development
Research
(FOA)
(STU)
Council
Medical
National N IS cience
Clwat
National
Meteorological
Agricultural
Social Sconces
Acronautiri
and Hydrological
and Veterinary
Humanistic
Research
Institute
Institutes
fed'.
Institute
>rt6t
Universitico and
Co!sllayelatfoRaa
National
National
Technological
Atomic Energy Board
Gootectimcal
Environmental
Institutes
1tnd= d
Institute
Protection
chdntl
Atomic En*
Board
Oirpbns;
company
h ind
State Sn,yuuilding
Experimental Tank
Building Research Council
:ai�Iih
MauiYs
Swedish Geological Survey
State Bacteriological Institute
FIGURE 1. Government organization for scientific
and technical activities, 1971 (C)
Chernistry and Medicine J0A -I it Sundbyberg,
Departnu-nt of Phvsies J'OA -2), Deparinu-tit of
I ?Icctronics and Conunlmicutions (I'OA 3), Depart
rnent of Nuclear Physics and Nu(lcur Clivinistry
J*OA -4), Materials Division (1'M -M), Division for
lieseurch Planning and Operations liese arch J'OA -P),
and Ntilitary I ?Iectronics Labomturv(1'i'L). I'OA is
concerned with cherrnicuf and biologic warfare
studies. I'0A -2 undertakes research rebated to wcapous
sysIvins. F'OA -3 is engaged in ;all phases of
transmission, trunsform;ttion, and processing of
commttnientions information and systems, as welf as
h,isic radio research; special attention is given to wave
propagation, antenims, and electron tithe. It also clots
work on electronic warfare, radar, and sonar. The F'I'I,
is part of I-M -3, ;ind its activities include electronics
testing and standardization of electronic components
and systems. I-OA cooper;ttes %vith the universities in
supporting research in nuclear physics and nuclear
chemistry. The l'0A cooperates with other orpniza-
lions concerned with v;arions aspects of defense
research, including the Swedish Defense Staff, Defense
Services, Royal Swedish hortific ition Adininislniticm,
Defense Medical Board, Medical licscurch Council.
I)ireclorate of the Naticnul Defense Factories,
universities, and industries. Defense- oriented
organizatiolis which arc subordinate to other
ministries include the Notional Aeronautical licscurch
Institute, Ulvsundu, and the Stole Shipbuilding
I?xlmrinumlul 'hank, Goteborg; both we under the
Miiiistry of Industrial Affairs.
The Nalioual Aeronautical liesearch Institute bas
wind tunnels for static nand dynamic testing of airplane
models in the range of subsonic to supersonic speeds, It
also has cciuipment for testing complete structures,
structural components, and test spe iniens under static
and dyuontic fatigue loading.
'For diacritics on plat" names set� the list of manes at the end of
the chapter.
3
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The 11iuistry of Industrial Affairs directs the Atomic
Energy Berard (AiB), whusr functions arc to advise the
government un alI mutters pertaining to atc,nic
energy, to plan for the development of :atomic c�nrrly
within the frarnework of the co :,rtry's e rgy supply
and requirenrents, to handle internation.: ooperation
in the field of atornic energy, and to deal with I
and safety (Iuestions. The AEB also makes
recommendations to the Ministry of Industrial Affairs
concerning appropriations of I'Mids to the Atomic
Energ) Company, which was formed by the
government and industry in 14 17. '['It(- government
assumed full ownership of the cumpauv in 1969. The
company adrninist�rs applied rescar.-h and the air rniic
energy program; it also supports a significant amount
Of basic research in certain key areas of nnclvar energy
development. Basic nuclear research is supported b
grants from the Atomic Research Council of the
Ministry of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, The
nuclear power progr is directed by the Swedish
State Power Board of the Ministry of Commerce,
7'he Ministry of Agriculture directs agricultural and
veterinary research institutes, i:� ;ding hr State
Veterinary Medical Institute, Stockholm, and the
Skara Veterinary Institute. Skara. Also subordinate to
the ministry is the National Environmental Protection
Board and its research committy"% The Institute for
Water and Air Pollution Research, Stockholm, was
established in 193 -1 and is jointly supported by industry
and the government. Ili I!)7() the institute established
the Foundation for Water Ind Air Pollution Research
to reduce sharply the country's environmental
pollution while retaining the industry's international
connpetitiveness, The Ministry of Local Covemment
and Communic dire the Meteorological arrd
flydrologic,I Institute and the National (;(-()((.Clinical
Institute, both in Stockholm.
Coordination of both the national arrd international
space programs is carried out by the State Delegation
for Space Activities, which was appointed in July 1072
to replace the Space Research Committee. The latter,
it joint committee of the STU, the Natural Science
Research Council, and the Medical Research Council,
resigned in protest against inadequate funding of the
space program, The Swedish ESPO Cormittee,
established in 1964, represents various ministries, the
space research community, and industry. in the
international organization.
A significant part of research, particularly
fundamental research is cavied out in facilities for
science and medicine of the universities which are
operated by the government through the Ministry of
Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. 'rhe technical
4
unive rsities, also under the ministry, conduct
c016iderable research with emphasis oil the applied
aspects. University research is supported by the
national research councils, by variors foundations,
and b industry, as well as by funds directly
appropriated by the government fur the ape-ration of
the universities.
Several academies of science act as private sponsors
in various arr of scientific development. All of them
dispense public aril private funds for research arid for
Sweetish participation in international scientific and
cultaral conferences. Two ucadetnies are particularly
influential; the Royal Academy of Sciences (KVA),
founded in I N,31 and the Royal Academy of
E'nginceririg Sciences OVA), foundrd in 191ol Both
acradetnies are substantially private organizations, but
receive a small amount of support fro the
government. Since 194 a large part of the KVA 's
income had been derivod from the printing of
calendars, almanacs, and cortair, related publications;
this source of funds was abruptly withdrawn in july
1972, and the government is considering a direct
subsidy to replace the lost funds. 'I'll( IVA's funds are
de "ved mainly front industrial support. Although
there is considerable overlap in their interests,
membership. and v etivitics, essentially the. KVA
prornotes the basic sciences, while the IVA prornc es
research tit engineering sciences to further industry
and to improve utilization of natural re:;ourees. The
KVA cunhibutes to science planning arid offers :advice
on science policy. It maintains an excciient scientific
museum and libran� arid direct, several institutes in
various parts of the country, the most important of
which is Ou� Nobel Institute, Stockholm, which is
financed by the Nobel Foundation. The KVA awards
the Nobll prizes in chemistry and physics.
Membership in the KVA iF restricted, and election to
the aca,- ay is Wonsidered a high honor of scientific
recogn'tion by one's peers. The IVA's membership is
larger than the KVA's, its resources are greater, and its
activities are inure diverse. It has I number of
committees embr --ing virtually all engineering
specialities, and it sponsors a variety of symposia,
seminars, and publications. IVA shares with the STU
the responsibility for selecting and administering
Sweden's counterpart to the U.S, program of scientific
attaches.
Industrial research is growing rapidly. A number of
industrial enterprises have well- equipped laboratories
and compeient research staffs of their own. The
greater part of industrial research and development is
carried out within the big companies, especially the
wood, pulp, paper, telecommunications, steel and
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I
machinery industries. The 98 largest enterprises (those
with over 1,000 employees) account for more than
three fourths of total industrial research. Industrial
applied research also is conducted in some of the
universities, particularly the institutes of technology,
in governmental laboratories, and in cooperative
research institutes (Branschforskningsinstitut). These
latter institutes have research programs of interest to a
particular branch of industry and represent an effort
on the part of Swedish industry to acquire tyre benefits
of research through cooperative activity. In 1966 there
were almost 40 of these institutes, some of which
received partial financial support from the govern-
ment. They play an important role in industrial
research programs and are of particular importance to
the smaller industrial organizations, which find it
difficult to finance researeh programs in their own
laboratories. The Swedish Institute for Metal
Research, Stockholm, is one of the larger cooperative
research institutes, employing about 55 people. The
Swedish Forest Products Research Institute, Stock-
holm, also a cooperative institute, employs about 100
people in its main facility and 150 in special
laboratories.
Sweden has no central organization responsible for
coordination of research and for long -range planning.
Informal coordination has been adequate for the small
Swedish scientific community, and an intricate
interlocking network of boards, committees, councils,
and panels insure constant contact among key
scientists of the country. Nevertheless, there is a
growing sentiment within the government for the
establishment of a formal body to be responsible for
long -range planning, to establish priorities, to insure a
balanced research and development program, and to
provide for the allocation of resources to meet
anticipated needs. The National Science Advisory
Council (NSAC) was created in 1962 to provide long
range plans and counseling, but its role has been
entirely advisory and without real authority. It has
functioned mainly as a forum for dis�,-ussion of
research policy and consideration of research matters
of broad interest to the scientific community. It is
composed of highly respected individuals from higher
education, the government, and commerce. In a
reorganization in February 1969 its membership was
reduced from 30 to 18, primarily by dropping
industrial representatives. The Prime Minister is the
chairman of the NSAC; there are two vice chairmen,
the Minister of Education and the Minister of
Industrial Affairs. The former is responsible for basic
research and the latter for applied research and
industrial development.
Since World War 11, Swedish scientists have
received steadily increasing and relatively generous
financial support for their programs. however, during
FY72 the amount approved by the government for
research and development increased only 8% over the
previous year; this is essentially a maintenance budget
since mounting inflation and rising costs of rescarch
are expected to consume most of the apparent
increase. Almost one -half of the total expenditure for
msearch and development comes from nongovern-
ment sources, indicating a growing interest by industry
and private organizations in research and the
industrial applications of research results.
Total expenditures for research and development
during FY72, including that for private industry,
amount to about US$500 million' or about 1.4% of
Sweden's gross national product. Complete data on
the government's support for research and develop-
ment are not available; such fn:uls are scattered
among various agencies and are not in readily
identifiable form as research and development funds.
A partial breakdown of the government's support of
research and development for F1'71 and FY72 by
major recipient is as follows, in millions of U.S.
dollars;
The amounts shown for the Office of the Chancellor of
the Universities represent 30% of the total amounts
appropriated for university operations; this is the
percentage estimated that the higher schools spend on
actual research activities. In addition to the arnounts
shown, the Building Research Council received an
additional $7.9 million during FY71 and $8.1 million
during FY72 from a special building research tax.
Approximately $35 to $40 million is spent annually by
other government organizations with research and
development responsibilities, including the National
Aeronautical Research Institute, Shipbuilding
Experimental Tank, Geological Survev, National
Institute of Public Health, and numerous smaller
facilities.
'SK r5.01 US$ 1.00.
5
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FY71
FY72
Office of the Chancellor of the Universities
$54.9
$60.1
Board for Technical Development
19.0
22.1
Defense Research Institute
16.6
19.8
Natural Science Research Council
8.4
9.3
Medical Research Council
8.0
8.6
Atomic Research Council
3.2
3.5
Agricultural and Forestry Research Council
1.9
2.1
Building Research Council
0.5
0.8
Atomic Energy Company
12.0
10.4
Environmental Protection Board Research
Committee
2.2
2.4
Other state -owned research institutes
39.4
35.0
The amounts shown for the Office of the Chancellor of
the Universities represent 30% of the total amounts
appropriated for university operations; this is the
percentage estimated that the higher schools spend on
actual research activities. In addition to the arnounts
shown, the Building Research Council received an
additional $7.9 million during FY71 and $8.1 million
during FY72 from a special building research tax.
Approximately $35 to $40 million is spent annually by
other government organizations with research and
development responsibilities, including the National
Aeronautical Research Institute, Shipbuilding
Experimental Tank, Geological Survev, National
Institute of Public Health, and numerous smaller
facilities.
'SK r5.01 US$ 1.00.
5
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The Atomic Research Council has requestrd it
budget of US$6 million for FY73. In May 1971 the
parliament placed the responsibility on the council for
the additional costs of Swedish participation in the
CERN program for a European 300 GeV accelalor.
This will amount to $1.:i million for FY73, an almost
i 50% increase over the FY72 allocation. Iligh priority is
1 given to plasr:ja physics, and in FY72 the council
received $320,000 for research it t:is field.
The higher educational institutions receive the
4 major portion of their research funds from the
Ministry of Education and Ec.:!u iastical Affairs. In
recent years these funcls have inc ased rapidly at the
rate of 13 to 20 per year. In addition to the support
received from the ministry, funds also are obtained
from the research councils, private foundations, arid
industry for contract research. The national research
councils comprise an important medium for the
distribution of government funds to universities,
technical universities, and research institutes. Of the
US$47 million spent on research and development at
the universities and other institutes of higher learning
during FY68, $12.7 million was received from the
national research councils, $3.9 million from
foundations, $98,000 from contract research, and
$195,000 from sources abroad.
Several private foundations provide about US$4
million annually for contract research at the institutes
of technology and various research association
laboratories. The most important foundations are the
Wallenburg, Johnson, Bergwall, IDunkers, and
Ericsson.
Although the FY72 budget provides only it modest
increase for research activities in general, broad
environmental protection activities have been
accorded priority status, and the overall funds for this
purpose have been substantially increased. The
responsibility for these activities is centered primarily
in the Ministry of Agriculture. The total environmen-
tal protection budgets for FY71 and FY72 amounted
to US$38.3 million and $49.3 million, respectively. Of
these sums, the specific ollocations for research and
development were $2.2 million and $2.4 million.
A 5 -year budget (1970 -75) for the Atomic Energy
Company amounts to US$60 million. About $4.5
million is being spent annually by the company for
research and development on thermal and fast
reactors. The space budget has offered little
consolation to the Swedish space scientists. T he
recommendation for a national satellite was rejected
by the government as were the recommendations for
increased space technological activities. National
space activities are funded by the STU and the
R
research councils. The Space Conmittee feels that
$1.6 million is necessary for it viable program. The
major space effort continues to be participation in the
European Space Research Organization (ESRO). The
appropriation for ESRO showed a modest increase in
1 -172, $5.6 million from $5 million the previous year.
The Swedes consider this it practical investment since
Swedish industry has been awarded it substantial
portion of ESRO's developmental contracts,
The STU's budget has increased steadily since its
establishment, but the .v.propriations have been
consistently far Iess than :',je STU believed necessary to
fulfill its responsibili:aes. Although for FY72 the STU
requested almost double the US$18.9 million it had
received during 1.171, it received only $22 million.
C. Scientific education, manpower, and
facilities (U /OU)
Sweden has a long tradition as it leading nation in
t'ic field of education at all levels of learning. With the
exception of it few specialized schools, the educational
institutions and their associated research institutes and
laboratorie are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry
of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. The state
maintains six universities and three technological
institutes at the university level: the Universities of
Stockholm, Goteborg, Uppsala, Lund, Umea, arid
Linkoping (the Lst established ill 1970); the Royal
Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm (Figure 2);
the Chalmers Institute of Technology (CT11),
Goteborg (Figure 3); and the 'Technological Institute
of Lund. Supplementing the institutions of higher
learnir -g are a number (;i colleges, each covering a
specialized field.
Students are not classified according to year as is
customary in U.S. universities. A typical student will
pass it general examination leading to the degree of
filosofie kandidat or filosofie magister 3 to 5 years after
admittance, arid the degree of filosofie licentiat after
several more years. The degrees of filosofie magister
arid filosofie kandidat are broadly equivalent, except
the former signifies inclusion of pedagogy in the
program. The degree of doktor is acquired several
years after the filos. )fie licentiat; it is awarded in
recognition of it major scientific contribution
accomplished through independent research and
represents a standing well above the average American
doctorate degree. The excessive requirements of these
degrees probably account for the relatively small
number awarded. For instance, in 19w3l only 600
filosofie licentiat arid 80 doktor degrees were awarded
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in the medical sciences and only 220 filosofie licential
and 65 doktor degrees in the natural science and
engineering fields. The exclusiveness of higher
education seems to have had some beneficial
byproducts. Students that go on to a higher education
are strongly motivated and a c_reer comparable with
their education is expected by them. Also, a large
irurnber of students who are not qualified to enter
universities enroll in vocational schools, and as a result
the country is well supplied with technicians,
In spite of a rate of population growth of only about
0.691. per year, enrollment in institutions of higher
education has continued to rise rapidly, as has the
number of degrees granted. Enrollment in higher
educational institutions rose from 36,300 in 19ti0 to
70,200 in 1965 and by 1970 had reached more than
11(),000 The total enrollrricnt of new students in !970
was 2.1,700, 16% of which were enrolled in scientific
subjects and I 1 in engineering. The number of
students desiring technical training in 1967 was nearly
three times the miniber tl.ait could be admitted to the
institutes of technology. Although expansion of the
institutes was underwav, facilities for technical
education were expected to remain far below needs for
several years. Scientific and technical manpower
resources have improved considerably in recent veal's
as a result of the increased era rollments in higher
ducatiotial institutions, as well as by the immigration
of scientists and engineers from other Scandinavian
countries. Nevertheless, there is a continuing shortage
of personnel with doctorate degrees despite an increase
of 2W(r in doctoral candidates since 1967. A 1966
report prepared by a special government commission
recommended the creation of a degree similar to the
Ph.F. in the United States in order to d torten
considerably the period of degree candidacy. The long
period of study at a low level of recognition and
comp;'nsation required for the traditional doctorate is
felt to have restricted the number c+ individuals
pursuing careers in science.
By 1971 approximately 20,000 persons were
vrioged in research in industrial facilities and another
7,700 in universities and government research
institutes. Among the larger government facilities in
1966. the FOA had 1,600 emplo of whom about
�400 were qualified scientists one engineers the
National Aeronautical Research Institute had about
230 scientists, engineers, and supporting personnel;
and the Swedish Nuclear Research Center at Studsvik
employed about 800 persons.
The Swedish public appreciates the relationship
between science and economic and social progress,
and has a high regard for scientific training. Scientists
and engineers enjoy positions of respect and prestige
and are generally well paid. The government pays
scientists about as well as does industry and provides
more freedom of action. Many professors receive extra
income as consultants. The pay of Swedish scientists is
suhstantially above the levels in Norwav, Denmark,
and Finland and in part accounts for the immigration
of scientists from these countries to Sweden.
The woportunities for first -class research in Sweden
are attravtive. Laboratories are well equipped with
modern instrarrnents, marry of which are of U.S. make.
Throughout the \'cars Sweden has procured modern
and sophisticated instruments and equipment from
leading manufacturers throughout the world. It also
manufactures excel lei) t- laboratory research equipment
of its own design. Researchers are well supported by
laboratory spacer, shops, and technicians, although
there is a general shortage of research assistants and
associates. A scientist is generally free to exploit the
d
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FIGURE 2. Royal Institute of Technology (KTH),
Stockholm (C)
FIGURE 3. Chalmers Institute of Technology (CTH),
Goteborg (C)

commercial benefits of his discoveries, and the
government organizations will assist to make the
exploitation effective. An atmo%phere of freedom in
the way a researcher works is typical of the
Scandinavian countries. The response of industry to
new discoveries is gratifying, and the IVA serves as a
valuable link with industry between pure and applied
sciences.
D. Major research fields
1. Air, ground, and naval weapons (S)
Sweden hits a strong military research, develop-
ment, and production capability. Although its
weapons research program is limited in scope�, the
work being accomplished is of high quality. The lev -1
of progress achieved is attributable largely to adroit
management of the nation's limited resources, well
equipped research facilities, and extremely competent
scientists and engineers. Sweden's policy of strict
neutrality, combined with the nation's geostrategic
location along the access routes to '.he Baltic, have
impelled the government to adopt it strategy of total
defense. Such a strategv is designed to provide
adequate defense against atomic or conventional
attack, invasion by sea or by land, or offensive actions
by foreign aircraft or missile penetrators. The
effectiveness of the Swedish defensive forces is based
on the good cooperation existing among the milit
forces, the government, and industry on a sound, well
regulated military research, development, and
procurement program. Every factor of the Swedish
econom and industry is a part of a totally integrated
defense plan. For the past 25 years, the country has
followed it plan that essentially calls for the
government, in making its yearly appropriation to
industry, to approve also it long term program
specifying what weapons and related equipment will
be purchased for the ensuing 4 -year period. This
system of long -term procurements planning has given
Swedish defense industry a healthy stability, which in
turn has been reflected in the high standard of
equ:pment turned out by its manufacturers. However,
limited manpower and financial resources have made
it necessary to conduct weapons research along
specific lines with definite goals. Toward this end the
focus is upon the development and production of
defensive -type weapons; there is no discernible
activity associated with the development of strictly
offensive weapons, such as intercontinental ballistic
missiles, intermediate or medium -range ballistic
missiles, and medium and heavy bomber aircraft.
8
(Major Swedish weapons are of indigenous design,
and concerted efforts are made to r.intinue an
independent capability in the oevoloprnent and
production of advanced weapon r y. The maintenance
of this capability has c l�per heavily on the
acquisi, on of licenses and tcchnolog from abroad.
r ll Swedish weapons research and development
programs are planned, implemented, and conducted
in it meticulous �.nanner, and stringent cost analysis
procedures are followed .hroughout each step of a
given %%-capon system's development. Operating with
little reserve and coupled with the growing complexity
and costs of c ontempor ary weaponry, the Swedish
defense industry is becoming more vulnerable to any
weakening of the country's econo.uy. Spending
limitations imposed in the 1968 -72 defense budget
have constituted the single major factor to slow
progress in weapons research and dew ^lopment.
To offset the impact of military spending cutbacks,
the Svedish aircraft industry, with government
support, is vigorously attempting tc improve its
potential for civil aircraft development and
production. In 1968 SAAB- Scania AB (SAAB),
Linkoping, purchased Malmo Flygindustri in Malmo
in order to acquire it light aircraft production
capability. Of greater significance is the fact that.
following several abortive attempts to initiate a
Swedish commercial transport program, SAAB is
joining with the British and West Germans in it
collaborative effort to develop and market a quiet
short take�- off and landing (STOL) transport. An
agreement with the British Aircraft Corporation and
Messerschmitt- Boelkow -Blohm GmbH has been
negotiated, and deve lopment activity on the resulting
aircr has moved into the- preliminary design phase.
However, despite all efforts to improve the nation's
potential in the civil aircraft field, the main
commitment of the Swedish aeronautical industry in
the foreseeable future will be to military programs,
i7cluding both aircraft and tactical missiles. SAAB has
developed several types of air -to -air and air -to- surface
missiles which provide growth possibilities through the
application of improved technology in the missile
guidance, control, and propulsion fields.
The Swedish aeronautical industry, while relatively
small in terms of total output, has one of the most
advanced design, development, and production
capabilities in Europe. The main aeronautical
capability is represented in two organizations, the
Aerospace Group of SAAB- Scania AB and the
Fly_ gmotor Division of Volvo at Trollhattan, producer
of jet ctigin.,!s. SAAB has it highly successful history of
jet fighter development and production, and generally
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speaking its policy has been to have one major system
in operation, one in production, and one system under
development. Since the late 1940s, SAAB has
developed four jet fighter or interceptor aircraft: the
J -29 Flying Barrel, J -32 Lansen, J -35 Draken. and J-36
Viggen multirole combat aircraft. The Aerospace
Group of SAAB- Scania AB employs about 5,800
workers, representing roughly 20% of the entire
corporate work force. In production at Linkoping are
the export version of the J -35 Draken supersonic
fighter and Saab 105 trainer and light aircraft, as well
as the initial production version of the AJ -37 Viggen.
The production of Flygmotor, where 2,000 workers are
employed, includes the RIM-8 adaptation of the Pratt
and Whitney JT -8D engine; production of the RM -6C
Swedish version of the Rolls Royce Avon :300 series has
been completed. Both of these engim!s are fitted with
afterburners that are Swedish developments based on
U.S. technology.
The development of fast interceptor and striker
(ground attack) aircraft has been emphasized. The
manned interceptor is considered to be the cornerstone
of Swedish air defense. and the mainstay of the air
defense system is the J -35 Draken aircraft. The Draken
is an all- weather multipurpose (interceptor /reconnais-
since /strike fighter) system capable of Mach 1.4 in
sustained flight.
Flight testing of the AJ -:37 Viggen essentially has
been completed, and initial production of the systern
is underway. The Viggen is expected to absorb most of
the Swedish aircraft production effort into the early
1980's. The Viggen is a multipurpose aircraft; its
variants are intended to perform the attack,
fighter /interceptor, reconnaissance, and training
mission rules. The basic system is a canard configured,
double delta winged aircraft capable of exceeding
Mach -2 flight. Compared with the J -35 Draken, the
Viggen has higher top speeds and better accelerations
at all flight altitudes; it has better STOIC performance,
including that of being able to operate from fields
with runways under 1,600 feet in length.
The country has a small missile program confined
mainly to the manufacture under license of foreign
developed, short range, tactical weapons. Swedish
technology is more than adequate to produce missiles
of foreign design, to modify such weapons to meet
particular needs, and in some cases to improve upon
the original design. As a small counts with limited
financial and scientific resources, Sweden cannot
develop a missile industry to meet all of its needs.
Therefore, by means of independent, continuous
study, the Swedes strive to keep themselves informed
of the latest foreign missile research and are competent
envugli to recognize those developments abroad that
have significance to their defense effort. The missile
program includes the development and production of
air -to -air, air -to- surface, an :antiaircraft, and short
range ground and naval launched missiles.
In the air -to -air missile field, the Swedes have
manufactured under license the U.S. Falcon missile,
bearing the Swedish designations of RB -27 (xvith radar
homing) and RB -28 (with infrared homing). The
Swedes are developing an infrared homing air -to -air
missile, the RB -29. This missile is to have a low -level
capability, longer range, and a larger warhead than its
two predecessors. Development testing of the RB -29 is
projected for the spring of 197-1; tooling up for
production will be initiated following the end of RB-
28 production that is being carried out to fulfill an
order from the. Finnish Air Force. Production of the
RB -27 has already ended.
Air -to- surface missiles include the RB -04 and a
modified version, the RB -04E, that is expected to enter
production in 1973. The E modified system employs a
higher thrust rocket motor and has improved guidance
over the RB -04 model. Another missile program, the
RB -0.5, has been under development for almost 10
years, but little success has been achieved.
An antiaircraft missile system is being developed by
AB Bofors for the Royal Swedish Armv. Designated the
RB -70, the system is designed for use where optical
identification of enemy aircraft is possible and
reportedly is immune to jamming.
Sweden has an excellent capability for the design
and development of army combat material. The
country has designed and produced virtually all of its
ground force material for many years, including fire
control equipment :rnd tanks. Research on artillery
weapons has been especially noteworthy. The Swedes
have developed a rapid- firing 155 -mm automatic self
propelled gun and are developing a 155 -mm towed
artillery weapon. Work on the latter weapon has
progressed to the prototype stage. Work also is
underway on the development of supporting
ammunition.
Rocket technology has continued to advance, and
several rocket -type weapons have been produced. In
the design, development, and production of rocket
assisted projectiles and shoulder fired rockets, all
necessary components have been prod ed in-
digenously.
Research is underway to improve the mobility and
firepower of combat vehicles, an area of endeavor in
which Sweden has an excellent capability. One of the
more significant armored vehicles under development
in a non- Communist country is the self propelled gun
9
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being tested by the Royal Swedish Army. Designated
the IKV -91, or intantry gun vehicle (Figure 4), it
consists of a turret mounted, low- velocity 90 -mm gun
on a relatively large, lightly armored hull of simple
design and construction. This vehicle is expected to
fulfill Royal Swedish Army requirements for an
amphibious armored vehicle with excellent mobility
over marshy terrain and across water obstacles, as well
as with the capability of combat with arid in support
of both the S -tank and infantry troops. Three
prototypes of the IKV -91 are undergoing tests. If no
major problems are encountered during the tests.
delivery to army units is anticipated by 197.1.
Research also is underway on two other armored
vehicles, both of which employ the chassis of the
Swedish designed and developed PBV -302, an
amphibious armored personnel carrier. These are the
BGBV -82, an armored recovery vehicle (Figure 5), and
the BROBV -941, an armored bridge- launching vehicle
(Figure 6). The bridge mounted on the latter vehicle is
undergoing test and evaluation by the army.
Other research efforts are directed toward improved
weapons and ammunition, specifically to improve
kinetic energy performance, terminal effects, ranges,
and fuzes. A 76 -mm antitank weapon, des:gnated
Miniman, is a smooth -bore recoilless throwaway type
and is intended for infantry use as additional
firepower when combating armored vehicles. An 84-
mm infantry recoilless weapon, the Carl Gustav, is
being improved, aril it 90 -nim shaped- charge antitank
projectile is under development. The Swedes also are
developing radar- guided, light antiaircraft automatic
weapons. The FOA has scheduled a research program
to improve the performance of shaped charges to
defeat bar armor arrays, to increase warhead lethality,
to increase reliability, and to lenghen stand -off
performance.
A new antitank mine and two new antipersonnel
mines have been developed by AB Bofors for the Royai
Swedish Army. The antitank mine is a shaped- charge
mine designed to penetrate the hull of an armored
h.icle and cause extensive damage internally to the
vehicle and crew. One of the antipersonnel mines,
nonmetallic and completely weatherproof, is a [)last,
contact, casualty producing mine which is relatively
shockproof; the other is a Claymore -type weapon that
disperses lethal fragments over it 120 are out to a
maximum range of 400 meters.
Sweden has an impressive capability for the
development and production of a wide range of
transport vehicles, components, and related equip-
ment. A number of tactical cross country trucks in
light, rnedimum, and heavy categories have been
10
developed for the military. The principal companies
involved in militan vehicle research and develop
ment, Volvo Pena AB at Goteborg and SAAB have
produced powerful high mobility vehicles incorporat-
ing all -wheel drive, locking differentials, high ground
clearance, flexible rough terrain suspensk-ns, and
wide- profile tires. Amphibious versions are equipped
with eater -jet propulsion providing for operation in
excess of 5 miles per hour in water. Swedish industry
also has developed compact, high torque hydraulic
motors suitable for installation in terrain vehicles.
Such motors are available in models of much greater
specific power output than equivalent electric ;rotors
arid in confihurations suitable for wheei hub
mounting.
I- the field of vehicle diesel engine research,
develiprnent, arid production, SAAB is foremost and
its products are noteworthy. Compactness, durability,
and ease of maintenance: are features which make the
company's engines attractive to vehicle designers.
United Stirling of Sweden, established in 1968, render
license from Philips of the Netherlands, has
undertaken an extensive program to perfect the
Stirling engine and produce it in a range of sizes from
10 to 200 horsepower. Stirling's investigations cover
moth the rhombic drive engine, developed by Philips.
and a double- acting V -type engine of unique design.
Series production is planned for 19 16, and
applications include vehicle propulsion and miscel-
laneous special- purpose equipment.
The Swedish topographic equipment capability is
small but of international importance, principally
because of Swedish geodimeters. These olectro- optical
distance measuring instruments, developed originally
in Sweden by Eric Bergstand for geodetic and
engineering surveys, are the hest known and most
widely used instruments in this equipment category.
Because of their high accuracy, they are used in many
countries as a standard for calibration of other
electronic and electro- optical distance- instruments
with it 40 -mile range. The geodimeters are produced
by AGA All in Lidingo. The company also has
developed a land navigation system for vehicles that
has been demonstrated for the U.S. Army and is
marketed to other non- Communist countries.
Gyrotheodolite aiming circle used by the Royal
Swedish Army are produced indigenously. Swedish
research in photogrammetry, photo interpretation,
and remote sensing has been recognized interna-
tionally.
SNveden has the capability to conduct research and
development in the field of engineer construction
equipment, hut, because the country has no active
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FIGURE 4. IKV -91, a self propelled
infantry gun vehicle mounting a 90 -mm
gun (U%OU)
FIGURE 5. Armored recovery vehicle,
BGBV -82 (U/OU)
FIGURE 6. Armored bridge- launching vehicle (U /OU)
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tactical army, very little research is directed toward
military engineering equipment. However, many
types of civil construction equipment, such as tractors
crane shovels, graders, road rollers, air compressors
arid dump trucks, have been designed and produced
in Sweden. Larger types of heavy earthworking
equipment are imported from the West.
The country has an adequate capability for
research, development, and production of a wide
range of materials arid POL- handling equipment.
Research activities concern materials handling
vehicles for special cargo configurations, such as
straddle carries and a newly patented ISO
(international Standard Organization) container
stacking system which utilizes special fastening
devices to hold the containers within the stacking
structure. Significant developments of POL- handling
equipment include the "Liquitainer" and a
semisubmersible bottomless tank. The Liquitainer is a
collapsible 400- gallon container designed for the
transport of liquid POL products by general- purpose
vehicles; when empty, this container can be folded to
one -third of its original height and can be used as it
platform on the truck bed to hold solid goods or
personnel on the return trip. The semisubmersible
bottomless tank is constructed of fiberglass- reinforced
unsaturated polyester plastic. It is designed for storing
oil while anchored in the open sea, lakes, ponds, or
harbor basins, and for servicing deep draft vessels that
canna; enter shallow harbors. These tanks have
capacities ranging from 5231,400 gallons to more than
2,642,000 gallons and have been supplied to the
Swedish armed forces.
An area in w hich the country possesses an
appreciable capability is the research and develop-
ment of naval weapons. The general design of
warships is influenced by the defensive nature of
Swedish military policy. Economic considerations
have caused increased emphasis on coastal destroyers
and smaller vessels, especially minesweepers and
motor torpedo boats. The motor torpedo boats in the
Royal Swedish Navy, displacing about 190 tons and
capable of over 40 knots, aie among the largest and
fastest in the world. A comprehensive: program to
develop an improved version of their high
performance patrol craft is concentrati -g on research
in hull form, supereavitating propellers, armament
improvements, and engine design. Submarines are
being designed for high submerged speeds, although it
design of art advanced hull form, such as the U.S.S.
Albacore, has not been seen. Research on submarine
propulsion centers on the fuel cell concept of electric
propulsion, and the Swedes are developing 200-
12
kilowatt cell, which will provide iur an increased
submerged capability. Much emphasis has been
placed on deep -sea diving using mixed gases. Progress
has been made on saturation diving techniques using
submersible decompression chambers aboard ship.
These efforts will greatly enhance Swedish capabilities
in submarine rescue and ocean bottom searching.
Swcdea is aware of the need for advanced
underwater weapons systems, and research and
development in this field are given high priority. Work
on improved torpedoes is underway, and considerable
progress has been made in the design of wire- guided
torpedoes for use against submarines and surface ships
A small but competent sonar program exists.
2. Biological and chemical warfare (S)
In accordance with the terms of the 1925 Geneva
Protocol, Sweden adheres to a formal policy of
restricting its biologics) wariure (BW) arid chemical
warfare: (CW) activities tc. the development of
defensive capabilities. There t ave been unconfirmed
indications, however, that t':e Swedes were doing
some classified research %wh+clo might be applicable to
the development of an offensive BW capability.
'Sweden has the necessary organization facilities,
qualified professional and technical personnel, and
funds to support an offensive BW rr�;earch and
development program. it is one of the best prepared of
all naticros in overall CW defense and is capable of
supporting defensive military requirements. The
county- has it solid foundation for an offensive CW
capability which has evolved from defensively
oriented research.
The Swedes have conducted at, active defensive BW
program. The two principal organizatir,ns responsible
for such work are FOA -I of the FOA and the
Bacteriological Institute of the Royal Caroline
Medical Surgical Institute.. Defensive BW research
and evelopment have emphasized rapid detection
and identification systems. Dr. Sven Johan Lundin of
the FOA has done research on the use of ultraviolet
absorption to measure the fluorescence of biological
agents for rapid detection; he has been successful in
detecting a single bacterium under laboratory
conditions. Dr. Lundin also has studied the
attachment of fluorescent antibodies to molecules of
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) of microorganisms. The ultimate aim of such
research is to develop an automated BW agent
detection system that will collect a sample, fix, stain,
read fluorescence photometrically, and provide
specific identification. The Swedes also have
demonstrated their fa,niliarity wi +.h detection concepts
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haled upon the principle that biological material
luminesces in the presence of luminolating luminol
and upon the identification by gas chromatography of
cellular metabolites likely to be present in
disseminated samples of agents grown in cell culture.
There is no indication that any biological detection
system has been fielded.
According to FOA, cloud physics studies related to
agent dissemination have clearly demonstrated the
vulnerability of the country's coastal areas to BW
attack. During Swedish studies on cloud travel, data
were ohtained concerning aerosol dissemination and
sampling technologies. Intensive interest shown at the
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
(SIPRI) concerning problems of chemical arid
biological warfare insures that Swedish scientists are
thoroughly conversant with modern concepts and
techniques for both defensive and offensive biological
operations.
Swedish scientists are preeminent in the field of
bioengineering, it technology whip h roust be mastered
if BW agents are to he produced for military
applications. Fermentation equipment and related
instrumentation of Swedish design and manufacture
are of superior duality. A pilot,.cale fermentation
plant exists at the Royal Caroline Medicr.l- Surgical
Institute; other facilities equipped to support process
research exist at the Microbiological Laboratory of the
Swedish rational Defense Laboratory and at the Kaki
Company, Stockholm. There is no ev ;dence that
Sweden has produced or stockpiled either pathogens or
microbial toxins for offensive -,varfare purposes.
Potential BW agents of tularemia, botulism and of
foot and -mouth disease have been studied in
programs which emphasized rapid diagnosis and
surveillance procedures, perhaps because these
diseases have. occurred within the country. A Swedish
official ha, expressed an interest in the problem of
stabilizing certain viruses, in particular those causing
Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) and eastern
equine encephalitis (EEE), neither of which has ever
occurred in Sweden. Toxins of Clostridiurn tetanus
have been concentrated in it biphasic growth system
which also would support the growth and elaboration
of a protective antigen from the etiological agent of
anthrax. All such studies could contribute data
applicable to basic programs characterizing the
potential of these various agents for biological warfare
purposes.
The Swedish armed forces are not known to possess
special organizations for BW purposes, and there is no
evidence of any overt military training for such
operations. The Royal Swedish Army maintains a
caernical, biological, and radiologi �d (CBR) school at
Solna, near Stockholm, but courier: are primaril%
desig:jed to teach protection against CBR agents for
both the individual and small units.
Swcder, has an excellent CW research and
development capability and is well ahead of other
Scandinavian countries in CW research. All aspects
are explored by highly qualified scientists at modern,
well equipped facilities and by a vigorous exchange of
scientific information at international conferences.
The FOA -1 is responsible for most of tt'c CkV research.
By virtue of its excellent defensive research and
development program. Sweden has acquired much
knowledge pertaining to CW offense. Swedish
scientists have conducted CW agent research,
including synthesis of the G- and V- nerve agents.
Researchers feel that there is little possibility of
synthesizing a nerve agent more toxic than those
already in existence; consequently, they are
investigating the possibility of increasing the lipid
solubility of the existing nerve agents with a view
toward increasing their speed of penetration. The
Swedes also are interested in nonphosphorylated
systemic poisons, such as galantha nines and
carbanates; these substances contain no phosphorus
but, like the G- and V- agents, can inhibit
cholinesterase. Research has been conducted on
natural poisons which could be candidate lethal C\V
agents. These irclude bacterial toxins (emphasizing
botulinum toxin), marine poisons, and snake venom.
The Swedes apparently feel that the incapacitants
show promise as successors to the lethal organo-
phosphorous compounds as CW agents. Researchers
have bec interested in such compounds as
psychochemicals, Including lysergic acid diethyh:micle
LSD -2:5). Several years ago the Swedes conducted
studies on glycolate incapacitants. Other in-
capacitating agents synthesized at FOA -1 were a series
of glycolate esters with 3- quinuclidinol as a common
moiety.
Processes for the production of nerve agents have
been developed, and blueprints for manufacturing
agents are available if the country_ should reverse its
policy of maintaining a defensive posture only.
As in the BW field, cloud travel studies related to
CW agent dissemination is of concern to Sweden, The
Cloud characteristics of aerosols disseminated b\
specific weapons including bombs, shells, and aerial
spray devic,s are studied.
The Swedish detection effort c'�res n differ
significantly from the U.S. program, aithough
variations in approach to the problem may produce
data of interest. An effort is underway to exploit the
1.3
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characteristics of the cholinesterase- ait ticholinesterase
reaction in an attempt to develop a rapid- acting,
sensitive., nerve agent detection system. This work
involves the isolation and purification of cholines-
terase from the plaice fish, which reportedly is as much
as 10 times mere sensitive to organophosphorous
compounds than cholinesterase derived from other
sources. FOA -I is actively working on an automatic
detection system using a combined gas chromatog-
raphy -mass spectroscopy system; it is envisioned that
the instrument would periodically sample the
atmosphere, fractionate the sample in the chru-
naatugraph, and automatically eharacteriz, the
components. The system would be amenable to
computerization. An attempt also is being made to
perfect Ypoint source manual detection methods. The
most recent development is the "spin disc' detector.
Each of the two to four small holes in the disc can be
fitted for a different indicating or detecting capability.
'rhis device appears to have good potential for
semiquantitative detection of single agents or
qualitative detection of several agents.
Providing the capability for military personnel to
operate successfully in a toxic environment is of
foremost concern at FOA -1. The current military mask
is becoming obsolete, and the Swedes are preparing for
a new series to be introduced during the 1970), 'rhe
development of it new concept for individual troop
protection was to begin in 1969; this concept may
involve more throwaway items, such as clothing. The
Swedes also plan to design new collective field shelters.
In keeping with national defense policy for it strong
CW defense, the country is pursuing an intensive
research effort in nerve agent prophylaxis and therapy.
Although this effort has been extensive, no new
antidotes have been found that surpass those already
known. Scientists are studying fluorine substituted
oximes as possible antidotes against refractory nerve
agents, such as soman.
FOA -1 is investigating the distribution of the
botulint.: toxin in the body .::d the action
mechanism that affects the acetylcholine level.
Antibodies, tagged with fluorescent compounds, were
used in this study. Swedish scientists believe that the
Soviets have an antidote for botulinum toxin. Such an
antidote has not yet been developed in Sweden, but
the possibility exists that a chernical antidote may be
found or that it modified antigen will be developed to
produce an antitoxin effective against all types of
hotulinum toxin. FOA -1 also reportedly is researching
antidotes for incapacitating agents such as psycho
chemicals. A strong Swedish interest in the U.S.
14
incapacitating agent BZ is support(-(] by efforts to
develop an antidote for this agent, and a series of
potential antidotes has been synthesized.
:3. Atomic energy (C)
Sweden has it nuclear energy program of moderate
size characterized by expanding electric power
production facilities and a supporting research and
development program emphasizing reactor physics
and fuel development. rite country Kati acceded to the
nuclear nonproliferation treaty which, as it non-
nuclear weapon state, prohibits it from developing
nuclear weapons.
'Fit!- Atomic Energy Con,,nany was established in
1947 as the central body for applied research and
development in the nuclear energy field and is
responsible for the construction and operation of
nuclear researca reactors, the production of uranium,
the manufacC.re of fuei elements, and the production
of radioactive isotopes. In addition, many industrial
firms work closely with the Atomic F,nergy Company
in the applications of nuclear energy. A group of
private and municipal electric power concerns have
formed the Atomic Power Group to cooperate with the
Swedish State Power hoard, under the Ministry of
Commerce, in the development of nuclear power. I'he
universities and technical institutes also support the
nuclear energy program through research in
fundamental nuclear physics and chemistry.
With the gradual commercializing of the nuclear
power field, the Atomic Energy Company's tasks have
changed. The company's activities are concentrated
on research and development in close cooperation
with industry and the power itilitics and the latter two
parties have taken over responsibility for the design
and construction of nuclear power reactors. TI jv
change was emphasized in 1969 with th- establish-
ment of ASEA -ATOM, formed on it fifty -fifty basis
between ASEA (Allrnann( Svenska Elektriska
Aktlebolaget) and the Swedish Government to
construct nuclear power stations and to fabricate
power reactor fuel. The present tasks of the Atomic
Energy Company are to be an expert body to the
government on nuclear matters, to represent the
country in official international cooperation in the
nuclear field, to supply expert knowledge on reactor
safety matters, to be consultants to the power utilities,
and to carry out research at the request of industry and
other research organizations.
The Atomic Energy Company has constructed six
small research reactors. The first reactor, named R -1,
was constructed in Stockholm and began operation in
1954. All subsequent research reactors were
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constructed at the Swedish Nuclear Research Center at
Studsvik. Only three of the research reactors are still in
operation �the R -2, R -2 -0, and Kritz. The R -2 reactor
is a 50- megawatt thermal (MWO, tank -type reactor,
fueled with 90% enriched uranium and moderated
with ordinary water. The R -2 reactor, which went into
operation in 1960, is employed chiefly for materials
testing and fuel development, and it large part of the
company's income is derived from materials testing
commissioned from abroad. The 11-2 -0 reactor is it
1 -MVVt swininlng Pool type reactor, fueled with S)Wi
enriched uranium and moderated with ordinary
water; it also began operation in 1960. The third
research reactor, Kritz, went into operation in 1969.
Originally constructed as a subcritical assembly, it was
reconstructed twice as it zero -power reactor. The
second reconstruction is used for experimentation on
various types of uranium and plutonium fuel. All of,
the enriched uranium to fuel the research reactors was
supplied by the United States. Three additional
research reactors have been closed down; these were
the R -1, the R -o, and the FR -0 reactors. The R -I and
R -0 reactors were heavy water moderated, natural
uranium fueled reactors. The 1 -MWt R -1 operated
from 1954 to N;70, and the zero -power R -0 was in
operation from 1959 to 1970. The FR -0, a 10- kilowatt
critical assembly, .vas in operation from 1964 to 1972.
Although the Swedish State Power Board has overall
responsibility for the nuclear power program,
construction of the nuclear power stations is done by
private industry under the supervision of the Atomic
Energy Corrrnany. There are two nuclear power
reactors in operation and an additional ni,le are either
under construction or planned. The R -3 or Agesta, it
small 75 -MWt reactor, has been in operation since
1963 at Agesta, a suburb of Stockholm. It is a
pressurized heavy_ water reactor and produces to MW
of electricity as a byproduct of its principal use for
space heating. Originally a demonstration project of
the Atomic Energy Company, its operation was
transferred to the Stockholm Electric Powerplant. The
reactor has always operated at it loss and is scheduled
to be closed down in 1974. A second heavy water
moderated nuclear power reactor was constructed at
Marviken but was never operated. The Marviken
reactor has been abandoned, and the station will be
converted to an oil -fired plant.
Sweden has abandoned the heavy water moderated
type of reactors for its nuclear power program, and all
subsequent reactors are to be Boiling Water Reactors
(BWR) or Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR). The first
truly commercial nuclear power reactor is the 440
MWe Oskarshamn -1 which went critical in 1971.
Oskarshamn, originally i,anied after the nearbv small
town of Simpvarp, is located on the east coast of the
country south of Stockholm. Additional reactors will
1)(. sited at Oskarshamn, and three other power sites
are at Ringhals, on the west c(:ast south of Goteborg;
Barseback, also on the west coast but north of Malmo;
and Forsmark, on the east coast north of Stockholm.
The schedule for construction of the additional BWR
or P'WR nuclear power reactors is as follows:
FACILITY AND
OU'T'PUT EXPECTED
CHIEF
M%ve)
DATE
TYPE
CONTRACTOR
STATUS
Ringhals I
1974
BWR
ASEA -ATOM
Under
760
Construction
Ringhals II
1974
PWR
Westinghouse
)o.
820
Osk,,rshan)n II
1974
BWR
ASEA -ATOM
Do.
580
Barseback 1
1975
BWR
ASEA -ATOM
Do.
580
Ringhals Ill
1977
PWR
Westinghouse
Ordered
900
Barseback II
1977
BWR
ASEA -ATOM
Do.
580
Forsmark 1
1978
BWR
ASEA -ATOM
Do.
900
Ringhals IV
1979
PWR
Westinghouse
Do.
900
Forsmark II
1980
BWR
ASEA -ATOM
Planned
900
The slightly enriched uranium for fueling the BWR
�1d PWR power reactors will be purchased from other
c�ountrics; fuel for Oskarshamn I has been supplied by
the United States. The Swedes have built pilot plants
for fuel reprocessing and heavy water production.
Since the heavy water moderated reactor type has
been abandoned, Sweden has no plans to construct a
heavy water production plant. The plan to construct
an industrial size fuel reprocessing plant has been
postponed Ilrltil the nuclear power program is
sufficiently large to permit economic operation.
probably in the 1980's.
The uranium content: of the oil shales of
southwestern Sweden is estimated at about 1 million
tons, one of the world's largest deposits. However, the
ore is very low grade, containing only about 300 crrams
of uranium per ton of shale. Processing such a low
grade ore is expensive compared with world market
prices of uranium, The :hest Swedish uranium
deposits are in the shale of the Billingen area, where a
uranium processing facility, the Ranstad Uranium
Works, went into operation in 1965. The plant's
present capacity F about 120 tons of uranium oxide
per vc �ar, but the Swedes may well increase this
capacity in the near future.
15
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4. Electronics (S)
Electronics research and development activities,
although somewhat restricted by decreasing fiscal
allocations in recent years, are comparable in quality
to those of other leading Western European countries.
Highly coinpehmt scientists condhet electronics
research at universities, industrial ente and
militan� establishments. Sweden is very active in
military and commercial electronics development, and
the government strongly supports laboratories and
schools for this purpose. Applied research, some cif it
under contract for military agencies and for private
industry. is done at laboratories attached to the
various tec hnical institutes and colleges. The two
%world- renowned technical institutes in Sweden, the
KTH and CI'H, have modern facilities wher( mach
electronics research and development are carried out.
The most important industrial electronics researc
facility is the L.M. Ericsson Telephone Corporation,
which has large modern research laboratories located
at the site of the main factory in Midsomrrarkransen.
A new development company, BELLEM"t EI has
been formed to do ;pecialized research and
development, concentrating on advanced electronic
communications systems and products; it is owned
jointly by the I... M. Ericsson Corporation and the
Swedish Telecommunications Administration, the
government agency in charge of communications.
Department FOA -3 is concerned exclusively with
military electronics research and development and has
done work in communications, electronic counter-
measures (ECM), sonar, guidance, radar, lasers, and
other electro -optic efforts and in component
developments.
The KTH has b investigating broadband
countermeasure devices and reportedly is doing good
work in plasma, Gunn, and avalanche semiconductor
research. A considerable effort has been undertaken Ibv
KTH and others in fluidics research, hut, because of
failures of several ambitious programs, researchers are
developing their technology from the basics. The field
of fluidics is attracting the attention of c ontrol systems
developers, and research is unde on such items as
fluid amplifiers and vortex rate gyroscopes.
Sweden has made valuable contributions in
instrumentation for macromolec�ular research, such as
the Svedberg ultracentrifuge and the Tiselius
electrophoresis apparatus. Other developments of
significance have included Hannes Alfven's "trocho-
tron," a stepping beam switching tube: three level,
solid -state maser; and ferrite one -w attenuators for
wave guides and steerable antenna systems. Research
16
;;lso is being conducted on radar backscattering,
medium gain antennas, and phased arrays.
An intensive development effort is underway on
semiconductors. Sweden ha; made significant
contributions to semiconductor technoiogy through
ion implantation work with silicon and germanium.
Considerable research is underway involving thin
films and flatpack miniaturized c�amponents for future
COMM till ication systems.
Research is being conducted on cryotrons,
microwave action in plasmas, methods of producing
long -life electron tubes and transistors, and techniques
of increasing the data rate to bandwidth ratio. Other
projects have been concerned with analyzing and
synthesizing 1 n transistors, with lotiw noisc amplifiers
for radioastronony applications, and with O type
carcinotrons with bifilar helices. Other subjects of
interest' have included parametric traveling -wave
amplifiers, traveling -wave masers, very -low- frequency
(VLF) propagation, and tropospheric scatter
techniques.
A broad program of military electronics re :iearch
and development is underway. Microwave !ubes
developed for military applications include I �band
spin -tuned magnetrons for frequency -agile radar,
high -power wide -band traveling -wave tubes and
crossed -field arrilAfiers for advanced ECM applica-
tions, an i phased- locked magnetrons for coherwit
intercept i.tdar. Other military developments have
included an iniproved airborne infrared camera; fuel
cell power supplies, fire control systems for air,
ground, and sea applications: and mis >Jle- fuzing
systems employing both optical and radar priuc�iple�s.
Research and development are t-ontinuing cn
proximity fuzes, laser -diode fuzes, and im optical
communications device.
Philips Teleindustri AB in Stockholm has
undertakea extensive programs in the development of
frequency -agile radars and is considered a leader in
this particular field. Emphasis continues to be placed
on improving system advantages to further reduce
problems caused by sea /ground clutter, fading.
jamming, and mutual interference. New programs
have centered on developing frequency -agile
equipment in gun fire- controi systems. The FOA has
developed a combination search- and -track radar used
by the Swiss- produced fire control systern, Skyguard.
A number of Swedish -built laser devices are
available for military use and are tieing evaluated,
tested, and given limited deployment. These include a
variety of ruby and neodymium- glas. laser range-
finders for man portable field artillery use, tank
mounted use, aril airborne systems. The rangefinders'
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capabilities and configurations are varied to
accommodate specific task requirements and cover a
range from 300 meters to 30 kilometers with an
accuracy of plus or minus 10 meters. A cooperative
agreement reportedly has been reached between a
Swedish and a Yugoslav company for co- production of
laser rangefinders for tank and field artillery
applications in Yugoslavia. Swedish industry has been
in the forefront of cloud height measurement
technology, an area which has potential for both
military and commercial applications. Automatic laser
equipment to measure ground -to -cloud level distance
and to provide information on the thickness and
structure of cloud formations has been developed.
There has been some evidence of Swedish interest in
plasma gent -ition b laser and in controlled
thermonuclear rc. -H -n (CTR) experiments at the
University of Uppsala. An infrared communication
system involving detectors operating at 10.6
micrometers and at 0.9 micrometers reportedly is
under development for military applications.
Although the country has several hundred
computers, most are small- to medium -scale types.
The only significant manufacturer of computers is
DATASAA13, the computer division of SAAB at
Linkoping, which Produces the inedium -scale models,
D 21 and D 22. It also developed small computers for
airborne and industrial control applications. Sweden
has, however, been an important supplier of
peripheral devices, including magnetic tape units and
punched tape equipment that are used with many
foreign computers.
5. Medical sciences, including veterinary
medicine (S)
Sweden has achieved and maintains a very high
standard of excellence and productivity in biomedical
research. This is founded on the competence and
training of its personnel and generous financial
support of basic and applied research. Medical
investigations are linked closely with teaching. Most
of the fundamental biomedical research is done in the
raniversity medical schools and in the KTH. A national
policy foresees intensification of contacts between
scientists of the northern countries, including Finland,
Norway, Denmark, Iceland, and Greenland. The
Medical Research Council coordinates Swedish
biomedical research and stresses research in nutrition,
cardiovascular diseases, environmental medicine,
industrial medicine, pediatrics, alcoholism, phar-
maceuticals, immunology, neural and psychiatric
disorders, and diabetes.
Biochemistry and biophysics are research areas of
particular excellence in Sweden. The biochemical
approach pervades other areas of Swedish biomedical
research and scientists emphasize the need for a
fundamental understanding of the chemical and
physical nature of physiological functions. Swedish
scientists have developed an international reputation
for competence in the biophysical separation of
biologically important materials. Outstanding
contributions are being made in the separation of
proteins and other biopolymers, the characterization
of antigens of cell membranes from human tumor
strains, determination of the crystal structure of
human enzymes, and the biochemistry of virus
multiplication. Precise methods permit processing of
single cells and biological materials on a rnicrograrn
scale. Advanced techniques employed include X -ray
diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, gas chromatog-
raphy, electron microscopy, specialized absorbing
agents, and mass spectroscopy. Attention is devoted to
the study of the physicochemical properties of fats and
fatty -acid derivatives, enzymes, peptises with
extended aminoacid sequences, nucleotides, nucleic
acids, and high polymer carbohydrates, especially
dextrans. Study of energy exchange has included
investigation of transport and energy conservation in
photosynthesis and respiration, and the development
of model systems of biological energy transfer.
Microbiological studies at the State Bacteriological
Laboratory are undertaken to support diagnostic,
bacteriological, virological, immunological, and
parasitological examinations and to support
production of sera, vaccines, and related substances.
The Swedes have gained wide recognition for their
germ -free studies with animals. Microbiologists are
developing laboratory and bioengineering techniques
for the continuous culture of micro- organisms.
Procedures have been developed for the cultivation of
bacteria and tissue cells and the preparation of crude
enzyme systems. Practical interest includes research on
biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and
microbiological processing of vegetable wastes and the
effect of environmental milieu on host parasite
relationships. Immunological research in the country
is outstanding. A World Health Organization (WHO)
Regional Reference Center for Genetic Factors of
Human Immunoglobulins is located in Lund.
Impressive research deals with the diverse aspects of
cell- mediated immunity to tumors.
Fundamental research in physiology is closely
associated with the application of biochemical and
biophysical techniques. Investigators are examining
the effect of chemical or physical intervention on
17
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sensory response, electrical and mechanical activities
Of single muscle fibers, intraocular pressure, and
acoustic middle -ear reflexes. Clinical research in
physiology is creative, adequately supported, and of
high quality, with emphasis on circulation problems,
pulmonary function, physiology of work and physical
training, and evaluation of physiological testing and
measurement procedures. Sweden is cooperating wide
Norway anc. also the U.S.S.R. in investigations of the
physiology of deep sea diving. Research on alcoholism
is concerned with the examination of morphological
and functional changes after prolonged consumption,
with the ultrastructural injuries of acute liver damage,
and with vitamin therapy.
Cardiovascular research is ai a high level of
competence. Experimental hematology studies
include pioneer work on the function of hemoglobin
and the oxygen binding capacity of blood corpuscles,
the clinical aspects of coagulation and the fibrinolvtic
dissolution of blood clots, and the use of adenine
additives for whole blood preservation. In a WI-i0-
coordinated program, Sweden has contributed an
investigation of the distribution and severity of
atherosclerosis in the aorta and coronary arteries.
Productive research is underway in isotope labeling,
a technique that is being applied to the analysis of
derangements in cardiovascular tissues and related
clinical problems, capillary blood flow, tissue
oxidative metabolism and wound healing, throm-
boembolism, and cadaver kidney preservation.
Projects are underway on the effects of radiation on
biological objects varying from single cells to
mammals with or without tumors, on radioecological
problems, and on protection against radiation
damage. Sweden is concerned _tbout environmental
contamination with radionuclides, and investigators
are examining the hazards of radioisotope internal
emitters and the prevention and treatment of
exposure. Combined use of adsorbents and radioiso-
topes is assisting in the separation of fractions in
immunological research.
The country has an excellerji pharmaceutical
industry, which is internationally recognized for the
superior ct!uality of its drugs. A WHO Reference Center
for A utheniic Chemical Substances is located in
Stockholm. The National Pharmaceutical Laboratory
in Stockholm undertakes research in the chemistry_
pharmacy, pharmacology, and therapeutics of drugs.
Pharmacologists are interested in psychopharmaceuti-
cals for treatment of depressions, the effects of drugs
on cholinergic mechanisms in the central nervous
system, and drug regulation of circulatory mech-
anisms.
18
Growing interest �n problems of pharmacology and
toxicology has increased the national demand for
trained personnel. University preparation of
pharmacologists is excellent, but pharmaceutical and
industrial toxicologists are in short supply. Solna is the
site of a collaborating laboratory of the WliO
International Reference Center for Air Pollution. The
National Institute of Public Health is undertaking
studies on the relation of exposure to environmental
pollution and the incidence of respiratory diseases, as
well as on the toxic action of trace clern -tits in food
and water. Excellent studies are underway on changes
in metabolism following exposure to chlorinated
pesticides.
Noteworthy investigations in psychiatry concern the
development of psychiatric epidemiology, analysis of
the social and clinical features of drug abuse, and
study of the relation of cerebral brain floN% during
mental effort under normal and pathological
conditions of the brain.
Basic and applied research on food and nutrition is
expanding. Prophylactic and therapeutic studies deal
with lipid deposition in cardiac muscle, and protein
caloric requirements, primarily in foreign lands.
Microbiologists are studying the biosynthesis of edible
protein and development of bacteria -free packing
systems for milk and fruit juice. Irradiation of food is
being tested .us it preservative technique. Sensory
evaluation assay is being developed for control of food
quality of preserved foods.
Capabilities for military medical research are
excellent. Military medical scientists cooperate closely
with their civilian counterparts and benefit from
civilian scientific efforts while retaining a research
capability within the military services. The Defense
Medical Research Delegation, under the Ministry of
Defense, plans, advises, and coordinates applied
military medical research and provides grants to the
Military Medical Research (,enter of the Roval
Caroline Medical- Surgical Institute, the Naval
Medical Research Center in Karlskrona, and the
Aeromedical Research Institute in Malrnslatt. The
Military Medical Research Center is engaged in
clinical, physiological, and BW investigations. The
Naval Medical Research Center conducts research in
submarine medicine and has a joint project with the
U.S. National Institutes of Health. The Aeromedical
Research Institute is concerned with general aviation
medicine and is investigating the effects of low
pressure and high altitudes on air force personnel. A
Defense Medical Section within the Medical Research
Council is concerned with coordinating and planning
basic research and has six groups concerned with
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research in aeromedicine, naval medicine, bac-
teriology, experimental psychology, toxicology, and
burns. The FOA -i coordinates military medical
research with cividan agencies, in addition to
conducting research in such areas as nutrition and
psycbology.
The vett.-inary research capability compares
favorably with that of other major European
countries. Sweden has long had effective research
programs which have led to efficient animal disease
control systems. The principal diseases still affecting
the domestic animal population are actinomveosis,
foot and -mouth disease, parasitic infection, salmonel-
losis, and swine erysipelas. Major diseases such as
brucellosis, anthrax, tuberculosis, and Newcastle
disease have been eliminated or almost eliminated.
Sweden has approximately 1,200 veterinarians, and a
significant number are engaged in some form of basic
or applied veterinary research. The major research
facilities are the State Veterinary Institute and the
Roval Veterinary College of Sweden, both in
Stockholm; the Agricultural College of Sweden in
Uppsala; and the Skara Veterinary College. Research
programs at the State Veterinary Institute are direelL l
primarily to those economically important animal
diseases and conditions which limit animal
production, and include studies on viral diseases,
toxicology, parasitology, and leukemia. The Skara
Veterinary College has been concerned with clinical
and experimental diseases primarily related to
deficiency diseases and infertility.
6. Other sciences (S)
a. Chemistry and metallurgy
Chemistry historically has been an important field
of research in Sweden, and Swedish chemists have
been awarded four Nobel prizes since 1903. The
overall level of capability in chemical research and
development is substantially higher in Sweden than in
other Scandinavian countries, but lower than in the
major countries of Western Europe. The strongest
fields of research are biochemistry and physical
chemistry. Industrial research is weak, except for
research associated with the manufacture of paper.
The chemical industry is dependent to a considerable
extent on processes developed abroad. There is little
applied synthetic organic research except for a modest
effort in pharmaceuticals.
Research in biochemistry is broad and well
supported at all of the country's leading educational
institutions, particularly the Royal Caroline Medical
Surgical Institute. Much of the research has
concentrated on proteins, enzymes, and amino acids.
Specific studies have concerned the purification of
proteins, size ai d structure of viral proteins, sequences
of amino acids, and enzymic oxidation, transforma-
tion, and degradation.
The quality of physical chemical research is very
good and centers n molecular structure, physical
chemistry of polymers, and reaction kinetics. The
Institute of Physical Chemistry at the University of
Uppsala is one of the outstanding centers of physical
chemical res ^arch in Europe. T he institute, headed by
Dr. Stig Claesson, is well staffed and very well
equipped. It has done good experimental work on the
physical properties of high molecular- weight mate=
rials, such as cellulose and synthetic polymers.
Research subjects are diversified and have included
various types of diffusion experiments, light scattering,
electron microscopy, flash photolysis, and the
development of highly sophisticated instrumentation
for studying polymeric materials. Good quality
research on polymers is being done at the KTH and
CTH. Prof. Bengt Ranby of KTH has been active in
research on polymer structure, degradation mech-
anisms, and radical polymerization.
A small amount of significant organic chemical
research is being clone in specific areas of interest to
the pulp and paper industry such as on cellulose,
lignin, wood extractives, and the chemical reactions
which occur during pulping of wood and bleaching of
pulp. Broader subjects of research under study at the
universities have included synthetic growth sub-
stances, terpenes, and organic sulfur and selenium
compounds. Good research is underway at several of
the universities in synthetic and physical organic
chemical research. There has been some activity on
the synthesis of pharmaceuticals. Tile Swedish
universities apparent]-, are well equipped with nuclear
magnetic resonance instruments, mass spectrometers,
and other apparatuses used in physical organic
chemical studies.
High quality inorganic chemical research is carried
on at the universities and technical universities on it
variety of problems involving metal complexes,
solubility characteristics of complexes in organic
solvents, hydrolysis of metal ions, and especially
equilibrium phenomena. Although the work has been
largely fundamental, it has had a bearing on the
practic recovery of uranium and other metals by
solvent extraction techniques.
Very little analytical chemical research is
undertaken, although Swedish chemists have up -to-
date analytical equipment and are skilled in the use of
the latest analytical techniques. [n the area of physical
ti
;r
x
19
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chemistry, electrochemistry is a subject of some
I importance, and considerable work has been done on
stress corrosion, as well as batteries and fuel cells. A
variety of other subjects have been studied, including
inorganic complexes, the chemistry of uranium
i compounds, polyions, and the chemistry of seawater.
The Institute of Inorganic Chemistry at the Universitv
of Stockholm has contributed greatly to the
understanding of structural inorganic chemistry.
Richly endowed with iron ores but not with low -cost
metallurgical fuels, Sweden traditionally has stressed
quality rather than quantity in its metallurgical
industries. A broad metallurgical research program is
directed toward supporting the special steels and
machine tool industries and is primarily developmen-
tal. Only a limited amount of basic research is pursued
and fundamental research is generally neglected. The
level of metallurgical technology is excellent and
compares favorably with that of West Germany and
France in ferrous metallurgy. Relatively little effort is
directed toward nonferrous metals, although some
research is conducted on alurninum and copper alloys.
The major metallurgical research facility is the
Swedish Institute for Metals Research, a cooperative
organization supported equally by industry and
government. it undertakes research on analytical
chemistry, physical metallurgy, corrosion, metals
solidification, and powder metallurgy. The former
director of the institute, Dr. Roland Kiessling, is world
famous for his research on inclusions in steel, and the
institute continues to perform excellent research on the
subject. Other high- quality research is underway at
the institute by Dr. Lennart Rahlin on metals behavior
under combined creep and fatigue conditions, an area
in which the Swedes excel. Considerable research is
conducted on fracture mechanics. The institute also
has conducted basic research on metal physics, chiefly
stacking faults and transmission electron microscopy.
The KTH is active in metallurgical research and its
effort has included research on electroslag refining, the
fundamentals of arc behavior in gas metal -arc
welding, the interaction of creep and fatigue in
austenitic stainless steels, fatigue crack growth, and
the formation of graphite in alloy cast iron. The KTH
has done excellent research on creep mechanisms and
fatigue crack growth. Extensive studies on fracture
mechanics have been undertaken at the Technical
University in Lund under the direction of Prof. K.B.
Broberg.
Although the extent and scope of the metallurgical
research conducted by governmental and academic
facilities are impressive, the strength of the
metallurgical effort rests almost entirely in the research
conducted by private industrial laboratories. All of the
20
metal producing companies have research facilities,
which are well funded, equipped, and staffed. Most of
the industrial effort is devoted to the development of
improved refining methods and improved ,Aloys. The
Swedes have long been leaders in the development of
advanced refining methods, and one of the first basic
oxygen steel production processes, the Kaldo process,
was developed in Sweden. The process, developed by
Dr. B.O. Kalling of Stora Kopparberg Berslages AB in
Domnarvet, is an excellent steel production process for
relatively small plants. The Swedish Electrical
Corporation in Vasteras and the Swedish Ballbearing
Works, Inc., in Goteborg, one of the world's leading
producers of bearings, jointly developed a ladle
refining process for inductive stirring of the melt in the
ladle to produce high quality steel. The Swedes have
widely applied a Soviet development, electroslag
refining, in their production of stainless steels and are
more advanced in the use of electroslag refining than
any other country in the West. Comprehensive
research programs in this process are underway at
various industrial firms. Other research on production
processes has included work on heat- exchanger
furnaces for magnetic reduction, sponge iron
production, desulfurization of pig iron, and iron
powder production. In addition, vacuum melting and
vacuum treatment have been investigated thoroughly
in connection with the production of heat treatable
alloy steels. Hydrogen cracking in high strength steels
has received extensive study.
The Swedes have long been leaders in the
development of improved special purpose steels.
Sandviks Steel has developed several special- purpose
corrosion resistant stainless steels that are gaining .wide
acceptance in the U.S. petrochemical industry. AB
Bofors, although not a metals producing company, has
a metallurgical laboratory that has been studying
hydrogen cracking of alloy steels, metals refining,
fatigue creep, and corrosion fatigue. In addition to
improved materials for weapons, the company has also
developed materials for alloys for the pulp and paper
industry.
The Atomic Energy Company has conducted
appreciable metallurgical research directed toward
support of the nuclear energy program. The research
has centered on cladding materials (zirconium alloys
and stainless steels), structural materials, pressure
vessels, and materials for fast- breeder, liquid -metal
cooled reactors, as well as welding and fabrication.
b. Physics and mathematics
The scope of Swedish research in physics is
impressive for the size of the country. Most of the
essential branches of physics are covered with the
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greatest concentration in nuclear and solid -state
physics. Other areas receiving a modest amount of
attention are plasma, atomic and molecular physics,
fluid dynamics, and superconductivity.
Research in solid -state physics is of good duality and
mainly of a highly theoretical nature primarily due to
the competency of the physicists engaged in the
research. The departments of physics of the
universities and technical institutes are extremely
active in studying the electrical, thermal, magnetic,
ferromagnetic, crystal, optical, and semiconducting
properties of solids. In essence, most of the solid -state
research is devoted to the study of materials or. a broad
scale. The KTH, CTH, and Lund Institute of
Technology have conducted many advanced
materials studies that have gained considerable
recognition in Western Europe. Some of the
outstanding research being done at these institutes
involves studies of properties associated with dilute
magnetic alloys and clustered magnetic ions by
examining the energy spectrum and spin dependence.
Other research is being done with such dilute
magnetic alloys as cuprous fe rrides and cobalts to
determine their specific -heat values. Physicists at CTH
are active in examining the optical properties of
semiconductor materials. Photoemission studies are
underway to examine the effects of structural disorders
of silver palladium alloys with regard to band
structures of the pure compounds. At the Land
Institute of Technology, optical ionization cross
sections of gallium phosphate crystals are being
studied by using the charge storage and impurity
Photovoltaic effects measurements. A significant
amount of research is being directed toward optical
transmissions in cesium- coated copper. Although this
work has been done only since 1970 in Western
countries, the Swedish approach to using data from
ultraviolet photoelectron energy spectra appears well
advanced.
A significant portion of solid -state physics research
is oriented toward advancing the countrv's
semiconductor device capabilities. For example, mesa
diodes are being studied to determine the mechanism
that causes edge breakdown. Some of the results
concern the contributing factors such as band [)ending
or microplasma usually associated with point defects
in semiconductor materials. Other indications of
concentrated efforts in semiconductor device
development are shown by research into such
sandwiched structures as silicon and graphite and
processes for thermal etching of the semiconductor
surfaces. Swedish physicists show competency in third-
order optical mixing, which they developed as a
powerful diagnostic technique used in semiconductor
physics at Umea Universitv.
There is a general trend in the nuclear sciences
toward concentrating efforts in low-energy nuclear
physics and engineering at some sacrifice to the high
energy nuclear physics. The bulk of the low- energy
nuclear research is being conducted in broad scope at
the Swedish Nuclear Research Center at Studsvik at
the FOA, and by the departments of CTH and the
University of Uppsala. Much of the research has
objectives aimed at determining the effects of prompt
radiation exposures and at the study of nuclear decay
schemes. This involves energy level studies of such
radioactive isotopes as silver and cadmium which have
importance because of their isomeric states.
Transitions in decay are of interest for providing
electron gamma directional correlations. Of particular
interest have been studies of nuclear particle detectors
that are formed by ion implantation, which have been
developed with fairly good resolutions. The Atomic
Energy Company also concentrates its efforts in decav
studies. At the University of Uppsala, a large amount
of effort is being concentrated in the development of
nuclear instrumentation. Although Swedish industry
produces good nuclear detectors, it is continuing to
develop some good quality lithium drifted germanium
detectors for studies related to absorption characteris-
tics of materials subject to exposures at a broad
spectrum of nuclear energies. The FO!'. is extremely
active in nuclear research studies which appear to
relate to defense against nuclear weapons and to
radioactive characteristics of natural metal samples.
The FOA has utilized germanium lithium detectors to
conduct nuclear structure studies of inert gases via
thermal neutron capture. It has done extensive
research on neutral helium with regard to lifetimes of
the excited levels of the gas. This involves a study of
radioactive transition from doubly excited levels in
helium and iodine.
Swedish research in high energy nuclear physics is
concentrated at the Nordic Institute of Theoretical
Atomic Physics (NORUITA) in Copenhagen and at
the University of Stockholm's Institute of Physics.
Research is primarily theoretical and covers subjects
concerned with elementary particles and cosm;e rav
emanations. High- energy nuclear research also is
being conducted at the Universities of Lund and
Umea. At the University of Lund the research deals
with photomeson effects in efforts to probe reactions
connected with the light nuclei. Based on the studies
of reactions leading to meson production, physicists
21
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have been able to determine th- number of nucleons
that contribute to a reaction on the brsis of shell
model considerations. Physicists at the University of
Umea are examining the field -model theory for
scattering to determine relations associated .vith
broken couplings. between octet baryons and
pseudoscalar octet mesons.
A major portion of plasma research is performed at
the KTH. Other groups at the leading universities and
the Atomic Energy Company have modest programs.
Researchers at the KTH are examining experimental
results and related theory dealing with rotating
plasmas aimed at advancing Swedish capabilities for
nuclear fusion, cosmic physics, and special
applications such as the plasma centrifuge,
condensers, propulsion, and the plasma gun. Some of
the KTH's research relates to the separation of
different species of elements and isotopes; the
researchers are aided by their expertise in the
development and use of mass spectrometry. Work is
continwn on the confinement of plasma by using
strong magnetic fields. Special plasma guns that
produce magnetized plasma rings are under study at
the FOA.
An impressive amount of laser research is being
conducted at the KTH and CTI A large portion of
such research is oriented toward laser beam optics and
holography. The research is aimed at restoring
holograph images of a distorted or defocused nature
by using extended range spatial filters. Ultra -short
pulse lasers and the means for measuring the
properties of the output pulses also are under study.
Development of solid -state lasers is progressing well,
based on Swedish capabilities for growing synthetic
crystals and for research in relaxation effects.
The Swedes have always shown good capabilities in
research related to atomic and molecular physics.
Recent studies have concerned atomic and molecular
structure of the benzene spectra and the isoelectronie
series, such as thiophene, pyrrole, and furan. A major
portion of such work is being conducted at the
University of Uppsala. Some research is being devoted
to the study and examination of hydrogen and helium
atoms at the institute of Physics of the University of
Stockholm; the beam foil spectra of helium and
oxygen are being studied, using a special spectrometer
located in the bean tubes of the institute's Van de
Graaff generator for the purpose of observing doubly
excited levels of lifetimes of isotopic gases.
Fluid dynamics is a popular subject of physics
research. The Kni is conducting limited studies of
space charge conditions and Mach number in an
electrostatic shock to note electron distributions that
22
are continuous at the boundary between free and
trapped electrons. Stratified fluids arc of major interest
to fluid dynamicists in connection with heat diffusion.
Stratification involves a technique for arranging fluids
in layers. Interest is in the mechanisms associated with
basic stratification of fluid regions subject to thermal
forcing, and the means for predicting properties for a
wide class of boundary conditions.
Research in superconductivity is of high quality but
narrow in scope. Other research involves specific heat
measurements of zirconium compounds and the study
of superconductivity properties and electron- phonon
interactions in tantalum- vanadium alloys using
resistant measurements to determine parameters
connected with transition temperatures.
Sweden has been traditionally stunig in math-
ematics. The quantity of research is substantial for it
country of its size, and the quality is excellent. The
Swedes are renowned for their work in statistics and
are among the forerunners in data analysis and the use
of computers in prediction theory and automation.
Theoretical research centers on analysis, especially
those branches of analysis dealing with the theory of
partial differential equations, the theory of complex
variables, and functional analysis. A minor but
imaginative and competent research effort is
underway in various branches of algebra, geometry,
and topology.
Sweden is active in international mathematical
affairs and participates in most of the international
meetings. Since September 1970 at least 14 Swedish
mathematicians have made extended visits to U.S.
universities. An exceptional rnathematic:a journal,
Acta Mathemclica, has been published in Sweden
with the cooperation of Denmark, Norway, and
Finland since 1882. it has become one of the most
prominent mathematical journals, and its exerllence is
recognized Internationally.
c. Astrogeophysical sciences
(1) Astronomy and space sciences� Although the
Stockholm Astronomical Observatory of the KVA at
Saltsjobaden was established in 1784, there has never
been an appreciable effort in observational astronomy.
However, significant theoretic-il contributions have
been made. The country's northerly geographical
position has motivated emphasis on auroral studies,
and these in turn appear to have encouraged interest
in other areas of aeronomy, notably upper
atmospheric rocketry and ionospheric radiophysical
research. The former has progressed into it more
extended interest in space science, while the latter has
developed into tropos'plieric and other environmen-
tally related radiophysical research areas.
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Astronomical research is centered at the Stockholm
Astronomical Observatory, observatories of the
Universities of Uppsala and Lund, and at the
,halrners Institute of Technology. The Universitv of
Lund has established a new observatory at
Romeleasen. The Stockholm Observatory engages
principally in sh.ndies in celestial mechanics, stellar
statistics, and solar ph Since 191 the observatory
has had a solar research station at Anacapri, Italy, on
the Isola di Capri, which participates in solar flare
patrol activities. The University of Uppsala has three
stations: the University Observatory in Uppsala, it
modestly equipped observatory c oncerned with the
study of stellar statistics and galactic structure; tic
Kristeborg Observatory at Malaren; and the Mournt
Stromlo station in Australia, operated in conjunction
with the Australian National Observatory in
Canberra. The University of Lund hits i t small
observatory principally engaged in rotntine studies.
Swedish radioastronomy appears to he confined to the
Raon Space Research Obsen -atory (also referred to as
the Onsala Radio Wave Propagation Observatory).,
which is located on the island of Raon about 25 miles
south of Goteborg and operated by the Electronics
Research laboratory of the um. The obseratorw has
several radio telescopcs; the largest is it 25.6 -meter
parabola, which was erected about 1964. Research has
been devoted to the study of galactic structure and
the large instrumentation permits reception of the very
weak galactic signals.
Space research is limited mainly to firing foreign
supplied rockets for exploration of the upper
atmosphere and ionosphere and for the study of solar
phenomena. Space studies began in 1961 when the
U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration
and Sweden reached an agreement for the exploration
of space. Sweden established a launching site in 1962,
the Vidsel Military Firing Range, near Kronogard in
Lapland, and furnished range support facilities and
operations personnel. In 1966 ESRO established a
sounding rocket launching range, known its
ESRANGE, about 10 miles from Kiruna in Lapland.
ESRO's decision to abandon its sounding rocket
program made unjustifiable its continued operation of
ESRANGE� and Sweden agreed to assume responsibil-
ity for its operation for a 5 -year period beginning in
mid -1972. Plans are underway to reduce the staff in
order to cut down the high operating costs. Launches
from the range have been restricted to low- and
medium- altitude flights because of the small size of
the ranKv. Under the direction of the Spilee
Technology Group of the Space Research Committee,
the Flvgnuttor Company is developing a hybrid
engine sounding rocket, SR -71. specifically for
launching from the Kiruna range. The Ministries of
Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs and Industrial
Affairs have reported that the c�ountry will participate
in ESRO's satellite projects for telecommunications,
air traffic control, and meteorology.
Scientists at the Kiruna Geophysical Observatory
provided a device on the ESRO I A satellite to measure
proton and electron energy in the 1 13 KeV range.
Measurements front the satellite were correlated with
ionospheric conditions at three Scandinavian sites and
the observations front the all -sky camera and
pl'otometer recordings from the Kiruna observatory. A
similar satellite experiment is being prepared for the
ESRO IV satellite.
Cooperative agreenuMnts for space research have
been concluded with other Scandinavian countries
and with the Soviet Union. Sweden is a member of the
European Telecommunications Satellite Conference
(LETS) and the Internationa' Telecommunications
Satellite Consortium (INTE''i,SAT). Sweden par-
ticipates to it limited extent in the Scandinavian Space
Research Organization along with Dennnark and
Norway. A 1970 Swedish Soviet agreement oat space
research provided for cooperation between the
University of Lund and the Crimean Astrophysical
Laboratory in the Soviet union and for use of
Swedish -built solar spectrographs oat Soviet high
altitude balloons and Soviet satellites. Sweden
participated in 1971 in the planning of it U.N. study of
surveying earth resources, with special reference to the
use of satellites. Some satellite tracking is carried out
b%- the University of Uppsala, and in 1971 the county
was considering the development of it Swedish
scientific satellite for magnelospheric studios with as
launching target of about 1975.
Sweden is active in a number of areas of aeronomy
not associated directly with space l. Ground'-
based aeronometric research is done in several fields.
Cosmic ray observations are made by the Kiruna
Geophysical Observatory and the IJplsalu Ionospheric
Observatory of the FOA. These observatories also are
conducting auroral and ruliophysics- related iono-
spheric research. The KTH is active in Audying
electric fields in the ionosphere.
(2) Meteorology� 'I'herc are two separate meteor-
ological facilities at the University of Stockholm that
work in ('lose collaboration, the Institute of
Meteorology and the International Institute of
Meteorology. The fortner iwtitttte has long been one
of the leading institutes it the world it its field Its
research has enconra)ussed numerical forecasting,
theoretical and (1\1. ,c� meteorology. nospheri
23
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chemistrv, air -sea boundary oceanography, and cloud
physics. It bus conducted studies of the global
distribution of carbon dioxide. The International
Institute is an independent organization affiliated
with the University of Stockholm but granted direct
support by the government. It was established after
World War 11 to develop informal international
cooperation in meteorological research. Its projects
have included studies of circulation of ehernica) and
radioactive substances in the atmosphere, cloud
physics, and noctilucent clouds (clouds of unknown
origin thought to be of dust, at altitudes of 50 miles,
which may he observed at night in the reflected light
of the sun). The institute participated in a sounding
rocket project conducted from the Vidsel range in the
early 1960's.
The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological
Institute, Stockholm, is the national weather service.
and has departments for climatologv, hydrology,
weather forecasting, and communications. The
institute has announced plans for the complete
automation, within 3 years, of weather observations
and prognostic chart preparation activities. Opera-
tionally, the institute utilizes the same numerical
weather prediction techniques as does the United
States. The institutes research is principally applied.
Some meteorological research in the physics and
dynamics of the atmosphere and in synoptic
meteorology is done at the institute of Meteorology of
the University of Uppsala. The university has an
Institute for High Tension Research which engages in
the study of the basic nature of lightning and its
physical manifestations. It hits an observatory at
Marsta near Uppsala, which is engaged in research in
micrometeorology and atmospheric electricity and
radioactivity.
(3) Terrestrial geophysics and geology �The Kiruna
Geophysical Observatory engages in terrestrial
geophysical research. It is apparently the principal
Swedish geomagnetic observatory; observations often
are coordinated with auroral studies. The observatory
has conducted geomagnetic and telluric current
observations. Other stations engaging in geomagnetic
studies are located at Abisko, Lovo, Enkoping,
Uppsala, Lycksele, and on Svalbard in the Arctic
Ocean. In addition, temporary stations are established
at various sites during field surveys to make both
geomagnetic and telluric current observations. The
station at Lovo records secular variations of the
geomagnetic field and has investigated field transients
and giant pulsations. Along with lilt station at Abisko,
it also has participated in an international program in
which these stations act as fixed reference points for
rtrtificial earth satellite measurements.
24
The Kiruna observatory also makes seismic
observations, but the country's center for seismology is
the Seismological Institute of the University of
Uppsala, which has a participating station in the
Worldwide Network of Standard Seismographs at
Umea, on the calf of Bothnia. Other seismological
stations are located at Karlskrona, Skalstugan, and
Goteborg. At least since 1937 Sweden has seismically
monitored Soviet and other nuclear explosions. 'Phew
has been considerable interest in the Scandinavian
Peninsula as it seisn.ic nuclear detection site. A survey
of Scandinavian interest in the establishment of a
Large Aperture Seismic Arrav (LASA) system in
Scandinavia made in raid -1965. In 1968, 10
countries, including Sweden, the United States, and
the U.S.S.R., participated in a seismic study group
convened by the Stockholm International Institute for
Peace and Conflict Research at which seismic methods
for monitoring underground explosions were
considered. A seismological observatory, under the
direction of the FOA and located near Hagfors about
M0 kilometers Nvest of Stockholm, %%-its inaugurated in
May 1969. Its primary purpose is nuclear blast
detection, but it will serve also for the international
exchange of seismic data. The Nordic Cooperative
Committee for Detection Seismology completed it
study during 1969 for it cooperative effort by
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
Tile Swedish Geological Survey conducts scientific
geological research and does consulting work for
government agencies and private companies. it
prepared geological maps of the country in accordance
with certain standard procedures. Southern Sweden is
mapped to scales of 1:30,000 or 1:10(,,000, while
central and northern Sweden are mapped to scales of
1:200,000 to 1:400,000. Regions of special -rest
may he mapped to the scale of 1:30,000. The s:,ryt,y is
responsible for ail mineral prospecting and exploration
activities. It also engages in applied geophysics related
to geological research. In particular, it 10 -year
program for the aeromagnetic mapping of northern
Sweden is underway, and magnetic measurements
have been made over the Baltic.
Due to successes in locating large offshore reserves of
natural gas and petroleum in the North Sea, mainly by
British and U.S. consortiums, interest in offshore
exploration is increasing in the Scandinavian
countries. Sweden has announced plans for initiating
off -shore exploration for petroleum which will he
conducted by Swedish teams since no concessions are
to he made available to foreign firms.
The country stresses glacial geology, and from July
to September 1966 it S\%edi -led glaciological
expedition with participants from Sweden. Norway,
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Finland, and the Soviet Union made glaciological
studies on Svalbard in the Arctic Ocean. The studies
were an attempt to determine whether Svalbard was
connected to the Scandinavian Peninsula by ice sheets
s
during P ast glacial g P' g periods.
(4) Geodesy �The Geographical Survev Office,
Stockholm, is the countrv's principal geodetic and
mapping agency. It is responsible for geodetic,
cartographic, aerial photogrammetry, and surveying
projects, and also performs scientific investigations in
geodetic and astronomic fields relative to measure-
ments for the Swedish national network. Sweden has
produced several outstanding personalities who are
noted for research in geodesy. One of the foremost is
Dr. Evert Arne Bjerhammar of the K1IT, who has in
international reputation for his theory of gravimetry.
The modern first -order triangulation network,
begun in 1903, extends throughout the country and is
tied to the networks of Denmark, Finland, and
Norway. A lower order triangulation network was
completed in 1964. During 1965 it was planned to
continue work on the new first -order triangulation ne
in the region of Skane, Halland, and Kalmar. In
preparation for the 1965 measurements, numerous
towers were constructed in the areas of Skane and
Kalmar. Second -order triangulation and tellurometer
measurements were intended to cover the remainder of
mountains in the Lapland area for which geodetic
survey data are lacking. The Geographical Survey
Office is undertaking second -order triangulation, with
use of geodimeter and tellurometer measurements, in
five provinces, and is planning to remeasure a nortlr
south traverse through Sweden as p art of the geodetic
base line from Norway to Sicilv. The Second Leveling
began in 1951 and was completed in 1967. Results
became available for Swedish general use and official
mapping in 1970 and is referred to as the 1970
Leveling System.
In 1964 astronomic determinations with connection
to Lovo were carried out on eight points in Jantland,
Recomputation of older astropoints and the
establishment of new points along the coast of
Vasternorrland from Harnosand to Aapua have been
completed, and data processing of the previous field
season measurements has started. Stellar triangulation
experiments through satellite observation have been
carried out on Lovo.
(5) Hydrology, hydraulics, and coastal engineering
research Hydrologic and hydraulic research is
comparable to that of the most advanced Western
European countries. tctcilitie.s are adequate, and
scientists are well trained and compe Most
research is directed toward the production of
hydroelectric power, river regulation, and timber
flotation.
Hydraulic studies are performed in laboratories at
Alvkarleby, Goteborg, and two centers in Stockholm
Alvkarleby is the principal center. Most hydraulic
studies are conducted on scale models and are of an
applied nature. Studies concern the design and
remodeling of dams, with emphasis on spillways, log
chutes, log flumes, and the location of energy
dissipaters. hydrologic research is focused on the
collection of river data. Swedish hydrologists and
hydraulic engineers are active in national and
international scientific organizations and conferences.
The coastal engineering research capability has
grown through the initiative of the KHT and the
(;HT. The, coastal engineering research program
compares favorably with those of other Western
European countries in terms of skilled manpower,
adequate fends, and well e(luipped research facilities.
Research progranis by the institutes of technology
are directed toward preventing shore erosion,
engineering problems of shore structures, and met!iods
of changing meteorological conditions over coastal
and inland waters. Other projects include experimen-
tal and theoretical studies of coastal engineering,
currents, sea level variations, and sedimentation.
Many of the extensive underground civil defense
projects in Sweden require new types of coastal
engineering before they can he initi,.rted.
(6) Oceanograf)lry Oceanographic capabilities are
relatively high, ranking next to those of Denmark
among the Scandinavian countries. The research
program is of a modest extent, limited by insufficient
funds, personnel, and equipment for ocean area
investigations. Research facilities are adequate for the
coastal researc effort. In an effort to increase the
source of protein in the country's food supply, the
government h as supported the de velopment of marine
fisheries. As a result, considerable emphasis is being
given to biological oceanography. The Underwater
Acoustics Section of the Ro Sw edish Navy has
increased research on underwater sound, and a good
capability exists for the development of small- object
sonar detection. Sweden is increasing exploration of its
sea floor and is developing techniques and instruments
for these investigations. During 1971 Swedish
oceanographic research ships engaged in a program of
data collection from deep basin areas in the Baltic Sea,
fisheries investigations, and water pollution survcvs.
Development of underwater television is being
pursued.
Goteborg is the center of the oce anographic effort
and the major research facilities are located there. The
25
wrxmgana.rav,tatawex,e:rrs-:aY-,
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most important are the Oceanographic lastitute of the
University of Goteborg, the Marine Geological
Laboratory, and the Research Institute for Marine
Fisheries. The laboratory, formerly a division of the
Oceanographic Institute, concentrates on studies of
deep sea deposits, marine chemistry, paleo-
oceanography, and marine pollution. The Research
Institute for Marine Fisheries has undertaken
biological surveys in the waters around Sweden, as
well as investigations on the physiochemical
characteristics of the sea as a biological environment.
26
Sweden is active in international oceanographic
organizations and is a member of the International
Association. for the Physical Sciences of the Ocean
(IAPSO), International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea (ICES), Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission (IOC), and the Conference of Baltic
Oceanographers. It is also a member of the Nordic
Commission to provide student training in ocean-
ography and the Nordic: Commission on Marine
Biology. Sweden participates fully in arctic ice studies
with other countries which have arctic interests.
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ft
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27
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FIGURE 7. Selected sites of scientific activity (C)

SFCHE'F
Glossary (u feu)
ABBREVIATION
FoFtF.iGN
ENGLISII
AEB
Atomic Energy Board
ASEA
Allmanna Svenska Elcktriska Aktie-
Swedish General Electric Company
Malmo...............
bolagel
13 00
CTH
Chalmers lekniska hoqAkola
Chalmers Institute of Technology
170A..
Forstarets Forskningsard stall
Defense Research Institute
IVA
Ingeiijorsvet.enskapitakademien
Royal Academy of hngineering Sciences
KTI1
Kungliga lekniska hogskolan
Royal Institute of Technology
KVA
Kungliga V'flenskapsakademien.
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
NSAC
National Science Advisory Council
SIPRI
Stockholm International Peace Re-
M idsom mark ransen (see. of Stockholm).....
59 IS
search Institute
STU
Slyrelsen for leknisk ulveckling..
Board for Technical Development
28
Places and features referred to in this chapter (u/ou)
COORDINATES 11 COORDINATES
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
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0 'N.
0 PE.
o P V
a PE.
Aapua
66 51
23 32
Malmo...............
55 36
13 00
Abisko
68 20
18 51
Malmsldtt
58 25
15 30
Agesta
59 14
18 05
Mfirsta
59 37
17 51
Alvkarleby
60 34
17 27
Marviken (cove).........................
60 07
18 49
BarsebAck (estate)
55 46
12 57
M idsom mark ransen (see. of Stockholm).....
59 IS
18 00
Billingen (upland)
58 24
13 45
Oskarshamn
57 16
16 26
Bofors
63 42
16 20
RAb (frm)
57 24
11 56
Copenhagen, Denmark
55 40
12 35
Ryon (ist).
57 24
11 56
Domnarvet (sec. of Borldnqe)..............
60 30
15 27
Ringhals (point)
5 15
12 05
Enk6ping
59 38
17 04
Romelefisen (hills)
55 34
13 33
Forsmark
60 22
18 09
Saltsj6baden
59 17
IS 18
G6teborg
57 43
11 58
Simpvarp
57 25
16 40
Hagfors
030 02
13 42
Skal8tugan (farms)
63 35
12 16
Halland
63 19
13 19
Skine (region)
55 59
13 30
MirnosAnd
62 38
17 56
Skara
58 22
13 25
Kalmar
56 40
16 22
Sol na...
59 22
18 01
Karlskrona
56 111
15 35
Stockholm.................
59 20
18 03
Kiruna
67 51
20 13
Studsvik
58 46
17 23
Liding6
59 22
18 08
Sundbyberg
59 22
17 58
Link6ping
58 25
15 37
TrAlWittan
59 16
12 18
Ldvii
56 .59
16 28
Ulvsunda (sec. of Stockholm)..............
59 20
17 58
Lund
1 55 42
13 11
Umek
63 50
20 115
Lycksele
64 36
18 40
Uppsala
59 52
17 38
MAlaren (lake)
59 30
17 12 11
Viisterfis.
59 37
16 33
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SECRET
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