NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 73; HONDURAS; THE SOCIETY

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• Collection: NIS
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stantially completed by March 1973.
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Honduras
CONTENTS
This chapter supersedes the sociniogical cover-
age in the General Surce.1 dated August 1969.
A. Introduction 1
B. Structure; and characteristics of the society. 1
1. Racial composition 1
2. Language 2
3. Social structure 2
4. Values and attitudes 3
a. Race, minority group,, and foreigners 3
b. Status 3
c. Family and the role of women 3
C. Population 4
1. Size and growth 4
2. Age -sex structure and distribution 5
3. Population policy 6
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Page
D. The role of labor
7
1. Employment opportunities and main
17
occupations
7
2. Labor �rnd management organizations
7
3. Labor legislation
9
E. Living conditions and social problems
9
1. Material welfare
9
2. Government programs
12
3. Private action and foreign assistance
13
4. Social problems
13
F. Health
13
1. Environmental factors affecting health
14
2. Medical care
15
G. Religion
16
1. Roman Catholic Church
16
FIGURES
Page
Fig. 1
Page
2. Protestant denominations
17
3. Other religions
17
H. Education
17
1. Bole of education in society
17
2. Educational system
19
3. Noncurricular student activities
21
I. Artistic and cultural expression
.22
1. Painting and sculpture
22
2. Literature
23
3. Music and dance
24
J. Public information
25
1. Radio and television
26
2. Newspapers, magazines, books, and films
27
K. Selected bibliography
28
Glossary
29
FIGURES
Page
Fig. 1
Registered vital rates table)
3
Fig. 2
Age -sex structure, Honduras and the
8
Bahareque house under construction
United States (chart)
5
Fig. 3
Population data, selected countries
12
Fig.
(chart)
6
Fig. 4
Population and administrative
Fruit Company labor union photo)
divisions (map)
6
Fig. 5
Upper class home, San Pedro Sula
(photo)
10
Fig. 6
Middle class dwellings (photos)
10
Fig. 7
Substandard housing photos)
11
ii
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Page
Fig.
8
Bahareque house under construction
(photo)
12
Fig.
9
Workers' housing built by the United
Fruit Company labor union photo)
13
Fig.
10
Data on Protestant denominations
and missions (table)
18
Fig.
11
Educational system chart)
19
Fig.
12
Number of schools, students, and
teachers (table)
20
Fig.
13
Leading daily newspapers table)
27
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The Society
A. Introduction (U /OU)
Honduras is one of the poorest, most under
developed countries of the Western Ilemispbere: its
society is characterized by widespread puyert). Door
health, substandard living conditions, and ill atle till te
educational facilities. Hondurans liVe in rural
areas or small country villages and are dependent
(directly or indirectly) upon agriculture zinc forestry
fora living. Although ']lost I londur.tns cultivate small
Plots of land un it subsistence or near subsistence basis,
sortie of them work on the Unittd Fruit and Startclard
Fruit plantations in the northern part of the country.
'I'll( m prosperous raise coffee, cattle. andl other
commercial crops on individual plantation or
homesteads. Although population pressure on
available land has not become as great it problem as in
many other countries, there is it high internal
migration trend, indicating it search for grcut(
opportunity. Industry has not develop-ti sufficientlx
to provide this opportunity, resulting in a lame
number of unemployed andl unde�erttploN in the
urban areas. This is especially true in till- ease of
unskilled \corkers, who are plentiful and poorly paid.
Thery is a small landocyning upper class sl
status is partially based on fancily background, butt
this group is not as ccc.dthc' as the upper class in roost
other Latin ;krnericai. countries, nor is it as socially
exclusive. Bec�ausl- of till- homogeneous character of
Ilonduran society mostly mestizo and Ijt,In.tlt
Catholic �the class stntc�ture has developed along
cconornic rather than racial or religions lines. Fwcpt
for small ;ksian and Negro minorities, which are
considered socially ccldtal to others of similar wealth
and education, there is little discrimination against
ethnic and religious minorities. A fairly high degree of
Potential social rtc,bility exists, therefore, based on an
individual's economic advattcentent. The codtntry
narrow economic base, poor health conditions, arid
limited educational opportunities, however, prevent
all but a few from realizing this potcn;ial.
B. Structure and characteristics of the
society
'I'be homogeneous character of' soc-iety .uul the
Absence of large, unassimilated r:tinority grouj)s have
shared Ilonduras the strains and instability that
iretluently accompany poverty and a itiglt degree of
internal mobility. :\Iso favoring stability ill the
shortrun period is a high degre. of apatit\. -lost
Ilondurans see little Possibility of improving their lot
and seem instinctively to dismiss as political rhetoric
promises to the conit,.ry. The degree of apalbx.
however, also inhibits c�bange..utdl Ilonduran society
110s changed little in decades. (L'/(W)
1. Racial coolposit on (U!0U)
Racially, I londurts is it :nestizo country. Over 90(1
of the total population i of rutixcd syhite-- generally
Spanidl �anti Indian &-scent in varying degrees. The
Indian element is d!rriyed mostly from one of the
several %layan sttbgroups. I londurans tend to be short
in stature with g:-neral body types ranging from the
slender build of the Spanish to the stocky \layan
appearance. !;ontpll-xion shades range from olive to
Clark brocy, hair is mostly dark brocyn or black and
srnooti, in teMutre. In the northern part of the country.
some Negro mixture is oc�casionaily evident in the
mestizo elentetit. manifested generull\ in the coarser,
curlier texture of the hair. 'I'hc ntl-stizo majority
dominates political, economic. and social life: in 19 -15.
whin the last census ascertaining racial composition
leas taken, mestizos predominated numerically in all
but two of the 18 departments. and the mestizo
portion of the total population is increasing.
The Indians, mostly Jicacitte (\icactues) and Lenca,
c�ortstitute the second largest racial group, which totals
about i of the population. I'bcc are found
tbrougbout the country and, for the most part. I;O�e as
part of Ilonduran society. Indians predominate
rttimeric'ally in the Departnu'ttt of Intibuca, where
3 0 i, of the Indian population is located. and
Cortstitdtte a large minority of the population of the
Department of La Paz. Indian groups in the
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Department of Olancho tend to live apart front the
rest of the Honduran community, but this is believed
to be because of their owa preference and not the
result of social or economic discrimination against
them. A small group of primitive Miskito (Mosquito)
Indians lives in the northeastem lowlands along the
Caribbean coast.
Negroes make tp about 2% of the total population
and are located mostly alcag the north coast in the
banana-growing region and in the Islas de la Bahia'
(also known as the Bay Islands), where they comprise
the numerically dominant group. The majority of the
Bay Island Negroes are of British West Indian descent,
a fact which explains the presence of a number of
English names in that region.
White persons make up about I of the total
population. The largest concentration of whites, many
of foreign nationality, coincides with the location of
mining and plantation operations. About 22!i of this
small white minority are Bay Islanders of English
extras -an.
2. Language (U /OU)
Spanish is he official language throughout
Honduras. Several small Indian tribal groups,
however, spe,,k their own aboriginal tongues. In most
such _c,es, the head of the family has a working
kioowledge of Spanish. Most of the Negroes along the
north coast ared in the Islas de la Bahia, as well as some
of the whites it. those areas, speak English as their
native language. Also, most well- educated lfon-
durans, especially those in professional and technical
fields, speak English, since many of them were
educated in the United States.
:3. Social structure (r)
The class structure in londuras is based almost
entirely on econoriic factors and therefore is not
nearly as rigid as that of many other Latin American
countries. The society is basicaily rural and relatively
primitive. Most Hondurans share a heritage of
poverty, for even the upper class is much less wealthy
than its counterpart in other Central American
countries. A study in 1968 indicates the following class
structure based on family income:
PERCENT
Upper over $6,000 yearly) 1
Middle ($1,000 to $6,000 yearly) 19
Lower less than $1,000 yearly) 80
No estimate was made as to what urban and rural
percentages existed within each class.
'U.S. Government and U.N. statisticians believe this represents
an undercount of about i.:i9r. All projections are adjusted
accordingly.
The upper class is largely urban; other than a few
resident owners of large plantations, it consists r Candy
of top government and military officials. well -to -do
professionals. especially in the medical and legal
fields, and the more successful merehatits at:i
industrialists. Except for a fey very Iuxurious,
expensive homes, upper class families generally have
homes similar to those of the middle 4or upper middle
class in the United States. These families generally
have at least one full -time servant and several other
part -time employees to perform specific tasks. such as
gardening and ironing.
The middle class, also mainly urban, consists of
lower level government and military officials. white
collar workers, teachers, and professionals. In urban
areas, middle class families generally have electricity.
running water, and indoor toilet facilities in their
modest residences. Some employ a domestic servant
either fell or part time. The rural portion of the middle
class includes teachers, merchants, and farriers with
holdings large enough to raise commercial crops.
Houses of this group are ustially more substantial than
the majority of rural residences, frequently of
sandstone with tile roofs. Furniture is usually
reasonably comfortable. but the rural middle class
rarely has a piped water supply or indoor sanitary
facilities. Farriers in this class may employ additional
labor to help with the farm work, but donestic
servants are rare.
The lower class, which includes most of the
pe,pulation, is largc!y rural. Member% of this class
usually are subsistence fartners who extract it shin
existence front 3 acres or 1(- using agricultural
methods that have changed little since colonial times.
Ilouses are typically of mud and wood with thatched
roofs and are illuminated by pine torches or kerosene
lamps. Furniture ;s sparse, and mats placed on the
floor or ground serve as bet.- On the large plantations
of United Fruit and Standard Fruit companies,
workers and their families are housed in wooden,
generally two-family, buildings raised on stilts above
the flood level. Each family has its own two-room
unit, with kitchen and washing space in the rear.
Toilet and bathing facilities are separate and shared
with other families. Lower class urban dwellers are, in
one respect, more poorly housed because of the
overcrowding of urban shun areas. Many recent
arrivals from rural areas live tinder makeshift shelters
of packing crates, discarded lumber, and serap tin.
Honduran society is characterized by it fairly high
degree of geographic mobility; in some areas as many
us half of the people were horn outside the
municipality in which they reside. Most of the
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migration is from farms to urban areas by persons
searching for greater economic opportunity. Because
of limited industrial development and inadequate
educational facilities, few are able to better their
standard of living substantially.
Those who are able. to advance upward on the
economic scale find that within Honduran society
there are few social attitudes blocking vertical
mobility. Aside from the prestige derived from being at
member of one of the older, wealthier families, social
status appears to depend for the most part cm the
individual's own accomplishments, regardless of race,
membership in it minority group, or previous
economic condition.
4. Values and attitudes
a. Race, minority groups, and foreigners (C)
Racial characteristics count for relatively little in
determining the individual's position in Honduran
society. There are no institutional or social restraints
which prohibit members of minority groups from
participating in all branches and levels of government,
and all enjoy the same public accommodations.
White persons do not appear to enjoy any special
position because of their race. Niany whites are found
in the upper social and economic strata, but they have
not controlled political life since the early 19th
century.
Although Negroes have generally been represented
in government far out of proportion to their actual
numbers, there seems to be subtle discrimination
against them. *Most Negroes belong to the servant or
common laborer class. A few are taxi drivers or
mechanics, but hardly any are merchants or white
collar workers. Despite the� generally logy economic
position of the Negro, the literacy rate, according to
the 1961 census, in the predominantly Negro Bay
Islands was the highest of any department in
Honduras (93%), while the average for the entire
country was only 4 7 4.3% Negroes along the north coast
also place a high value on education.
There is some evidence of discrimination against the
small Levantine (primarily Lebanese and Palestinians
known locally as Turcos) and Chinese minorities.
They constitute it very small fraction of 1% of the
do Pulation, but are generally prominent in the
business community. They are rarely offered (nor do
they seek) government employment and are only
slowly being recognized socially to it degree
commensurate with their economic status. Resentment
against them is related to their rapid economic success
and their tendency toward clannishness. Other
Ilondurans also fear that their strong financial
position ns.ty give them political power which
Honduran; would rather retain for "Hondurans,"
notwithsca.Ading the fact that matte Turcos are
second generation Hondurans.
Divisions anong Ilondurans, even though siight,
arc more cultural than racial. Mainland Ilondurans
generally think of the predominantly Protestant,
English- speaking Bay Islanders as it group apart from
other Hondurans. Bay [slanders consider themselves
somewhat superior to the yards' (as nainlan(I
Hondurans are called by Bay [slanders), at least
insofar as education is concerned.
The only other foreign group against which some
discrimination is practiced consists of immigrants from
EI Salvador. Hondurans believ. that Salvadoran
i tit migr.tits are more highly skilled in their respective
trades and more ambitious than the Hondurans
among whom they settle. Consequently, Salvadoran
immigrants engender a degree of resentment which
exceeds the true economic siv.nificance of their
presence. In 1969 Hondurans roused to renew the
bilateral migration agreement between EI Salvador
and Honduras, and in July of that year the two
countries briefly went to war over alleged mistreat-
ment of one another's nationals. Relations ha.� not
yet been restored. Although the Agrarian Reform La
restricts the distribution of government land to native
born Hondurans, and it provision of the Labor Code
limits the percentage of non- Honduran employed in
any given firm, these provisions are applied no more
strictly to Salvadorans than to any other foreigners.
b. Status (U /OU)
As in most Latin American countries, several factors
either lend or indicate social status. A person stay
acquire social status through the ansount and type of
education he has: professional degrees, such as those in
law and medicine, are preferred. Urban residence is
more desirable than rural, but land ownership lends
status wheth: r the person lives on the land or is an
absentee landlord. The kind of work it person does and
the way he dresses also are indicators of social status:
Most middle and tipper class Hondurans, therefore,
avoid manual labor and tend to dress more formally.
e. Family and the role of wornen (U/OU)
In Honduras, the nuclear and the extended family
traditionally have been the basic units of the social
structure. Although the habitual cohesiveness of the
wider kin group has lessened over the past three
decades, family ties in Honduras remain stronger than
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in the United States. Kin group identification
generally extends to aunts, uncles, and second or third
cousins, and involves a loyalty That transcends the
abstract notion of civic responsibility. 'I'll(- result is
that it high degree of nepotism is tacitly_ accepted in
public life.
Paralleling the kinship structure based on blood is
the contpadrazgo, or godparent system which is
derived from the bonds formed betycen godparents
(padrinos) and godchildren (ahijados) at baptisn.
Although in some circles compadraz o has becone
more ceremonial than functional, large numbers of
Hondurans still consider it important. 'I'll(- godparents
assume it protective responsibility for the go,lehild.
Nell -to -do Hondurans of high standing in the
community are frequently preferred as godparents in
the hope that their weaith awd prestige will be
advantageous to the child. A leading citizen of a
community may in time Sponsor dozens of children in
baptism.
Although legal marriage requires it civil ceremony,
which may be followed by it religious ceremony if the
couple chooses, it is only aniong the upper and middle
classes that legal marriage is the Horn. In the lower
class, consensual rations are more prevalent than
formal matrimony. ivlany of these common la%y
marriages are its lasting and stable its legal ones and
entail the same level of responsibility on the part of the
husband. Others, however, are of short duration.
Officially, the government recognizes consensual
unions as valid if both parties are legally free to marry.
Because of the prevalence of common law unions,
ill igitiniacy �about 605i of all births �does not carry
the stigma that it does in more developed,
industrialized countries. The widespread occurrence of
consensual unions, furthermore, causes Honduras to
have one of the lowest rates for legal marriage in Latin
`,merica. There are normally three to four legal
marriages per 1,000 persons age 1.1 and over �about
one -third the usual rate for theTiflted States.
Divorce is legal in Honduras, but the divorce rate
0.15 per 1,000 persons in 1966 �is insignificant. Social
and religious pressures against it are very strong, and
at least among the tipper class, marriages are almost
never dissolved, although separation sometimes
occurs.
Honduran families, like those elsewhere in Latin
America, are generally dominated by the husband.
The double standard I exists; men generally feel nu
obligation to remain faithful to their wives, arn.l those
who can afford it frequently keep one or more
i:istresses. The wife, on the other hand, is not only
expected to remain faithfu'l and subservient but to
ac�eept the situation without complaint. In upper class
households the wife usually Icads a sheltered life of
leisure. WiddIe class women frexluently continue
employnu�nl outside the home after marriage, and for
lower class worsen cniploynu�nt is nearly always an
economic necessity, as they nav he the only steadily
employed wage e;.tnur in the family.
Women have political, civil, and woperty rights
equal to those of men. Women were permitted to vote
for the first lime in 1977: at that time only one third as
many wonen voted as diet nten. The number of
wonen who registered for the 1965 election, however,
increased to approximately 9Wi of the number of Hies
registered. Three percent of the country's doctors and
13 ii of its university professors :ire women. In
governncnt entploynu�nt there is no discrimination
against wotnen with good education or technical
training, and most government clerical jobs :ire held
by women. 'I'll(- proportion of wuniert adequately
prepared for positions of responsibility, however, is
!o%y. To speak exclusively of Icgal equality for women
leaves a distorted picture of Ilonduran societ. There
is it high proportion of uunmrried women with
illegitimate children; they usually receive no financial
or moral assistance from the fathers of their childre�e.
'This unequal distribution of responsibility within the
society has resulted in the development within the
lower classes of strong family ties centered almost
e xclusiyely on the neither.
C. Population (U /OU)
1. Size and growth
:lccording to the most recent census for Ilondurts.
taken in April 1961, the total population was
1,88.1,765." A projection based on this figure estimates
the� total population as of I January 19 1.3 to he
2 ,81 3,000.
llondtiras population grew at the rate of
approximately 3. -1`i per year during the 1965 -70
period� a rate of growth higher than that in any .ether
Central American country, except Costa Rica.
lvlorc�oycr, projections of trends in !irths, deaths, and
migration indicate that the growth rate will increase,
rising to 3.5 per year in the 197.5 -80 period before
leveling off and subsequently declining somewhat in
1985 -90. The Latin American Center of Demography
has projcctrd it population of about :3 million by 1975�
3.7 million by 1980, 4.4 million by 1955, and 5.2
million by 1990. Population growth in Ilonduras is
Tor clinc�ritics on place names see the list of Hann�% at tilt encl of
t1w chapter.
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I
primarily a result of the excess of births over dcalbs.
Births and deaths hare� been registered ill Ilondimis
since� 1926, but the n�porling of thew events has he-eu
deficient. Whilc there has been continuing
inlprorenu�nt in the registration process, the system
still suffers from incompleteness of reporting and from
a practice that permits births and deaths in one scar to
be ree�ordcd ill any setbseeluent year.
The reported birth rate increased from :39.9 per
1.000 in 1950 to �1.1.0 per 1,000 in 1967. while the
reported death rate decreased from 1 1.8 per 1,001) to
8A per 1,000 during the same period. A significant
decrease in the infant mortality rate is indicated by the
reported statistics. In 1950. infant deaths during the
first year of life per 1.11011 lire births amo mated to 55.(5.
By 1967 the infant mortality rate had decreased to
55.5 per 1,000. Since the Honduran Government has
not been able to enforce- the rceli iretnent that all births
and deaths be reported pntmtptl%, especially in rural
areas, it is possible that the Into figure is still Sonte%%hilt
higher. higure I gives this information in tabular form.
The Ilonduran Government eSHIllittes life e\pectunc\
for persons born in 1960 to be 52.6 %cars for males and
55.6 years for females.
2. Age -sex structure and distribution
The Population is one of the yountest in the Ayorld.
In 1970 an estimated 20"1 of the population %vas
below the age of 5 years. and 16.5 was behm 15
years of age; the median age I6A. l igur� 2 shoes
the estimated age -sex distribution in 1970 compared to
FIGURE 1. Registered vital rates (U /OU)
(Rate per 1,000 population)
I %VA
]ATI'It AI. NI0IrI'. \I.1 "1'1
%It when IWATII Is! If EAse: It. %I't:
1926
33. 1
16. 1
17.11
101.2
1930 31..........
33.5
11.!1
11.15
!II.s
1935 3!1,
33.:5
Ili, l
19. 1
9
1!`111 II.......
36.7
17.3
19. 1
Ill 5
191:5 1!1..
31.:5
11.3
21.2
92.1
1!1.511 .11...
I 111,1
I1.6
2!1.2
155.7
1955 .5!I..........
12. 1
111.5
31 Al
37. 1
1960.......
II. 1
!1.7
:31.7
52.11
1961
I1.!1
9, 1
33.5
111,11
1962
16.7
11.5
37.2
113.6
1963
15.!1
!1.6
36.3
17.11
1961
17.7
!1.7
31.11
I5.1
1965
13.1
9,11
315.1
11.2
IIpi6
11. 1
!I, 1
35 .3
:37.1
1967
11.0
1.1
35.6
35.5
*Deaths of persons under age I per 1,000 live- births
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
PERCENT
All.
70
and
65 -69
60-64
55. -59
50-54
45 -49
40-44
75 -)9
70-34
2S -29
70.74
15 -19
10-14
5 -9
o-4
FIGURE 2. Age -sex structure, Honduras and the United
States, 1970 (U/ 0U)
that of the l oiled ~kites. 'I'll(- \eorking age population
(usn�IIly defined as 15 cow4ituted 511.8 of the
total, ii nl those over 65 ahmit 2. V,. Thus lbere \yere
970 persons in the dependent ages for ecru 1.11011 of
syorkint; :ego. A dependency ratio hosed on age groups
:done. ho\%c\er, serinusl\ understates the degree of
clependenc\ ill I londnrts. With a i;thor force of shoot
91111.111111 in July 1972 rnughl\ of the tog ;11
population -it is apparent that eery umplo\ed
person is supporting an average of tsso others.
f nrthermore, some 4 those employed are not heads of
households but youngsters. some under 15. echo are
%%orking to supplement the Tamil% income. This
situation i, uhonl average for roost of Cciitml America.
The population has mainl;tined a Liirly even
distribution bet\%ven the sues: in 15150 for instance,
there \%ere 100.5 males per 100 letnales, and in 1961
there m-re 911.:5 stales per 100 lvmJcs. The estiretated
distribution in 1970 ryas 11111 males per 11111 fena!es.
londimis has an overall average clensit\ of romjd\
15:5.9 persons per mpmre mile. slightly higher than the
I "thee States, flnl AWIlt half that of Ghiltentala and
one secnth that of 1�:I Sakmlor I`igure :3). More than
(illti of ;he land area. bo\%eycr, is ill( mll tai Ill Ills.
wdtwing the polential to support additional
popmlalion. f igure 1 shet%%s the density per,ctrl ;are stile
by department acc-ording to the 1961 census. The most
densely populated departments are I. :ortes ()it the
north coast and Valle in the south. The most sparsel\
populated department is (:racial ;t Dios in the eastern
part of the country.
The Government of Ilondunts defines an urlmn
area as one haying a popttlalion of 1.000 or more
persons and the following servic-es: 1 a complete
5
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HONDURAS
I
(UNITED
STATES
MALES
fEMAIES
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
PERCENT
All.
70
and
65 -69
60-64
55. -59
50-54
45 -49
40-44
75 -)9
70-34
2S -29
70.74
15 -19
10-14
5 -9
o-4
FIGURE 2. Age -sex structure, Honduras and the United
States, 1970 (U/ 0U)
that of the l oiled ~kites. 'I'll(- \eorking age population
(usn�IIly defined as 15 cow4ituted 511.8 of the
total, ii nl those over 65 ahmit 2. V,. Thus lbere \yere
970 persons in the dependent ages for ecru 1.11011 of
syorkint; :ego. A dependency ratio hosed on age groups
:done. ho\%c\er, serinusl\ understates the degree of
clependenc\ ill I londnrts. With a i;thor force of shoot
91111.111111 in July 1972 rnughl\ of the tog ;11
population -it is apparent that eery umplo\ed
person is supporting an average of tsso others.
f nrthermore, some 4 those employed are not heads of
households but youngsters. some under 15. echo are
%%orking to supplement the Tamil% income. This
situation i, uhonl average for roost of Cciitml America.
The population has mainl;tined a Liirly even
distribution bet\%ven the sues: in 15150 for instance,
there \%ere 100.5 males per 100 letnales, and in 1961
there m-re 911.:5 stales per 100 lvmJcs. The estiretated
distribution in 1970 ryas 11111 males per 11111 fena!es.
londimis has an overall average clensit\ of romjd\
15:5.9 persons per mpmre mile. slightly higher than the
I "thee States, flnl AWIlt half that of Ghiltentala and
one secnth that of 1�:I Sakmlor I`igure :3). More than
(illti of ;he land area. bo\%eycr, is ill( mll tai Ill Ills.
wdtwing the polential to support additional
popmlalion. f igure 1 shet%%s the density per,ctrl ;are stile
by department acc-ording to the 1961 census. The most
densely populated departments are I. :ortes ()it the
north coast and Valle in the south. The most sparsel\
populated department is (:racial ;t Dios in the eastern
part of the country.
The Government of Ilondunts defines an urlmn
area as one haying a popttlalion of 1.000 or more
persons and the following servic-es: 1 a complete
5
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POPULATION
(in millions)
8
Cuba
.8
(1.6)
Guatemala
5,6
(2.8)
3
El Salvador
(3.4)
2.8
HONDURAS
(3.4)
2.0
Nicaragua
(2.8)
1 8
Costa Rica
(2.8)
1.5
Panama
(3.1)
Annual
Growth Rate
M
POPULATION
DENSITY
(per square mile)
198
133
443
64
35
93
52
FIGURE 3. Population data, selected countries,
1972 (U /OU)
primary school of six grades. 2) postal, telephone, or
telegraph service, i) r(,gular bus, railroad, airline, or
maaritinu� transportation service, -1) public %%ater
supply. and 5) electric power. Oil this basis the 19(il
census listed 3.2Si of the population as (trb:un and
T6.So7 as rural. The I%% major urlwn areas,
Tegucigalpa (tile capital and its envir(nas. with
256,000 inhabitants), 111(1 San Pedro Sala (%%-ith
0
501785 573
0
FIGURE 4. Population and administrative divisions (U /OU)
6
1 16,000), are growing at over the mitioual rate,
indicating rural to urban migration its well as
nulw�nient front smaller towns to the t%%-o major cities.
;chervil the kvo census years of 1950 and 1961 the
total population i ic�reased by :37.6 1. During those
same years the population oI 'I'egwigalpa increased
by 55.2'i and that of San Pedro Sala iltcreased b%
I1 Between 1961 111(1 1971. they increased bV
86.5'i and 0 wspvc(ively. The urban population is
expec led to reach 13. 1 i by 1955.
3. Population policy
With support (ruin the U.S. AgVIIL-V fur Interna-
tional I)eelupnunt (AID), the Honduran Govcrn-
tnent has supported a fatnil planning program since
November 1965. At that lithe, fatni1v planning
services \vere inaugurated in the maternal and child
care program operated by the Ministry of Public
Health and Social Assistance. Support for family
planning activities has also conic frtnn a private, local
entity �the IIondit r it :Association of I antilN
Planning� Which is ;affiliated ith the International
Planned I'arrnthoud Fvdvration. Other assistance has
been provided b% the Population (:ouicil. the
Pathfinder I`and, and CAM.
Ina reorganization of the Ministry of Public I Health
and Social Assistance in 1969, a special section Naas
created to protrote fatnik- planning ntzaternal and
child health. and nutrition. In 19i2. some 6 family
planning clinics \vere in operation, throughout the
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1
country, staffed with trained physicians, nurses, social
workers. health educators, and paramedical personnel.
Despite an extensive campaign of indoctrination
involving talks before civic groups, professional
associations, and labor unions, and lectures to mothers
in m aternity clinics, the family planning program has
been hampered in its operations by a general lack of
popular enthusi_rstn for or understanding of its
Objectives. `loreover. the Roman Catholic Church in
llonduras is categorically opposed to the program.
Until such time as the government is willing or able to
generate more popular interest and support for it, the
program seems destined to be of only marginal value
in curbing population growth.
D. The role of labor
1. Employment opportunities and main occupa-
tions (U /OU)
job opportunities for the Honduran worker �as well
as his chances for advancement �are restricted by the
small dimensions of the national ec()nom.y and by
limited opp ortunities for acquiring skills. The labor
force is heavily engaged in agriculture, predominantly
male, relatively young, largely unskilled, barely
literate it at all, an(1 subject t() a high degree ()f
unernpl()yme', t and underemployment.
The rural, agricultural nature of the society is
reflected ill the work force, about two thirds of yhich
is engaged in agriculture. While this may represent it
few percentage points less dependence on ;agriculture
than reflected in the 1961 census, the proportion of
Honduran workers employed in agriculture is still
larger than that of any other coutry in Latin America
other thv;n Haiti. A majority of these workers are
subsistence farmers who cultivate small parcels of land
which they either rent or occupy illegally. The soil is
generally poor front overuse and lack ()f fertilization,
and the methods of cultivation are primitive. The
yield is, therefore, hardly enough in either quantity or
quality to sustain, the family. Many other rural
laborers are migrant workers. Excep; for the planting
and harvesting seasons, large numbers from both
groups are idle and ,,i v-ate to urban areas, swelling
the ranks of the :urban unemployed. Some stay ill the
towns and cities hoping for it better opportunity, but
being barely literate, if at all, their chances arc very
limited.
The small inclustrial base is inadequate to absorb
and train large numbers of unskilled; there is,
however, a shortage of skilled workers, and almost
anyone who knows it trade can find employment.
Vocational training ill Ilonduras is of recent origin
0nd is largely confined to the secondary sch()ol level.
Tlwv arc a few small apprenticeship programs being
run uy the Ministry of Labor and Social Security. but
they can accommodate only about 1,000 trainees. The
best that many of the unskilled can expect is it hand
to -mouth existence in it service job. Women i general
have� less education than men; according to the 1961
census over half of the females in the labor force were
employed in service jobs, generally as domestic
servants.
Of the approximately 90(1,000 Ilondurans in the
labor market, some Hsi of them are unable to find
work. While statistics on underemplovinent are
ina(lequ.rte, it is cstinated that 2Wi to 50(/'(' (if the
workers are either not working up to capacity or are
seasonally unemployed.
The young age ()f the Honduran labor force is
striking; in 1961, the census reported that 5 of the
ec()n ()nically active were belim the age of 30, and
i 3rc were below 10. Purthernr(re. one -fifth of the
p()pulati ()t in the 10 -1.1 age group were econornically
active, illustrating not the limited opportunities
for schooling but the general poverty of the country.
Youngsters in many families, especially in rural areas.
are forced to work because ()f economic necessity.
daily persons past the age of 65 are compeNcd to
continue wy )rking for the same reason.
The labor f orce like the population as a is
predominantly mestizo. Although the few small
minority groups are not confirre(I to it certain range of
econ()nric activity, some occupations do prec:ominate.
For instance, Indian communities are engaged
primarily in agriculture. Many Negroes are domestic
servants or plantation workers. Persons of purely
European descent are usually employed in a
management capacity in mining or plantation
oper;:,mis. L('yatltine' and Chinese ninorities are
usually found in conunerce and are often prominent
in the business community.
2. Labor and management organizations (C)
Although only i rC t() W0 ()f the approximately
900.000 -roan labor force is organised. the unions have
done more for the Flondurn worker than all other
forces government, svrnpathetic political parties, or
the church combined. The Honduran labor
movement is. recognized throughout the hemisphere
for its strength, independence, cohesiveness, till(]
community leadership. Practically nonexistent prior to
1954. the labor rrt()venumt grew out of it prolonged
strike by uruorganized workers against the U.S. ()sync(]
IN
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banana conpanies. Banana workers are still the
backbone of the Ilonduran movement, accounting for
about one third of the regular union membersbip (i.e..
excluding teacher and cavipesino associations). There
are approximately 80 unions affiliated %\ith ciller the
one large confederation, the Confederation of
Ilondurim Workers (CTIH, or the ver' small Social
Christian General Workers' Central (CGT), plus a
handful of independent unions. In addition, some
X0,000 small farmers belong to the. National
Association of Iloncluran Campesinos (ANACII). an
affiliate of the CTII, and approximately 1 -1,000
teachers belong to one of four associations called
cole/;ios.
The CTII is composed of twit federations with it
combined membership of abort '36.000 and the
X0,000 -nu mhcr rN ;x(:11. "The larger of the federations
is the National Workers 'trade Union Federation of
Ilonduras (FESITIlANII) with about 2 ,000 numbers
in its 3. affiliated unions. FESITRAN 11. based in San
Pedro Sula, includes the two large banana c�ompan\
unions, the 10,000- nuuber Tela fiailroael Company
Workers Union (SITHATEIICO), which is the United
Fruit Company union, and the �1,500 number United
Union of Standard Fruit Company Workers
(SU'I'11AWC.0). Led by the call and sagacious Oscar
Gale, SITUTATERCO pioneered in bettering the lives
of its numbers and improving the surrounding
Conmnity by concentnting more on fringe benefits
than on w.gcs and by moving into Such activities its
Savings and Ioau associations, constmer cooperatives,
nutrition, and family planning. SUT11ASFCO was
formed in the early 1960's by uniting three separate
unions after it stormy histon of factional and
company -union strife, including periods of Com-
munist control. Other strong Fh: THAN 1 I unions are
the El Mochiho" Mine Workers' Union (SOEIM)
with over 1,000 wetnhers and the National Railroad
Workers' Union (SITI3AFENAI.I with about -100
members. FESITRANII*s former president is
Ilonduras' other truly outstanding labor leader, the
eloquent, mercurial, and painstakingly hottest Celco
Gonzalez, who preceded Oscar Gale as president of
SITRATERCO. Gonzalez is now one of the Liberal
Party deputies to the National Congress.
The smaller (:'I'll federation is the Tegucigalpa-
based Central Federation of Unions of I rte Workers of
Ilonduras (FECESITHII), whose i4 unions total
about 9,000 members. Formed in the late 1950's,
FECL'SITLII I was Communist -led until 1965 when it
changed leadership and joined FESITIlANII in
forming the CTII. FECUNT1,111's three strongest
unions have no more tha 500 to 800 numbers each:
S
one of these unions, the Beverage Industry Workers, is
still Communist -led its are it fey of the snulle�r unions.
Tlw Social Christian, CL.-k'I'- affiliated CGT is
composed of the Authentic "Trade Union Feden:tion of
Ilondura:, (FASII), the Southent Trade Union
Federation (FF.SISUII� formerly part of FAS11), and
the National Campesino Union (UN(:). The CGT has
about I I or 12 unions with somewhat less than 2.000
members and about 5,000 ncnbers in the UNC.
Independent unions account for about 1.600
members, the largest of which is the 500 ntember
::cntral Bank Workers' Union.
'I'eac�hers are required by lim to belong to at Icast
one of the four coh�ios, the larg(st of which is the
Ilonduran Professional :lissoc�iat;on for 'Teaching
1�:xccllence (COI.PROSUMAII) with about 0.(10(1
members. The predominant influences within
COLNIOSI'NIMI are Social Christian. Conununit,
and Liberal Party. Its rival organization, the first
Honduran Professional Teachers* Association
(PRICPI1M..X) with perhaps 1,000 members is largely
dominated by the National Party and is fregnentk
accused of being goyerunent donincted or ey(�r
setbsidizcd. Third in size is the Ilonduran Professional
Association of Secondary Education (COI)EM11): an
organization for licensed secondary teachers only, it
has it limited and select potential mcnbership.
currently totaling about 2,000. The smallest group is
the Teachers Union with 500 members. Its numbers.
however. tend to he older and more (list inguished and
include a large proportion of school directors. In
addition to the coh-ios. the I londnran :lssoc�iatiou of
Workers in Secondary F.dttcation :111 TEN I is
available to secondary school teachers who do not
have degrees in education but may have degrees in
other subjects. All of the coh-ios give lip service to
unifying the diverse groups, it popular idea with most
leachers since it would increase their bargaining power
with the goyenument, but rivalries are fierce. especially
between the two largest organizations. Many Ica(lers
believe the goyenument is using the **div idC and
conquer" technique. With it fe\y strikes and many
threats of strikes the coh-ios have. nevertheless,
obtained salary increases and it partial pension plan.
'the labor moyenu�nt, espec�iall\ that portion
affili with the (:'1'11, is one of the most promising
forces ill the country. In a decade it has gained
maturity as well as political muscle. and its leadership
probable includes some of the most honest.
conscientious then in Ilonduras. The C'Hl affiliates.
\yhich have received c�orsidertl)IC aSSislanc�e and
training from the :knu�rican Institute� of Free Labor
I)evelopment (;V FI.I)), an ;1F1. CIO subsidiary. have
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r
shown skill and responsibility in their collective
bargaining. Thc�n� are over 511 collcctiye bat ;gaining
contracts in effect c�ovcring some -12,500 workers. Most
of these were negotiated by C "I'll organizations. In
19i I the C TI I joined businessmen in (-osl)onsoring the
"natiotal unih past coalition explained if] more
detail tinder Government and Politics in cut effort to
preserve it constihttional fora of government.
Nlan11gcnu�nt associations are not nunu�rous, but
have consider,(bfc weight. T[Iv most important
cmplo%vr and business organizations are the
IIonduran Council of Private Enterprise (C011EI').
the Chambers of Commerce, the National ;\Ss()l:atioll
of Industrialists (,M)H, and the National Federation
of Farnu�rs and Calticmmn of Ionduras I I.
Both CMII'T and ANDI represent more enlighten
nu�nt in auuutg`:: �t attenpts to deal with labor.
'O l 1 E1) has been especially active in initiating
meetings with labor and government and in
responding to initiatives of the other two. These
nu�etings have helped tnctintain it generally cordial
relationship bctwee n labor and nanagenent.
:3. Labor legislation (L1 /OLJ)
For all practical purposes. modern labor legislation
began daring the Juan'Ntarnuel Galyez adntinistr.ttinn
19- 19 -5 -1). 'The laws were updated an(I augnente(I in
19.39 and consolidated into the present lai)or code,
'I'be code specifics an 8 -hour clay (4-1 hours p,�r week).
6 hours for if night shift (3(i floors per week), and
hours for it nixed clay and night shift 0 boors per
week). E xenptel from tit(' nrnximun hours provision
are I workers who bold administrative or
nanagetnent positions or positions of trust; 2)
domestic servants; :3) workers who perform discon-
tinuous or intermittent activities, such as barbet:
hotel workers� and private chauffeurs: -1) the sel'-
employvd or those in agriculture, and others whose
work cannot be limited to if specific workday: and 5)
workers paid on a cunurtissiot basis. 'I'hc code specifies
differentials to be paid for overtime and for Snn(lay
and holiday work, liegular and overtime hours are not
to exceed 12 per diiy: overtime. at Icast in industry, is
not extensive. I'aid sick leave and vacations, the length
of which depends on years of service, as \%(�II as holiday
and in tternity leave arc also stipulated. I lc�altb an(I
safety regulations provide for medical, hygienic, and
sanitary facilities and protection against gases, stooks,
and dangerous parts of rnac�hines, but are applicable
primarily to workers in large establishncnts. 'I'b(� labor
co(Ic also establishes more stringent standards of
working conditions for women and minors than apple
to adult nudes.
On the whole, the Labor Code is not adntiniste�c(1
or enforced effectively. Thc� Ministry of Labor a
Social Security lacks bulb Ilse funds and manpower to
do an a(b�(luate job. Ful'orc�ernenl is confinal largely
to the 'Tegucigalpa and San I'alro Tula areas and even
in tbuse areas to larger business establishnu�uls
(especially those which are foreign owned) 1111( to
cstablisbnents whose employees are organized. Sone
provisions of the rude, such as those relating to
separation p:ty, are rather strictly enforced, while
others, such as those dealing with nininun wages,
have not even been inpletnented, although the
enabling legislation was passed irn Jctnc 197 1. Penalties
fur sou()� kinds of violation are too small to be effcc�tiyc
deterrents.
The provisions applicable to trade union activities
are somewhat restrictive in tltctt the co(le imposes
considerable red tape �uul delays to limit the right to
strike, outlaws union security clauses, and provides
only lirtiled protcc�ti( against reprisals fororgani�r.ing
activity. Otherwise it sloes per tit it free and
independent unionism.
E. Living conditions and social problems
I. Material welfare (U /OU)
Ilnndnras is freyuentl\ referral to as the� "pour
br() tber' of :(�ntrtl :1nu�rica. TIIv ifmiorit y of
Ilondurans live in extreme poycrfy: Li 197 1 the per
capita CI)I' was ()illy 8260 �the lowest in Central
Anu�rica and far below the Latin American average of
55:30. Most f lon(Iurans are ill fat, ill clad. and ill
house(1: cyen worse, Most have little hope of raising
their standard of living bccattse they are citIf er
illiterate or inadc(luatel educated and because the
tindco of lbe country provides little
opportunity for economic ady:ac�enu�nt. 'These
con(litions are particttl,trly ac�cnle in the rural area.
where most people live at little more than it
scbsistence level.
"There� have been few studies to indicate bow
Ilondurans spen their nu�ager incomes. but those
that are available show foo(I as the� major item in the
budg( t. averaging over 1011 of the fatnil\' inc�one.
"Thos(� who have noney to spend on clothing.
furniture, appliances, and other durables find these
items in lirnitc�d supple in Ilondurts, and the wealthy
travel to the United States for shopping. Inflation has
not been the� problcn in Honduras as in some other
Latin ;Ittncric�an countries: the average annual increase
in prices was about ?S(' for the years 1960 (i9. The
majority of the p
rural poulation is largely outside the
9
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i
'rte
nt
Dwelling built of stone and wood, Tegucigalpa. Windows have shutters
rather than glass panes.
FIGURE 5. Upper class home, San Pedro
Sula (U'OU)
FIGURE 6. Middle class dwellings (C)
nano y economy, however, and ekes oot an existence
on it small plea of land, using primitive methods of
cultivation. These families raise only it few items.
%%hick provide their with an inadequate. monotonous
diet and little, if anything. left over for the coninrercinl
market.
Oil(- of the nurst acute prohlctns the country faces is
o%ercrowded and unsanitary housing. it major cause of
poor health. The Ilonduran Government defines as
substandard those dwellings that have no piped -in
wMer or those that are located more than 00 ureters
from a ptiNic water tap; those kith no anitary
facilities (ill rural areas some types of latrines are
considered acceptable): (kellings of oil% one acorn:
dwellings xyith earth floors. or those coustr l.-Wd %%ith
scrip materials. On this basis --and including those
s%hich %ycre structurally inadequate because of age
almo O 100.1100 coyer 60 of the total) housing units
\%ere considered substandard in 1970. Further
\%ith the population gro\yth outstrippingconstrructiou.
it is cstiruated that the housing deficit \\ill rciich
-166.000 by 1950. To eliminate this deficit ill 20 wars
an aycnige of oyes� 3- 1.000 unite per year \yould have to
be constructed, or almost six times the yearly average
since 1961. 'There is. therefore. little hope for
irn pro yenrent for the nrajorih of inadeq( tit tel\ housed
Ioildrurrns.
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Dwelling of modern design, Tegucigalpa

Ruroi home near the Guatemalan� Honduran borde�. Cane stalks or
poles are tied together with rope or awhide to form the walls.
Rural residence built of wood, near San Pedro Sula. Sheetmetal roofs
predominate in this area of Honduras.
FIGURE 7. Substandard housing (C)
Urban residents are better housed than the rural
population. Most of the relatively luxurious upper
class dwellings are in urban areas (Figiire 5). these.
however, its well as most reasonably comfortable hilt
modest middle class structures (Figure ti). constitute ;I
small portion of the housing Itnits. urban
dwellings arc essentially shacks made of every
available scrap material Figure The\ provide only
it rninillmin of shelter and are often built ou 1.111(1 to
Which the occupants have only stluatte rights. thus
causing legal as well as welfare problems. Certain
areas of urban centers have become notorious for their
appalling aunt collditiow, and are breeding ,ro(gnds
for disease and cringe. Somv of the urban poor have
slightly more substantial houses of either \%ood frimw
or adobe, 1)11t ghost of thew are substandard be(ause (if'
the lack of sanitary facilities and water.
"Typical rural houses are made of readily available
materials such as corn or cane staiks. mud, and thatch;
these houses are generall\ built by the f with the
help of relatives and friends. The Willis are frecluenti\
(�anc stalks or poles lashed together with rawhide or
rope: floors are of packed earth, and roofs are of
thatch. ;mother popular type of wall construction is
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Makeshift slum dwelling, Tegucigalpa
Z.
Housinrt for banana plantation workers, La Lima, Cortes D_
Shea in front is for laundry and cooking.

bahareque, formed by it double row of poles or stalks
and plastered with it mixture of nntd and chopped
straw (Figury 8). Although less durable than adobe,
bahareque does protect fairly well against the
elements. Thatch or baki tilt. is used for roofing
material. In the north coast area and in the Bay
Islands wood -frame structures with sht.et metal roofs
are seen frequently.
2. Government programs (C)
Government action to improve the lot of the�
impoverished majority of Ilondurans juts been
ntiniural. The general underdcyelopme. of the
country places st.vc.re financial li;nitations on wolf, re
programm, as do it scarcity of technically trained
personnel and the lack of it cadre of career civil
servants. Nevertheless, other countries with tht. same
handicaps have nnuaged to outperform Honduras.
The real clement lacking in Honduras is not knov.-
how but the will. Ilondrtran politicians with fcw
exceptions look on public office as an opportunity to
line their own pockets rather than as one of service to
their country and fellow Hondurans. Graft and
corruption are so prevalent, and appointment so
dependent on whom true knows rather than:
training and competence, that sizable portions of tit.
funds appropriated for welfare programs find their
way into personal bank accotutts or are diluted by
inefficiency and incompetence.
A limited social security program is administered by
the Ilonduran Institute of Social Security (IIiSS)
under th( general supervision of the Minister of Labor
and Social Security. Except for special pension systems
12
covering communications workers, schoolteachers,
:uvl public employees, the social insurance programs
are limited to those providing sickness and maternity
benefits or work injure compensation. There is no
general old ::ge or invalidity program, no imemploy-
ment insurance, and no fanily allowance systern.
.Moreover, the sickness and nuternity and the work
injure programs are restricted in coverage. Both apply
only to entployct.s in gcrvernmvnt and to employees of
industrial and commercial firsts with five or more
workers, and both exclude agricultural, domestic. and
temporary workers. Furthermore, early ill 1971 lie
programs were in effect only in lie 'Tegucigalpa�Co-
nut, gut.la area and in San Pedro Sala, although plans
called for the gradual extension of the programs to
other areas. The number of workers covered by these
programs, boweyt.r. has risen from 23.000 in 196:_1 to
*38,000 in 1969. Despite this increase, the Innited
coverage of the t\yo programs is obvions in that those
covered in 1969 represented no more than SSr of the
total labor force.
In order to improve housing for I �.y income
families, :h(- National Ilottsing Institute (IN\') was
created in 1957. Because of frequent changes of
directors ant! poor administration. its record of
accomplishment has been poor. It managed to
co�tstnrct an average of about 50 or 60 houses it year
during its first 6 years of existence; thc yearly average
since 196.3 has hcen about 250 units, even though the
National Plan for Economic and Social Development
(1965 -69) called for 1,000 or more units per year. The
activities of the INA' have been confines( to urban
areas, \%ith rural construction, of which there has been
very little, largely. left to the National Agrarian
Institute (1NA).
The INA. created i 1962, is responsible for clearing
land, conducting land surveys to establish titles,
resettling rural families on land of their own,
providing technical assistance to these families.
building access roads, and constructing rural houses
similar to those built by INV in the urban areas. Like
the IN\', it has been hampered by frequent changes in
personnel at tht. top level. Its achievements, therefore,
have not been outstanding. In 1971, INA resettled
2,500 families on plots of appro\intately 23 acres and
c..pt.c:ed to resettle an additional 1,000 in 1972. In
addition, two large colonization projects, the Valle del
Aguas and \'alle de Lean (the valleys of Rio Aguan
and Ilio Lean). are being undertaken. Most of the
resettlement program involves parceling out of
government land. The accomplishments are )illy at
small portion of what needs to be done; in I97 1 there
were an estimated 1- 10,700 landless cantpesino families
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FIGURE 8. Bahareque house under construction in a rural
area of Copan Department. Walls are filled with mud
wattle. Roof material is locally baked tile. (C)

and un additional 1:36,800 fannilies trying to scratch
out an existence on 5 acres or less.
3. Private action and foreign assistance (U /01U)
In the absence of effective government action to
i nprove living conditions, espec�iall%' housing, some
lower and lower- nniddk: income housing has been
constructed by the private sector through AID a
Inter- American Development Bunk loans to labor
unions on the north coast. SITI1ATh.R(:0, the Unite(I
Fruit C:ompally union, completed a 10:3 home project
in early 1966 near L.. Linea (Figure 9). It was so
successful that FESITiiAN11 inunediately ennbarked
one a sintil :r project of 900 to 1.000 honu�s near San
Pedro Stela. The type of house built under these
programs is concrete construction with three
bedrooms, bath, and kitchen; houses have screened
windows. electricity. and piped water front the project
water system. "these houses can be built for about
US52 000. but the purchaser actually pays $30)(),
part of which goes into the union fund to start other
similar projects. Payments are arr;tngcd so that they do
not exceed 255; of the purchaser's monthly salary and
so that the house is paid for by the time the husband
retires at age 65.
I londuras receives c�onsiclerable ssislance front the
United States cued international agenc�ics, bolls official
and priva in dealing with health and welfare
problems. In numbers of personnel involved and
anttounts of nnoney expended, the largest source of
technical assistance is the U.S. Government. The
second largest amount of assistance has cons� Bruin the
various U.N. aa,;encivs. Often several agencies and
governments work to on a single project. For
instance, 1 10 of the water supply systciiis were
constructed by the Inter American Cooperative Public
FIGURE 9. Workers' housing built by the United Fruit
Company labor union, with assistance from the American
Institute for Free Labor Development and the Agency for
International Development. Houses are purchased at pay-
ments not exceeding 25% of the worker's salary. (C)
Ilealth Service (SCISI'), until 196.1 a U.S.- assisted
division of the Ilouduran Mirtistr% (if' I'ublic Health
and Social Assistance. The activities of SCISI' in
connection with water supply s\slen,s have nmy been
taken over by the National Autonomous Water and
Sewerage agency (SANAA), cut agency of the
Ilouduran Covernment which U.S. funds helped
launch. Before being abs-rbed b the Ministry of
PubhC Ilealth and .Social :Assistance, SCISI'developed
I82 projects ill Ilondtiras, one of the most important
of which is the National Malaria I'.rulic�ation Service.
The U.S. and Honduran 0wernrnet,ts are assisted in
this effort by the 11'orld Health Organization
a:nd the Pan American Ilealth Organization (1':1110).
In addition to '.;overnnmenl and in4�rnational
agencies \ybich are assisting public health efforts. it
nundwr of religious missions provide medical (are.
These include the Moravian, F',piscopal. Mennonite,
Seventh -clay Adventist. Honan Cal!- ic�. and
Lutheran clenonninations. There are also five private
Ilonduran philanthropic organizations in the welfare
field. 'these are the National (:onnnittee for Social
Welfare. which works through several c�otnnnonity
centers in helping the poor solve their social.
psychological, and ec�000mic� problems: the Children's
National Welfare Foundation. which controls the
national lottery for the support of charitable projects.
nnostly in the field of maternal and child care: the
Ilonduran Red '.Toss: the Ilonduran League ;Against
Tuberculosis: and the National Organization for the
Rehabilitation of Invalids.
4. Social problems (U /OU)
The lack of statistics on the nunnber of critics
contnnittcd snakes assessment of social tensions
difficult. but the crime rate is high, especiall\ for
crimes e:f violence. Alnu,st three- fourths of the cases
brought to court involve acts of yiolenc�c� against
persons or property. Alcoholisnn and gannbling are
known to he among the social problcins. and nnany
labor unions have undertaken educ�ationaf cannpaigns
to reduce the prevalence of these vices. The use of
narcotics is not a problenn in Ilonduras. Snall
amount, of nn are grown and used by
c�annpesinos and a few university students. but none is
exported. (lard drugs seldonn enter the county. and
none is tnaunufactnnred locally.
F. Health (U /OU)
Levels of health and sanitation in Honduras are
extremely logy, even by Latin Anneric�an standards.
Inadeeluate personal and etnyironntcntal sanitation.
M
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substandard diets, insufficient potable water, faults
waste disposal systems. low levels of education,
poverty, inadequate transportation and storage
facilities, and the lack of it satisfactory public health
program all contribute to it large uumber of deaths
from preventable diseases. As it result, the average
Honduran has it life expectancy at birth lower than
that in tuts other country of Latin America except
Haiti and Bolivia. Although poor health and
sanitation problems exist throughout the country, they
are more severe in rural areas.
Some progress toward improvement of the general
health level was made during the presidency of the
late Dr. Ramon Filled: Morales (1957 -6.3), it
physician who +gas much interested in public health
work. Since the coup of i October 196.3, however, the
general lack of accomplishment of the Oswaldo Lopez
regime (1963 -7 1) and the chaos under f' resident
Ramon Ernesto Cruz (197 1 -7?) have been reflected in
the lack of Progress in public health as well. During
the past decade less than Yt of the national budget
has been alloted to the Ministry of Public I lealth and
So-eiul Assistance.
1. Environmental factors affecting health
Unhealthful living conditions ac�couut for nmc�h of
the disease rate, and in 1970 over 60c1 of the
population was housed in unsanitary, substandard
structures. Furthermore, there is it national average of
more than five persons per dwelling, inany of which
have only one roorn, it proximity that favors the spread
of Conlin till ic�able diseases.
In urban areas many of the substandard houses are
multifamily tenements or mere shelters built of sc�r.tp
materials. By 1970. 61.5 of the urban houses nct the
requirement of either having piped -in +water or being
within 200 Winters of it public waiter tap. Most urban
families, however, were still dependent upon shared
toilet facilities. half of the urban dwellings were not
served by, or connected to sewerage systems. No
cornmunih' bits it wholly safe and adequate water
s!tpply. and none of the public water systems is
properly chlorinated.
The most prevalent astr housing is the orle room
but with rnud -on- lattice or adobe walls, earth floor�
and thatched roof, which frequently harbors insects
and snakes. Piped water is available to less than 71 of
the rural population. Few rural houses have sewerage
facilities, although some have acceptable latrines. For
the most part, it single source of water is used for
drinking, bathing, laundering, and waste disposal.
Diet varies according to region and family income.
In general, however, it is poorly balanced, consisting
mostly of starch, and is deficient in proteins. vot.
fish, cheese, milk, and eggs account fur only about fiS('
of the calories c�onstimed. +ghilc� grains, especially c�om,
supple about two- third:; of the calories. Corn, rice, red
kidney beans, and sugarcane are staple foods.
Alt{x, ugh I fondurans generally eat more green
vegetables than other Ccutr.I Americans do and prefer
panda (brown sugar) to the less nutritious refined
sugar, gitanin deficiencies are nationwide, especially
vitamin A. The high prevalence of endemic goiter and
dental caries indicates widespread deficiencies in
incline and calcium. also. In some areas diet is also low
in iron. The average daily caloric intake, I,850 in
1969. is lower than any other :ventral American
cnrrnlry except E S alvador. Rural residents generally
consunu Ic :tst 300 calories more a day than urban
residents, but the more prosperous urban residents
consume more +wheat, rice, vegetable oils, and animal
protein than the poor in either area. The level of
nutrition is especially low in the densely populated
highlands along the Salvadoran and Guatemalan
borders, and among children in most regions. T Ic+w
animal protein content of most diets is due, at least in
part, to it lack of transportation and refrigeration
fae�ililies. 'I'Iis pfo{hably accounts for the lo+g
nutritional level among children, since milk is not
available to most children on a regular basis.
Despite numerous regulations &-signed to cover the
handling, processing, and inspection of foodstuffs,
food sanitation and storage are inadequate. No
effective control exists because inspectors� often
politically appointed, are limited in number and
training. Few food stores or butcher shops have
modern equipment or refrigeration. Most foodstuffs
are sold in open -air markets, exposed to dust� insects�
and handling by customers. As a result, fresh fruits and
yegeht les need to be washed thorcntghly in treated
water and either peeled or cooked. Meat, other than
that for export to the United States, is not inspected
regularly: it should be cooked thoroughly and
c�onsunted on the day of purchase. Pasteurization of
milk a cheese is not always reliable, although the
Sala Dairy in San Pedro Sula. which supplies about
one -third of the cnentry's dairy products. is very clean
and modern. Bestattratits are not adequately
inspected, and most are unsanitary.
As it result of these conditions most of the
population suffers from it high incidence of infectious
and parasitic. diseases. Respiratory (tuberculosis,
influeuzat, pneumonia� and colds) and diarrheal
illnesses are endemic. Other prevalent diseases are
dietary deficiency diseases (goiter and anemias),
diseases of early infancy, venereal diseases, measles.
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and whooping cough. The most frequent causes of
death in 1970 were gastroenteritis and uysentery,
vascular and cardiac lesions, pneumonia and
bronchial pneumonia, and infectious and parasitic
diseases.
Immunization programs have drastically reduced
the incidence of such diseases as poliomyelitis, tetanus,
smallpox, and diphtheria. and the government has
initiated it program for vaccination against measle!:.
Compulsory immunization against typhoid fever,
whooping cough, and diphtheria arc required for all
children. ;Malaria, once it serious problem on the north
coast, has been brought partially under control.
A number of traditional practices not only hinder
the proper diagnosis and treatment of diseases but
often adversely affect the patient's recovery. A large
portion of the population rarely consults it plysician
except as it last resort after traditional folk remedies
have failed. There is it common belief that periodic use
of laxatives is necessary to good health and
particularly beneficial in the treatment of diarrhea.
This treatment, combined with the prevalent use of it
liquid diet for the ill, may weaken an already
malnourished patient. Liquid diets art- frequently used
in the convalescence from childhood diseases, with
sc%ere malnutrition its it result. A superstition which
sometimes obstructs diagnosis of venereal disease is the
belief that the extraction of blood for tests weakens the
patient.
The most important diseases to which foreigners
may be exposed are hchninthic and parasitic diseases;
acute enteric infections, such as amebic and bacillary
dysenteries, salmonellosis, and nonspecified diarrheas:
malaria, which is prevalent in the coastal areas.
respiratory tuberculosis and other acute respiratory
diseases; and venereal diseases. In addition,
poliomyelitis is potentially dangerous should control
measures be neglected.
Livestock health is poor. Regular veterinary
supervision is given only to a few purebred herds, and
control measures for most diseases arc generally
lacking. "There were only 15 veterinarians in I londuras
in 1967. Animal diseases transmittable to man arc
mainly rabies, anthrax, brucellosis, and hydatidosis.
Of these, rabies is the most serious threat.
2. Medical care
For administrative purposes the Ministry of Public
Health and Social Assistance divides the country into
seven health districts. The quantity and duality of
health services are unequally distributed throughout
the country. The public health program is
handicapped by inadequacy of facilities and
equipment, by it lack of administrative and technical
personnel, and by political influence in the
appointment of personnel. Thu Ministry is financially
and technically unable to provide countrywide
services either in curative or preventive medicine.
In 1969 there m-re only i9 hospitals (i2 general,
three maternity, one� mental institution, one
tuberculosis sanitarium, and two others of undeter-
mined type) and approximately LT beds per 1,000
population. Only Haiti has it lower hospital bed to
population ratio in Laalin America. Most hospitals are
small �less than 50 beds capacity. Only 10 have more
than 100 beds, the largest being the 999 -bed hospital
General y ;kilo do Inaalidos in 'Tegucigalpa. The
government operates I I other hospitals including most
of the remaining larger ones.
Hospitals in Honduras are unevenly distributed
throughout the counts: approximately half of all
facilities are located in the three areas of
Tegucigalpa� Conayagucla, San Pedro Sala. and La
Ceiba. 'There are no hospitals in Intibuca. Islas de la
Bahia. La Paz, Lempira. Ocotepeque, and Valle
Departments, and the single facilities in EA Partiso,
Gracias it Dios, and Toro Departments have 15. six.
and 2.1 beds, respectively. Almost all hospitals are
overcrowded, sparsely equipped, and understaffed,
especially in nursing personnel. For example. the
National Neurupsychiatric Hospital. opened in 1960
in Tegucigalpa as the country's only mental
institution, designed for 22 -1 patients but was
accommodating 31 -1 in 1966.
In order to reach the smaller towns and rural areas
With medical care, the government has established
about 129 clinics devoted mostly to outpatient
treatment, although a few have one tr two beds for
temporary emergency care. "These clinics are of three
types: health centers (of which there are eight or 10),
health subcenlers (about 70), and health posts (about
50). A health center normally is staffed by two or more
full -time physicians, plus part -time specialists, it
graduate nurse, and several nurses aides. It usually is
supplied with equipment for clinics. wards, and
laboratories. including instruments for diagnosis and
treatment, X -ray ealuipment, and special drugs. A
subcenler, commonly administered by a graduate
nurse or an intern, is equipped with supplies similar to
those of the health center, except for X -ray machinery.
Most often found in villages, the health post, little
more ,han it first -aid station, is in the charge of it
trained nurse or more likely, it nurse's aide. All of the
public health clinics offer maternal and child care: in
1968, approximately 2 -1 also provided dental care, and
two had special facilities for dealing with problems of
mental health.
15
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In addition to the n-gular public health centers, the
\linistry of Publi liealtlt au(1 Social Assistance
operates 10 mobile units which provide health s(,ryices
in rur areas. The mobile hcalti; unit program was
begun with assistance from AID in i962. For persons
in remote areas, the armed forces under it civic action
program have sometimes helped b airlifting medical
supplies and personnel. This airlift procedure and the
mobile units could be used for disaster relief in cast� of
emergency.
In 1969 Honduras had 611 doctors, roughly per
10.000 inhabitants, at per capita figure lower tba n auy
other Latin American country except Guatemala and
Haiti. %ledic�al training is giy (,n by the Faculty of
Xledicime and Surg(,ry at the National University.
granting the degree of Doctor of X�ledicine and
Surgery. A cari "lidate for this degree must attend
classes for i years. after which he must serve as a
medical officer in rural areas for 6 months. He rr list
then pass written, oral. practical, and clinical
examinations and present it thesis to the Board of
Examiners dealing with some problem he studied
while serving as it medical officer. Despite these
re(luirements. ri_ %st Honduran physicians are of
mediocre conpet(,11ce. Even the more competent.
however. are wriously handicapped by overwork, lack
of nursing assistance, ;111(1 inacl(,(luac\ of laboratory
facilities.
Dentists, even more than doctors, are concemtraled
ill urban areas, and their numbers are extrenu�ly small.
In 1969 there were only I:i8 dentists in the c�ountrv�,
and fewer than 50 dental students were enrolled in th(,
National University. The degree of Doctor of Dental
Surgery is awarded by t1w Faculty of O(lomtcrlogy after
6 years of str(fy.
Hie most serious lack of public healll personnel is
the shortage of nurses. In 1969 Honduras had 3I8
graduate nurses, or I.? per 10.000 population. A 3
year course ill nursing is offered at the National
University. Small numbers of nurses have also been
trained in other countries and at the private nursing
school in La Ceiba operated by the Standard Fruit Co.
hospital. Vicente d'Antoni, and at the I:yangelic;tl
Hospital nursing school in Sigualepe(lue. ;auxiliary or
practical nurses nundwi cd I, 300, it ratio of 5.0 per
10,000 population. An 15 month training course is
offered by the Ministry of Public Health and Social
Assistance, and some private hospitals train their o%ym
practical nurses.
"There is an acute shortage of (lualified tec�hmicians
in the fields of health education, laboratory services,
sanitary engineering, water management, and
veterinary service.
v
G. Religion
Ilondwas is it predominantly :atholic counln..,
with perhaps 9 `,'i of the population professicg at least
nominal adherence to th(. Catholic faith. Although
outward manifestations of the faith abound, it is
genertlly agreed that the church has had less influence
ill shaping :National life than in most other Latin
;kmerican countries. Moreover, theaveage Ilonduran
Catholic is gencrall\ ummar(, of and li."le conc�(,ru�d
with the precepts of his church. \\'onNen are g(,n(,r;111y
close to tb(, church, but nten, if not openly anticlerical,
are at least indifferent to religion and selclon
participate. U jOU
The present 1965) Constitution guarantees the free
exercise of all religions provided they are .not
disruptive to public order or harmful to public morals.
Clergvmen nay not rum for public office. and their
inyolye11u�nt in polities is sonlewh;tt restricted. The
only fill,"'Cial assistance given any re ligion b\ the
state is it small subsidy to the Catholic Church to help
st:pporl its edticalional activities. l' i(W 1
1. Roman Catholic Church (C)
Formerly subordinate to the archbishop of
(:(atem;elit, IIoneluras ill(. an ecclesiastical
province in its cr\n right in 1916. There is one
arc�hdioces( "I'(,grcigalpal, tlarve dioceses (Conaya-
gua. San I Sula. and Santa Rosa (I(, Copan). and
two 1) relatures :holutec�a and Olanc�ho). The
rchhishop of '1'eguc�igalp1l is the higb(,st church
official in Honduras: he is assisted by au auxilian
bishop. 'I'll( other five jurisdictions are headed by
bishops. "I'll( country k hirther sn[)eliyided into 109
parishes.
Beeimse the church is poor and becamse Hondurans
gencrally try to inprove th(,ir(,con(uuic shuttling, most
families encourag(, their sons to go into business or it
profession amt aCti\VI\ discourage them from nlering
the priesthood. For this reason there is it severe
shortage of priests ill the country �only 229 for some
2.6 million nominal Catholics, or an average of about
11,518 p(,r priest. This is less than one tenth the ratio
in the United States and at least four to five times the
number it priest can adeyuatck serve. Furthermore,
only (i5 of the priests are dioc�(�sari priests: the other 16 -1
it re nu�mb(,rs of religions orders. but many of then(, are
assigned parish responsibiliti(,s. r \round talc capital
city the ratio of priests to parishioners is more
fa vor able, p erhaps half the average number of
parishioners, but in rural ;areas parishes of over 1;;,000
are not uncommon. I lowhiras must. therefore. depend
heavily on thv services of foreign clerp. About i5`; of
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the clergy are foreign mostly from Spaiu, the t_'Ilite�d
Slates, Gerimmy, and Canada. Only tvvo of the seven
prelates (the Archbishop of 'fegueigalpa and the
Bishop of Santa Bosa etc Copan) are native
I londuruls.
Priests of mligiotis orders nut assigned to parish work
are engaged in education, soeiitI action, :uul
missionary work. In addition, there ;Ire 21 i !,rut hers
and 291 Mills. ntu,y of them en,agecl in teaching in
the 5.3 schools operated by the Catholic (:hurc�h�
enrolling about 6"1 of the nations students.
The liondttran church is basically conservative,
althomglt not reactionary. Since 1962 it has bet.
outspokvnly anti Communist, and demonstrations led
by the church were instrumental in causing the
government to break relations with the Castro regime
in Cuba. During the late 1960 the church began to
show increasing concern for social %%vIfan� and it
Willingness to listen to liberal trends %%ithin theelerLF
In 1969 Archbishop IIector Fitri(IIle Santo�.
Ilernandez established a Senate of Priests so that
differing (:pinions could he discussed. lit and other
members of the hierarchy have encottragi some lay
participation in church affairs and have public)
endorsed laud reform. One of the host successful
social projects has been the radio schools. "These were
started by the church and later taken over by a lay
grcrnP called Ilonduran Popular Cultural Action
(ACI'I I They still receive financial support from the
church, and much of the leadership is clerical.
Broadcasting through the facilities of Kuclio Catolit�n,
the radio schools hart. taught thousands of I londuran
campesinus to react and write. instructed them i, the
basics of nutrition and hygiene, upgraded agric�nitural
practices, and assisted in the formation of orris1
cuopera t i ves.
As nuinirmal zci church activities have been it the
social h .�Id, the church has found that it must pursue
its projects with a degree of c�artticrn in order not to
antagonize the government. 'Phis far, no official anger
has been directed at the church. brit individual priests.
generally foreign born, have been subjveted to
harassment if their activities in any wiry smack of
political opposition.
2. Protestant denominations (U /OU)
Although nearly two dozen Protestant groups are
active ill lionduras, the total 1'rote.,tant community is
small, accounting for no more than 2.Wi of the
popuhatiou. The largest is the Methodist Church with
approximately 1.1,000 adherents, located mostly in the
Bay Islands and along the north coast. Eleven other
denominations have congregations totaling 1,000 or
more (Figrtre Ill). Except for the \1et hod ists, who
maintain tics with the British Xielhodist Wissicruary
Societ�,, Protestant t.ndeavors are at Iciest part Iv
supported by the parent church in the Toilet.! State�.
Nearly 200 U.S. 1'rolestant missionaries, including 75
ordaincd ministers arc active in Ilonduras. `'lam
churches, h(mever, arc training I Iondurans to assume
leadership roles in church affairs and are graduallc
nursing toward self- supporting ��national� chrtrc�hes
under i I'd igenons leadership. Ilondrtraits ,cr\y
outnumber foreigners almost four to out. among
ordained ministers, but no grump has het relinquished
li,unc�ial and staff assistance from abroad.
-lust denominations are engaged in some kind of
health, educational. or vyt.lfure uc liyity. Notcvyortlty in
such endeavors ar+� the Central A n u�rican Mission
vvltic�h operates a school, a e�linie�.:uld the Hospital
1:run/rlicu vyhich iuc�ludes rent. of the country's two
nursing schools: the Evan4t.lic�al and 13eforrmcd
Church which operates two hospitals. three clinics.
and fire schools: and the I:yangelical Nic,nouite
Church Which operates tvyo Cli,ic�s and a school.
Protestant ac�liyity is directed primarily toward grumps
outside the dominant mestizo portion of the
pupulatiou. such as the Negro communities in the Bias
Islands and aloe the north coast and remote Indian
corn Ill uniti(.s.
:3. Other religions U /OU)
Orthodox Christianity is rt.prescnted by the Syrian
Orthodox Church. San I't.dro Sula is the seat of lilt.
Cfturch's Central American Diocese, vchic�h is
setbordinate to the Xletropolit;ut See� of North America
headquartered in 'Toledo. Ohio. The 300 or more
m em1wrs, ,lost located in San Pedro titrl re dearly
all of 1,ebanese extraction.
Although there bus het., a sntaC Jewish community
in Honduras since the 1920's, most jvws in !hw country
arrived shortly after World War II. lit 1969, three
fourths of the Jm\ish community. estimated at 150
members, lived ire Tegucigalpa. Informal services art.
held periodically in the homes of yariorts individuals.
because there is no synagog
me or rabbi in the count,.
H. Education
I. Role of education in society (U /OU)
llonduras has one of the (cast effeetiye school
systems in Latin America. The ;altitude toward
V( ucation has its roots ill a colonial society in which
formal education was the exclusive preserve of upper
Class males. While the ratio of males to fem in the
Ili
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FIGURE 10. Data on Protestant denominations and missions,
1968 (U/ OU)
PLACES
Y EA It
OF
C'OMMC-
TOTAL
A Cr1Y IT
nF.c t'Lnu
NICANT
COMMt-
DENOMINATION Olt MISSION
BEGUN
WORS1111' MEMBERS
LAITY
COM%I ENT
Assemblies of Cod
1940
9.1
1,24:3
1 9:16
Activity centered in the areas of Santa
Rosa de Copan and San Marcos de
Colon. Operates a Bible school in Santa
Rosa do Copan.
Baptist Mid-Missions
1955
4
17
126
Works among English speaking persons on
the Bay Islands and northern coast.
Central American'lission (nondenonti-
1896
76
1,417
4,868
Centered in the western and central high
national).
land-. Operates I school, a clinic, and
the Hospital Erangelrca in Siguatepeque.
Church of God (Cleveland, Tenn.).....
tat
48
2,(1:1(1
6,(175
Church of the Un'.ted Brethern in Christ.
1921
1:3
287
4127
Active along the Caribbean coast in the
eastern part of Grac�ias a Dios Depart
ntent.
Conservative Baptist Church..........
1951
10
161
1,:330
Worksantong English- speaking Negroes in
La Ceiba and in the Islas de In Bahia
Episcopal Church
1956
7
323
(M)
Supported in part by the Protestant Epis-
copal Church in the United States.
Operates one clinic.
Evangelical and Reformed Church......
1921
26
1,11(1(1
2,000
A national church supported in part b the
U.S. United Church of Christ. Centered
in San Pedro Sula. Operates two hospi-
tals, three clinics, and five schools.
Evangelical Lutheran Cht!; h..........
195-1
1
8S
ea
Ill Tegucigalpa.
Evangelical Mennonite Church.........
1950
23
150
650
Active in Gualaco, Guanaja. La Ceiba.
Tegucigalpa, Tocoa, and Trujillo. Op-
Prates two clinics and one school.
Friends Church
1909
22
1,0(18
3,000
'sponsored by California Pearly Meeting,
Friends Church.
International Church of the Four- square
19.52
i
310
1,000
Runs a Bible school.
Gospel
Methodist Church
*1883
:35
2,:326
1:3,959
Outgrowth of the British Methodist Mis-
sionary Society York. Centered in the
Islas de la Bahia and along the northern
coast.
Moravian Church
1930
25
1,722
2,15:3
Active among the Misquito Indian in
Gracias a Dios Department.
Seventh -day Adventist Church.........
1918
^.1
2,471
(1,381
Southern Baptist Convention..........
19:1.1
:32
:381
1,747
Sponsors a Bible school and one clinic.
Wesleyan Methodist 'Mission
1951
fi
105
:300
World Gospel Mission
19.13
55
300
1,000
Centered in Tegucigalpa. Operates two
schools.
NOTE- -Other religious groups active in Honduras
include the
Campus
Crusade for
Christ. Congregational Methodist Church.
Missionary Aviation Fellowship, World Baptist Fellowship.
and World
Wide Missions.
na Data not available.
*Established in the Islas de lit Bahia in
1859.
lower grades is coming into balance and basic
education is reaching more people, the system,
especially at the upper levels, retains un elitist
character. Even at the university level, however,
Honduran education has the lowest standards in
Central America.
Despite in increase since 1970 in the percentage of
literates in the population 10 years of age_ and over,
Honduras continues to be one of the least literate
nations of the hemisphere. Literacy is officially
defined in Honduras as the ability of a person to read
and write simple sentences in any language. On this
basis the estimated rate for Honduras increased from
35.2% in 19:50 to 47.3% in 1961 and to the estimated
57.4% in 1970. In 1970 only Bolivia, Guatemala, and
Haiti had lower literacy rates. These rates do not
18
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reflect functional literal.", fre(Itt�utic considered tltt-
eyuiraleiit of -1 gars of schoolilg; functional lit('nu�c
in 1961 Was about 30`1 ;utd probably had ne,t
inc�reasecl beyond 5`1 b% 1970. In general, the areas
around the capital city, in the depa.rtnenls along the
north coast, and in the Ba% Islands recorded literac%
rates higher than the national average. Urban literac�-
perecntages c�onsistcntIN 1`1111 about h%ic�e that of rural
areas because of the disparity ill educational facilities.
Education is free and theoretically c�onpulsory for
all persons ages i to 15 inclusive. I'lle educ�atio11al
Wst(rm is adpinistered b% the XfinistrN of Public
Education, for which purpose the Ministry ec�eiVI�s
between 20 "1 and 25ri of the national I>ud9('t. Public
schools are under the direct supern ision 0f the
,Ministry; private schools nLst nutintain a specified
shn&ird to retain accreditation and are inspected
regularly bx ntiuistr\ officials. 'I'll(. acudenic
c�trricultuu is eutphusized throngll lh(' S)th grade,
grills; tit(' student t11e basic cultural tools \tith chich
to Studs a sIwc�ialI\ or undertake a university
preparalor\ course diirill9 the remaining 2 ol years of
sec�ondarn school. spaaidl is the offici;tl language of
instruction throughout the countrn, and. although
beh�vii I and 2'; of the pupl,latiotl �1,eaks 1�:11glish
as the nalke language. most of" this 9rotup are fluent
11011 9 11 in Spanish b\ the time the�\ reach School age
so that language is no great 11;111lic�ap.
Educational system (U /OU)
'I school sssten c�ontprises four Ies('Is: pry
printarj, primer, see�ondan. and higher (I igun� I I I.
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 is 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Normal Age
PREPRIMARY I PRIMARY EDUCATION I SECONDARY EDUCATION i HIGHER EDUCATION
Agriculture and Forestry
Economic Sciences
Arts and Letters
General
Studies
Prc�Pnmary Primary
Advanced
Academic
Secretarial
Commercial
General Academic
Military
Normal
Art
Music
Law and Social Sciences
Medicine
Dentistry
Chemistry and Pharmacy
Engineering
1 UNIVERSITY
Normal
Nursing (2 schools)
Social Service
Agriculture Agriculture
Industrial Arts Industrial Arts
FIGURE 11. Educational system, 1970 (U /OU)
Im
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Extending over a 3 -year period, pre- primary schools
aceonII nod ate a limited tit tntberofcIiildren age -1 to 6.
These schools are of it nursery or kindvi-garte�n -type,
are not compulsory, and in general are confined to the
larger urban areas. Primary school spans 6 years and is
generally entered at age T. Secondary school.
beginning at about age 13, encompasses either 3 or 6
years depending on the ctlrriculuni. Higher education
is available at the National University and six other
postsecondary institutions.
Nine years of free, compulsory schooling
primary and S secondary�are theoretically available
to all Honduran children. lit practice, few receive even
half this number because of incomplete schools, fate
entry of many students, and it high dropout rate. Only
W of the primary schools offered a full 6 years of
instruction in 1963, and two thirds of the schools
offered only 3 years or less. Most of these Incomplete
schools are in rural areas. Furthermore� nuu,y students
do not enter school at age 7, but enroll for the first
time at age 10 or over. During the mid- 1960's over half
of all pritnary students were 2 or more years older than
the normal age for their grade. The dropout rate is
extremely high in the first two grades �about Wi.
and only about 12S(' ever reach the 6th grade. 1 ?ven
though the educational system is inaclecduute to meet
the needs of a rapidly growing population,
improvement bas been made since 1930 in reaching
children of coiiipulsor� school age (7 to 13 years). 'I'll(
1930 census indicated that 39.8 of this age group
were enrolled; in 1972 it was estimated that 62.Yi
we re enrolled. During the same years the number of
pritnary schools has more than doubled, but mach of
the improvement is undoubtedly due to the
governments efforts to upgrade incomplete schools to
a full 6 years. I igure 12 shows the number of students,
schools, and teachers at various levels for 1969.
FIGURE 12. Number of schools, students, and teachers
in 1969 (U /OU)
20
Iloncluran education is atlso deficient in (duality.
The object of the primary schools is to teach basic
skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Nlany
students, however, reportedly never leant to react and
write, regardless of the length of title they spend in
school. The quality of teacher training is partly
responsible for this. In 1967, only 6'V of all primary
teachers had attended (hut not necessarily completed)
normal schools, which are secondar level schools
devoted to training primary school teachers; the
remaining 37 had no formal career preparation. It:
rural primary schools 8Yi were uncertified in 1963. In
addition, a high pupil -to- teacher ratio in primary
schools in many areas prevents effective iuslrilc�lion.
The average in 1969 was .3 petdtils to each teacher.
Ironically, since 1930 Honduras has trained more
teachers than any other Central :kinvrican c�ountr.
but many have left teaching for occ�apations Mlic�h
Pay higher salaries or have decided to teach in
neighboring countries where salaries are better.
Honduras has two training schools for the
handicapped: one a fi -year school for the blind and
the other a :3 -year school for deaf mutes. The latter
also accepts a fey students who are mentally retarded.
In addition, there were in 1969 about 97 adult literacy
centers teaching over 1 1.000 persons. "These centers
were distributed throughout 16 of the IS departments.
The arowd forces assist with staffing these centers as
part of their civic� action program, as do inanv of the
labor anions. Literacy instruction is also broadcasi by
radio by both the� Ministry of Public Education and
the Catholic Church.
Secondary education is divided into two cycles �the
conunon e�ye�le of "3 years� which is roughly eels iyalent
to junior high school. anel the diversified cycle of
either 2 or :3 years, depending upon the c�urriculuni
followed. The academic course in the diversified cycle
is called "sciences and lettcrs� and encompasses 2
yea of study pre paring the stude for e ntrance into
the National University or one of the other five
specialized institutions of highereduc�ation. Ileflec�ting
the traditional preference for a classical education.
about three fourths of all students at this level pursue
academic studies. 'There are 3 -year courses for printar
school teachers (norm school) and for those going
into conunercial studies, and a 2 -year secretarial
course. A 3 -year course was begun ill 1966 leading to a
hachillerafo (secondary school diploma) of technical
or agricultural science for those students who had
contple�ted the� common cycle. Nearly all of the�
secondary schools offered the contnton cycle
c�urric�ulum in 1969; most also offered one or more of
the diversified cycle curriculums. Little information is
available concerning the quality of secondary
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NUMTj E It
OF
EN It OIL:
FAWCATIONAI. t.t:CF.I.
SCIMO1S
%I ENT
TEA CII EI?S
Preprinulr
*53
7, 102
Ili?
Primary
�1, 100
392, 67
10,573
Academic� Sec�ondarc
100
28..52.1
'1'eellnica1:111d Vocational Nee
ondar
titi
ti, 131
2,3.1.1
N ornutl
50
.1, 572
Adult I: ducation............
*97
11,75(1
rnr
University
I
Mt Dtlta nOt .l \�;ul,lhle.
*Figure for 1967.
*Including literacy venters run
by Ministry
of Public
Health
and Social Assistallev.
20
Iloncluran education is atlso deficient in (duality.
The object of the primary schools is to teach basic
skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Nlany
students, however, reportedly never leant to react and
write, regardless of the length of title they spend in
school. The quality of teacher training is partly
responsible for this. In 1967, only 6'V of all primary
teachers had attended (hut not necessarily completed)
normal schools, which are secondar level schools
devoted to training primary school teachers; the
remaining 37 had no formal career preparation. It:
rural primary schools 8Yi were uncertified in 1963. In
addition, a high pupil -to- teacher ratio in primary
schools in many areas prevents effective iuslrilc�lion.
The average in 1969 was .3 petdtils to each teacher.
Ironically, since 1930 Honduras has trained more
teachers than any other Central :kinvrican c�ountr.
but many have left teaching for occ�apations Mlic�h
Pay higher salaries or have decided to teach in
neighboring countries where salaries are better.
Honduras has two training schools for the
handicapped: one a fi -year school for the blind and
the other a :3 -year school for deaf mutes. The latter
also accepts a fey students who are mentally retarded.
In addition, there were in 1969 about 97 adult literacy
centers teaching over 1 1.000 persons. "These centers
were distributed throughout 16 of the IS departments.
The arowd forces assist with staffing these centers as
part of their civic� action program, as do inanv of the
labor anions. Literacy instruction is also broadcasi by
radio by both the� Ministry of Public Education and
the Catholic Church.
Secondary education is divided into two cycles �the
conunon e�ye�le of "3 years� which is roughly eels iyalent
to junior high school. anel the diversified cycle of
either 2 or :3 years, depending upon the c�urriculuni
followed. The academic course in the diversified cycle
is called "sciences and lettcrs� and encompasses 2
yea of study pre paring the stude for e ntrance into
the National University or one of the other five
specialized institutions of highereduc�ation. Ileflec�ting
the traditional preference for a classical education.
about three fourths of all students at this level pursue
academic studies. 'There are 3 -year courses for printar
school teachers (norm school) and for those going
into conunercial studies, and a 2 -year secretarial
course. A 3 -year course was begun ill 1966 leading to a
hachillerafo (secondary school diploma) of technical
or agricultural science for those students who had
contple�ted the� common cycle. Nearly all of the�
secondary schools offered the contnton cycle
c�urric�ulum in 1969; most also offered one or more of
the diversified cycle curriculums. Little information is
available concerning the quality of secondary
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l+
cducalion in Honduras. It is known that effective
instruction is impaired by outdated curriculums and
teaching methods and scarcity of supplementary
reading materials and teaching aids. However, the
equality of instruction, particularly in the private
institutions, is regarded as Iwtter than that it, the�
primary education, despite the fact that a high
proportion of secondary teachers also are uncertified.
The quality may drop somewhat in the future, since
the primary schools are already graduating more
students than can he comfortably accommodated by
existing secondary' schools. The pupil -to- teacher ratio
had already risen from 8.6 to I in 1963 to 17 to I
i n 1969.
Beyond the secondary level there are six specialized
institutions and one university. The six include a
nursing school operated by the Standard Fruit
Company s Vicente d'Antoni Hospital in La Ceiba; a
nursing school operated by the I "Nallgelical Ilospital
at Siguatepeque; the Pao American Agricultural
School at El Zamorano a few miles southeast of
"Tegucigalpa; the School of Social Services run by the
klinistry of Public Health and Social Assistance to
train social workers; the Francisco Morazan 'I'(chnical
Institute; and the Francisco `-lorazan Superior
Teachers' College, which trains secondary school
teachers. "These schools have it small enrollment. "Tile
oldest of the six, the Pan American Agricultural
School, was founded in 194. and subsidized by AID
and the United Fruit Company. It normally has all
enrollment of about 180 per year from all countries of
Latin America, but only 10,6 to 2390 of its enrollment
is made up of Hondurans. rte hospitals at La Ceiba
and Siguatepeque arc able to train only it small
number of nurses. The School of Social Service trains
secondary graduates as social workers and community
development leaders. The Francisco Moraz;u
rechnical Institute offers 2 years of training in a
variety of technical fields to a limited number of
students. The Francisco Morazan Superior Teachers'
College trains secondary school teachers. The
graduating class usually numbers 30 to 40.
The National Autonomous University of Ifonduras,
founded in 1847, is the country's only university and
consists of the Center for General Studies and eight
facilities: t) Medicine, 2) Dentistry, 3) Chemistry and
Pharmacy, 4) Engineering, 5) Law and Social Studies,
6) Economics (Tegucigalpa), 7) Economics (San Pedro
Sula), and 8) Agriculture and Forestry (La Ceiba). All
freshmen belong to the Center for Genera Studies,
Which has divisions in both Tegucigalpa uncl San
Pedro Sala. In addition, those who continue in arts
and letters curriculums remain in General Studies. The
Center for General Studies, therefore, comprises over
half of the entire enrollment. Law and Medicine have
traditionally been the most popular facullies, but
these have dropped to .econ(l and third place to the
Faculty of Economic Sciences since the addilirn of the
business administration program in the mid 1960'x.
As :tit academic institution, the� National University
is third rate, (Well by Latin American standards, and
"lost students would prefer to study abroad if finances
permitted. Contributing to this are shortages of funds
and Vol nipnenl and it poorly p. faculty. X
members of the faculties as well as students are part
tune. Student parity (equal representation for students
and teachers in the university administrative bodies) is
also responsible for low academic standards; students
arc able to block measures to reform the curriculums
and raise the achieWCnent level. Cotmpetition \yithin
the eight faculties for the student seats oil the Claustro
Weno (2:3) and the Cotsejo Universitario (10) is keen
and causes nnatty students to be involved constantly in
political activity.
3. Noncurricular student activities (S)
Latin American students are involved in political
activities to a high degree, but hardly any spend less
time in serious study than those at the National
University of Honduras. Demonstrations and strikes,
or the planning of them, seen almost constant and are
undertaken for a variety of causes. Some activities are
instigated in support of purely university matters, such
as cttrricultim reform (or opposition to it),
improvement of faculties, or budgetary natters.
Others involve the students in national or
international politics, usually in the form of
demonstrations to make known the position of the
students on a wide variety of issues, including support
of callpesimo land occupations, solidarity with labor
notions, opposition to certain U.S. All) programs, and
expression of general anti -U.S. feeling. At times these
demonstrations become quite violent, such as the
student rampage in early June 1972 when considerable
damage was clone to the Bi- National Center, the USIS
building, the U.S. Military Croup offices, and the
Bank of America building.
Most student "parties" are either leftist or willing to
cooperate with leftist groups to achieve certain aims;
none are above using violent tactics to make their
weight felt. I our student organizations annually
compete for control of the Federation of Honduran
University Students (FEUI1) �the organization to
which all university students nominally belong �and
for the student seats oll the administrative councils.
The United University Democratic Front (FUUM. um
21
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anti Communist group sponsored by the Natrona!
Party, controlled the FEUII front about i960 to 1969.
Because of ineffective leadership it has been declining
in strength since 1962 and has become discredited
because it has been subsicaized by the government and
used as a means of controlling university politics. In
April 1969 it lost the election to the University Reform
Front (FRU). FRU has been gaining in strength
mostly by default �as the FUUD has declined. While
the FRU previously had controlled the FEUII during
only one other school year (1958 -59), it had
consistently held a sizable portion frequently a
majority �of the student seats on the administrative
councils. The FRU is a front group of the Communist
Party of Honduras /China (PC II /C), but includes
some Liberal Party members, as will as anarchist
elements. A third group, the Social Christian Student
Revolutionary Front (FRESC), was formed in 1964
and has grown somehat during the past several years.
It does riot yet, however, have the support of more
than about 2W of the students. T he newest group is
the Social Student Front (FES), a front group of the
Communist Party of I Ionduras /Soviet (PCII /S). In
the May 1972 election for rector, the FES, although
not as strong as the FRU, managed to have its
candidate elected. With the financial hacking of
master politician Ricardo Zuniga. who controls the
National Party, the FES and the FUUD were able to
buy the votes of enough student representatives to
reelect Cecilio Zelaya Lozano and defeat the more
militant FRU candidate, Jorge Arturo Reina Idiaquez.
Reina was also supprlrted by FRESC. While the results
of the election 011 not affe the anti American, pro
Communist atmosphere at the university, Zelaya may
allow somewhat more ideological liberty than Reina
would have.
The Honduran public has a high tolerance for
unrest, including the disruptive tactics of the
university students. Furthermore, in a country where:
the educational level is low, university students are
accorded deference by the largely illiterate public out
of propc,rtion to their real merit. Student groups have
not, however, become strong enough to influence
government policy significantly. Indeed, they
frequently find themselves used as pawns by the major
parties in the game of national politics.
I. Artistic and cultural expression (U /OU)
Political instability, economic retardation, a low
degree of educational achievement, and a lack of
energy resulting from poor health are responsible for
the indifferent attitude of most Hondurans toward
4
cultural pursuits. Honduras has produced few writers,
painters, scientists, scholars, or performing artists of
international stature. I'his situation has in turn caused
outsiders to have little cultural interest in Ilonduras
and has contributed to the cultural isolation of
Ilondurans.
In pre Columbian times, the city of Copan in
western Honduras was a center of Mayan learning and
scientific achievement. Discovered in 1939, Copan
covers 12 acres containing temples, pyramids, terraces,
and commemorative sculptures, the most famous of
which is the hieroglyphic stairway. About 20 feet wide
and IM feet high, it is inscribed with approximately
2,5M glyphs, the longest Mayan inscription yet
uncovered. Evidence also indicates that tine
remarkably accurate Mayan calendar systent was
developed in Copan. The cultural achievements of the
Mayas, however, have had little effect on their
present -day descendents, only it few of whom retain
any cultural or linguistic characteristics of their
famous ancestors.
During the colonial period, the Spaniards did not
establish important cultural centers in the territory
that became Ilonduras. No major scats of goyeriunen-
tal or ecclesiastical authority were located there, and,
except for silver mining in the Tegucigalpa area,
economic ventures did not attract large numbers of
people. Consequently, fey Spanish aristocrats settled
in the region, and cultural activities did not develop as
fully as in other colonial territories.
Political independence from Spain in 1821 was
accompanied by an abrupt severance of cultural ties
with the Crown and it sharp reduction in the number
of art patrons among the aristocracy and the hierarchy
of the Roman Catholic Church. Consequently.
finding life difficult in 19th century Honduras. most
local artists chose to live in the United States or in
Europe, and cultural stagnation prevailed in
Ilonduras until the first decades of the 20th century.
1. Painting and sculpture
Although I londuran artists have employed it variety
of themes and styles, the most predominant mode has
been realism. During the colonial period, religious
subjects held sway. Both painting and sculpture were
heavily influenced by Spanish artists, such as
Francisco 'Lurburan, the master of religious painting
whose influence can he seen in two paintings of Jose
Miguel Comez El Nazareno (The Nazarene) and Sari
Jose de Calasanz (St. Joseph of Calasanz). Much of
the sculpture of that era was undoubtedly of Spanish
origin, but several anonymous works such of El Cristo
Negro (The Biack Christ) show indigenous influences.
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Religious subjects were abandoned) in the late 19th
century 'n favor of historical themes, primarily
national heroes. Following the Mexican revolution in
1910 and the example set by vlcxican artists such as
Diego ilivera and David Siyuieros, Honduran painters
developed it degree of independence from European
themes and it growing interest in their own
environment. One artist, Pablo Zelava Sierra, is
particularly outstanding. Although lie lived in Europe
during his entire adult life and the hulk of his
paintings have Spanish thenes, his greatest
achievements include it number of works based on
Honduran subjects. The "lost notable of these are La
Muchacha del Huacal (Girl on an Orange Crate), Dos
Campesinos (Two Campesinos), and Destruction
(Destruction), which reflects the political and civil
turmoil of Honduras in the early 1930's.
During the World War 11 period, two schools of art
were established in Honduras: the School of Arts and
Crafts, founded in 1935 by the Spanish painter
Alfredo Rttis Barrera, and the National School of Finc
Arts, organized in 1940 by the Honduran artist Arturo
Lopez Rodezno. The latter artist is also credited with
encouraging the use of authentic londuran themes
based on Mayan and other indigenous cultures. In
addition, Rodezno achieved renown for his work in
enarnel on copper, and his painting Tropicana,
depicting his native village, is the country's first
modern mural.
Most artists of the present generation began their
training at the National School of Pine Arts but
completed their study abroad, usually in Italy or
France. Best known are i lario Castillo, director of the
school, who paints in it contemporary mode, Roberto
M. Sanchez, whose works depict Honduran life during
the early independence period, and Miguel Angel
Ruiz, who uses themes of social protest and the
macabre, and particularly favors vivid orange and
Wile colors. He is credited with inspiring more young
artists than any other painter.
Surrealists Ricardo Aguilar and Moises Beccrra are
among it small but growing number of artists
employing geometric design, striking color, and
symbolism. Notable examples of this style are
Aguilar's Ritn"o do Color (Rhythm of Color) and
Becerra's Las Animas (The Souls). The major
primitivist painter is Antonio Velasdluez, an Indian.
whose works have been exhibited in several cities in
the Urited States, as well as in other countries. Ilis
success �,s an artist derives largely from his it hate
contact with campesinos, his spontaneity, and his total
lack of fOrmal artistic training. Most of his paintings
are landscapes or scenes of rural life in highland
Honduras.
Twentieth century llondttnut sculpture consists
largely of monuments depicting civil thertcs.
Prominent contemporary sculptors, most of whom
studied in londuran art schools and received
additional training abroad, include the following:
Sanutel Salgado, a specialist in nonutnents, wbo later
became director of the National School of Pine Arts in
I- l0nd;e1.11;: Mario Zamora, best known for his bronze
relief work at the National Autononioms University of
Honduras. Roberto M. Sanchez, also it painter and
journalist, who specializes i marble busts of public
figures; and Salvador Posadas, whose religious images
i" wood can be seen ill churches in western I londuras
and EI Salvador.
2. Literature
According to critics, most Honduran literature is
mediocre, especially prose works, and few outstanding
literary figures have yet emerged. Because of
widespread poverty and illiteracy, there is little market
for, or interest in, literary works, and the intellectual
preparation of authors and poets is generally weak. In
writing of campesino life, moreover, educated
Honduran authors often do not have intimate
knowledge of their subject natter and must rely on
cursory information and (Iistait t observation.
Consedt lien tIy, their narratives lack feeling and
undlerstandling, and do tot express the true sentiments
of the campesino. Perhaps reflecting the mediocrity of
most I loncluran literature is the lack of clearly
delineated schools of writing. Although romantic and
nostalgic strains are common, little of the literature
can be categorized.
During the colonial period, prose was largely
written in the form of adventure stories, usually by
descendants of conyuistadlors. lit these talcs.
Europeans were heroes and Indians were villains.
Among 19th century writers deserving mention are
Jose C:ecilio de Fall(-, a major political figure during
the struggle for independence and the principal author
of the declaration of independence for Central
America: Marco Aurelio Soto, President of Ionduras
from 1816 to 1883 and author of Cabanistas; Ramon
Rosa, Minister of State in the Soto administratio;,
who wrote nuncrous political works, as well as La
Maestra Escolastica (The Schoolteacher); and Carlos
F. Gutierrez author of Angelina. the first Honduran
novel, published in 1898.
Hondomn prose is largely ;u product of the 200
century. number of liave %%ritten novehand
short stories on such topics as conflicts bttween
landowner and laborer, struggles between malt and it
hostile: nature, revolution and dictatorship_ exploitu-
.4 :A
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tion by foreign capitalists, and problems of city life. A
common weakness in these works is the� use of
objective, as opposed to subjective, developmu�nt, in
which circumstances rather than individuals arc�
emphasized.
Four novelists are recognized as the most
outstanding 20th century Honduran authors. Lucila
Gamero de Medina is hest known for Blanca 01me(la
(White Elm Grove), it story of the conflict between
love and convention, :And for Aida. published in 1912.
Argentina I)iaz Lozano is highly regarded in
Honduras, as well as in other countries, particularly
for her autobiographical novel, peregrinaje (Higrim-
age), which describes her life as a teacher in a simple,
straightforward stele. Her other notable works include
Luz ell let Senda (Light on the Path), concerning the
historic struggle of Honduran workers, and the short
stories Topacios ("Topazes) and Cuentos (Stories).
Another novelist whose themes relate to the oppression
of workers is the leftist, liarnon Amaya Anador. His
hest known work, Prision Verde (Greet) Prison), depicts
the abuses suffered by the employees of' the large fruit
companies. Arturo Xlejia Nieto is an expatriate author
whose novels include El Solteron (The Old Bachelor)
and A la Derica (Adrift).
Honduran poetry is predominantly romantic.
Symbolism is used occasionally, but most verse is
written in a straightforward manner and does not
stimulate the imagination. Although Honduran poets
usually express faith in their country, their poetry is
replete with descriptions of violence, suffering, and
injustice.
The first major Honduran poet was Father Jose
"Trinidad Reyes, who in 1845 founded it literary
academy which later became the National Autono-
mous University of Howhints. Using political and
pastoral themes, he emphasized moral issues, such as
good against evil, knowledge instead of ignorance,
and humility rather than conceit. His poetry includes
Cuando (When), a collection of political satires, and
Pastorelas (Pastorals), considered his hest work.
At the turn of the 19th century, the most notable
Honduran poet was Juan Ramon Molina. who cane
under the influence of the respected Nicaraguan
modernist, Ruben Dario. Molina strove for realism in
poetry that was pessimistic to the point of bitterness.
Among his works are the lyrical Pesca de Sirenas
(Fishing for Mermaids), the eloquent El Aguila (The
Eagle), and the anguished IvIadre Meloneolia (.Mother
Melancholy).
Alfonso Guillen Zelaya, the principal poet of the
first half of the 20th century, was a philosophic
neotttodemist who incorpouted in his verse the
24
idealism of Reyes and the realism of Molina uy
stressing the good and tic� had in both man and
datum. Ilis hest known works are La Casita do Pablo
(Pablo s little Ilouse), El Ouinto Silenciu (Th(- Fifth
Silence), and Echarnea la Senda (Sho%% Me the Way).
Other outstanding poets of the ?llth century include
Froilau Torc�ios, a realist like Molina. Rafael
Ileliodoro Valle, also a noted journalist and
bibliophile: Daniel Laine� and Jacopo Carc�anio.
writers of humorous satires, and Vicente Aleman.
\\hose pen name is Claudio Barrera. it political
crusader.
Little drana has been written in Honduras. only it
few playwrights having emerged in the 0th century.
Luis Andres %uniga, also it poet and writer of fables.
wrote the first Honduran drama. Ile has beet
followed by J. M. "Tobias Rosas. author of Teatro
11ondureno (Honduran Theater): Alonso A. Brito.
\yho wrote Im Tristcza de las (:unbres I'hc Sorro\% of
the Summits) amcl (;it Caballero de Industria (A
Gentleman Of Industry): and, most recently. Victor F.
Ardon. whose works inchide a series of Immorous
dramatic sketches.
I Music and dance
Contemporary popular music in I louduras is largely
derived from it combination of Spanish. Indian. and
Negro elements. According to Honduran musicolo-
gists. the Spanish element predominates, while Indian
melodies and Negro rhythms contribute enriching
variations. Virtually all classical music today reflects a
strong Spanish influence. as it has since colonial )totes.
In general, it is considered mediocre.
Purely Indian music, which still exists only in
isolated communities in the Departments of Intibuca
and Lempira, retains many characteristics of Mayan
and other American Indian musical forms. Melodies
tire based on the pentatonic, or �gapped,� scale in
which the fourth and seventh intervals of it regular
octave are omitted. This scale produces lyrical but
somewhat melancholic tones. A number of wind and
percussion instruments are used, most often in
conjunction with religious rituals and festivals.
In the 0th century, Honduran popular music has
retained its Spanish emphasis. In recent years,
however, to the chagrin of musicologists, regional folk
music is becoming less popular than modern "pop
mosiv: Tlli development results from the increasing
ayatlabilit\ of inexpemsiye transistor radios which
bring recorded music from Central Anieric�am
countries, Mexico. and the Caribbean area
thousmids of urban and rural Hondtirans.
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r
C:IL ssical nntsic, largely religients, was first played if]
londuras during the colonial period. In 1561, Bishop
Jcroninu de Corella introduced the Gregorian chant
in the Cathedral of Com ayagua and later installed an
organ to accompany til singing of ln�nus. Bishop
Antonio de Guadealupe established it choral socieh� in
1738 for the study and performance of liturgical music
at tilt. cathedral. All composers of classical londuran
music have been of Spanish extraction. During lie
19th century the noted poet. Father Jose "Trinidad
Reyes, composed several Masses, including El
Trancredo, La Misa Sahatina (The Sabbath Mass),
and La Misa de Requiem ('file Requiem %lass).
Father Reyes %v Its also an accomplished flutist, a
professor of voice and composition, and a choir
master.
Martial music performed by military bands became
the predominant form of musical expression during
the 19th century, reflecting the patriotic mood of tilt.
early independence period and the turbrtlent political
conditions that followed during much of that century.
Bands frequently gave concerts in public sctuart.s on
important c�iyic� occasions, one of their most popular
selections being La Granada, sometimes called tile
first national hynnn of Honduras. In 1876. President
Soto organized the National Military Band of
Ionduras. which directed by two successive
German bandmasters, oat. of whom wrote the music to
the national anthem. After 1915, the baud %%as
directed by Ilonclurans.
The most outstanding Honduran nntsician of the
20th century in the field of classical music was Manuel
de Adalid y Gamcro, who died in 19-1 A professor of
music theon� and cor -.position at the National School
of Music in 'Tegucigalpa and It conductor of the
National Military Band, Adalid y Gaml-ro %vas also tile
first modem composer of classical music in Honduras
to use folk melodies in his works. Among his
compositions, some of which have been performed
elsewbery in Central America and ill the United
States, are Suite Tropical ('Tropical Suitt.), a
sYmphonic poem; C'rta Noche crr Honduras (A Might
in Honduras), an intermezzo, Renternbranzas
llondureras (Honduran Remembrances), a work for
the piano; and La Novia del Torero (The Bullfighters
Girlfriend), a spirted march.
Honduras has produced it number of other classical
musicians in the 20th century. Ignacio Villanueva
GaIvano, who died in 195.1, composed the smphon
Las Americas and till- overture La Isla del Tigre (Tigre
Island). Anotlier composer, Francisco Diaz
wrote Ilimnuro a Morazan (11vinn to Monazan) and
Misa en I)o Manor )dass ill D Major); lie also
organized the now defunct National Symphon%
Orchestra, as WeI! as the 1Vagner Orchestra, and
edited the journal 1lusica. Rafael Coello Itanaos
founded the Verdi Orchestra and c�onnposed both
religious and secular music.
lu 1968 the principal tnusk organizations in
londuras included it choral enscnible of the National
School of Music, the Coro Polifonico de la Escuela
Nacional de Musica, and two chamber music groups.
C'uarteto de Cuerda .uu! Oryuesta de Camara. In
addition to till- National School of 'Music, the
Victoriana Lopez School of Music. located in San
Pedro Sula, was providing instruction to students.
In remote areas some Indian groups have retained
their traditional dances, priniarily for ceretnonial
purposes during religious rituals. The tonc�ontin, for
example, is performed b 40 men in white robes
trinuned with feathers and is ac�c�omparied by till-
turn. Another Indian dance, called el siyue, is popular
throughout present clay Ilondiras and is considered
the country's national dance. Although nuulified I
some elements of Spanish dance added during the
c�olomial period, it still retains its original meter of one
strong heat followed by two weak beats and its lively
polkalike tempo.
Europr:n dance forms. particularly those of Spain.
were introduced during the colonial period and the
early 19th century. Among the upper class, popular
dances were the minuet and till- waltz. In addition to
el siyue, the dances of the lower class included polkas,
mazurkas, Waltzes. and Spanish tap dances.
J. Public information (U /OU)
Although Honduras has till- basic elements of i t
public information systt.m, the systenn is under
developed. Prevailing low levels of income have
adversely affected all of the formal media.
FurtIwrnnre. topograph\ bas served to limit till-
audience capable of receiving television broadcasts.
and the lovy rate of literacy has acted its it brake on the
development of newspaper, periodical, and hook
publishing. Radio is the host fully developed of the
existing media, and it is also ti most effective.
Newspapers are influential nuaillIv in "Tegucigalpa and
San Pedro Sala.
The mass media are largely priyalely owned and
operated, and governmental interference is not
extt.nsiye. As of late 1972, the public infornnatic
media were operating With almost complete freedori,
within the restrictions imposed In civil lavy in such
matters as libel and slander. Even in instances of libel
or slander, the author of the offending item is
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considered legally responsible, not the medium
through which the item has been disseminated.
Article 85 of the Constitution of 1965 guarantees
freedom of thought and expression "through any
means of dissemination, without previous censorship."
At the same time, it restricts "the control of
newspapers and of radio or television newscasts, and
the intellectual, political, and administrative
orientation thereof' to Hondurans and prohibits any
of the media from receiving "subsidies from foreign
governments or political parties." The Honduran
Government, under terms of the Publishing i aw of
1958, did reserve the right to cen ;or material "contrary
to national sovereignty, defaming or insulting,
designed to fool the public for commercial gain,
capriciously directed against business for vengeance,
or devoted to blackmail or pornography.' In 1966, the
Publishing Law was amended to provide protection to
government officials from criticism by the media, to
discourage disclosure of confidential information, and
to Facilitate the prosecution of journalists and
publishers who expressed antigovernment views.
Newsmen strongly objected to this amendment.
describing it as a gag" law on the media. In part,
recognizing the objections to the amendment, the
government sponsored its repeal in 1967. The episode
had the effect, however, of making newsmen
somewhat more circumspect in the opposition to the
government.
1. Radio and television
Because many Hondurans are illiterate and because
of the physical difficulties in circulating newspapers
outside of the major population centers, the medium
that reaches the most people fastest is radio. The
Honduran radio audience has been growing
spectacularly during the past decade as the
importation of inexpensive transistor sets has enabled
an increasing number of persons, even those in areas of
the country without electricity, to own radios. There
are over :300,000 radio receivers in Honduras, roughly
half of which are transistors.
In June 1972 there were 102 AM broadcasting
stations and 10 FM stations. More than half of the
former and all of the latter are located either in
Tegucigalpa or San Pedro Sula. Of the AM stations, :30
were in "Tegucigalpa and 25 in San Pedro Sula. Five
stations in Tegucigalpa and two in San Pedro Sula
have transmitters with a power of 10 Alowatts, but
most stations broadcast with from one or less kilowatts,
serving a local area primarily. To overcome the
geographic harriers of mountainous terrain, abort
26
one -third of all AM stations broadcast on both
medium -wave and shortwave frequencies, and three
operate regularly on shortwave alone. Although
several stations may be owned by the same person or
company, networks as known in the United States du
not exist.
All radio stations in Honduras are licensed by the
government, and all are opLrated by private interests,
including religious and labor groups. The Honduran
Government does not own or operate. any station.
Most radio stations, however, carry the government-
sponsored La Hora Nadonal, which is broadcast each
Sunday to inform the public of government activities,
and all are required to relay government programs
during times of emergence.
The commercial broadcasting stations present
programs consisting primarily of popular music, news.
commentary, and advertising. News programs of 5 to
30 minutes duration are broadcast several times a
day. Although news stnunaries emphasize Im-al and
national topics, some stations include items of regional
(i.e.. Central American) or international interest that
re rece ived from international wire services.
Hondurans living near the country's borders ar--
able to pick up broadcasts emanating from stations in
neighboring countries. In addition, medium -wave
transmissions from Cuba can he received all along the
northern coast, and the reception of these broadcasts
on shortwave is excellent in most parts of the country.
Only the more powerful shortwave sets, however, are
able to pick up programs from the British Broadcasting
Corporation. Radio Moscow, Radio Peking, or other
foreign stations. By contrast, the Voice of America is
heard throughout the country, but reception is not
always good in some areas.
Despite growth since 1959, television in Honduras
has not become widely influential in molding public
opinion. 'Television reception is limited to areas
surrounding Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, and
Siguatepeque, and the audience is further restricted by
the expense involved in purchasing it television set.
Moreover, television in I londuras has served primarily
as a medium for entertainment rather than as one for
the dissemination of news.
Television was introduced in September 1959 when
1IRT(;-TV, channel 5, first went on the air in
Tegucigalpa. The station is owned by the ,G"W# )mia
Televisora Hondurana S.A., which also own, k,, huns
in San Pedro Sulu (1- IRYA channel 13) and
Siguatepeque (HRSU -'f\', channel 9) that relay the
programs originating in 'Tegucigalpa. Subsequent to
1959, Radio Centro y la Voz de Honduras inaugurated
television stations in Tegucigalpa (channel :3) and San
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Pedro Stla (channel 7), and these were followed by it
third "Tegucigalpa station known as 1'ele Or L'C
(channel 1 1). The two "networks" and the
independent station are privately owned and derive
their income solely from commercial advertising.
Although the cost of it television set remains far
beyond the means of the average Honduran, the
number of sets in use has grown rapidly. Whereas an
estimated 2,000 receivers were in use in 1960, the
number had risen to about 35,000 in 1972.
Normally about 9 hours of programing are offered
daily, usually from 11:00 a.m. until 2:00 p.m. and
again from 5 :00 p.m. until 11:00 p.m. Presentations
consist principally of situation comedies, soap operas,
adventure features, motion pictures, and other fare of
an entertainment nature. Most offerings are imported
from such countries as Argentina, Mexico, the United
Kingdom, and the United States. Television films or
video tapes originating in the United Kingdom or t6
United States are customarily provided with Spanish-,
language sound tracks in Mexico before being
imported into Honduras. Because entertainment
programs are emphasized on Honduran television.,
newscasts have not received a high priority. Newscasts
usually are brief (5 minutes or less), are often sketchy,
and do not always report the latest news. Sometimes
they carry still photos, but they almost never have a
film version of the event being covered. Other than
newscasts, few programs are transmitted live, although
HRTC -TV presents some educational and special
interest programs, the latter including religious
services and sports events.
2. Newspapers, magazines, books, and films
The press, although limited in its circulation, is
influential because its audience consists primarily of
the articulate members of society� especially the
officeholders and professional classes residing in the
two major population centers. Although the literacy
rate is rising, the small number of newspapers
circulated per day is it reflection of the loco
educational level. 'There are five major daily
newspapers (I-igure 13) and about it dozen weeklies
that publish regularly. Circulation of the dailies totals
about 115,(x)0 copies, roughly 42 copies per 1,000
population which is one of the lowest ratios in I.alin
America.
Three of the five leading papers arc published in the
capital city and two in the north coast industrial
center of San Pedro Sula. Tegucigalpa's El Cronista,
founded in 1912, is the country's oldest. Its editorial
policy has gone through several changes in order to
keep the paper going. In the early 1960's it pursued a
pro Castro, anti -U.S. line but altered its stance around
1966 because of financial difficulties resulting from
the loss of advertising front businessmen who objected
to its views. Today El Cronista occasionally makes
favorable comment on U.S. policies. Its principal
capital city competitor, El Diu, is conservative, firmly
anti Communist, an(] generally favors the National
Party. It carries more straight news coverage than any
other Ionduran daily. The two newspapers published
in San Pedro Sula are La Prensa and El Tiempo, both
relatively new. The former was consistently
antigovernment in tone until the summer of 1968
when the government, in a rare move, closed it for 2
months. Since La Prensa reopened it is noticeable less
antigovernment, giving credibility to rumors of
intimidation and payoffs by the powerful National
Party boss, Ricardo 7.11111ga.
No Honduran newspaper can he rated as '*good."
journalistic standards are low, and reporters admit
that they often fail to cover assigned stories, relying
instead on news handouts from government offices
and other sources. In part -the prevailing duality of
FIGURE 13. Leading daily newspapers, 1974 (U /OU)
COMMENT
Senso':onilist, opportunistic, erratic editorial pol-
icy; frequently takes National Party line and
probably payoffs.
Independent newspaper; conservative.
Independent- newspaper; slightly conservative;
pro -C.S.; favors north coast businessmen: some
bias in favor of the Liberal Party.
Leftist- oriented: uses lively format, including
headlines in color; contains numerous feature
stories.
7
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ESTIMATED
DATE:
PLACE OF
DAILY CIII-
NAME
FOUNDED
PUBLICATION
CULATION
EL CIIONISTA (The Chronicler)...
1912
Tegucigalpa
25,000
El. DIA (The Day)
19.18
....do..........
20,000
LA PItF:NSA (The Press;.........
1964
San Pedro Sula..
48,000
Eli. 'I wmpo (The Tinted
1970
do
12,000
COMMENT
Senso':onilist, opportunistic, erratic editorial pol-
icy; frequently takes National Party line and
probably payoffs.
Independent newspaper; conservative.
Independent- newspaper; slightly conservative;
pro -C.S.; favors north coast businessmen: some
bias in favor of the Liberal Party.
Leftist- oriented: uses lively format, including
headlines in color; contains numerous feature
stories.
7
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journalism reflects the low status and low income of
newspapermen, mane of whonn are forced to work at
additional jobs, which limit the amount of time that
they can devote to their newspaper activities.
Publishers are faced with high production costs uul it
limited reading audience that make it difficult to
operate at it profit. As it result, most papers in the
country lead a precarious existence.
Among the best known periodicals being published
in Honduras in 1970 were Honduras Ilustrada
(Honduras Illustrated), it literary magazine published
since 196; Sucesos (Events), it monthly news-
magazine; El Cornercio (Commerce), it weekly
devoted to commercial and industrial news; and El
Sindicalista (Trade Unionist). a bimonthly devoted to
labor news. Except for El Sindicalista, which is
published in La lima, all are issued in 'Tegucigalpa.
Other periodicals include Honduras Rotaria
(Honduras Rotary), Letras Letters), and Ix B-lista
del Archivo y Biblioteca Nacionales (Review of the
National Archives and Library).
Foreign periodicals are not widely available,
although they can be purchased in 'Tegucigalpa, San
Pedro Sula, and other large urban centers. 'I'hcy
include Life en Espanol, Selecciones (Spanish
language edition of Readers Mgest Time, and
Newsweek from the United States, Bohemia Libre
from Venezuela, arid Vision from Mexico.
Honduran book publishing is limited by the same
difficulties that affect newspaper and magazine
enterprises. Low levels of literacy, high production
costs, distribution problems, and few interested readers
are the reasons why Honduras annually publishes
fewer books than most other Latin American
countries. Probably about 125 to 135 titles are
published annually, about half of which deal with the
social sciences and include government publications of
various types. Publishing firms are concentrated in the
Tegucigalpa� Comayaguelu area, where in 1970 some
10 publishing houses were in operation. These
included the publishing arms of the National Library
28
and of the National Autonomous University of
Ilonduras. Locally published and imported hooks, as
well as other printed material, are sold in bookstores
four in 'Tegucigalpa, two in Connayaguela, and one
each in San Pedro Sula and La Ceiba.
Films are it very popular form of entertainment.
Little use has been nade of this nedium for
propaganda or educational purposes. In 1969
Honduras had 132 movie houses, most of then
equipped for 35 -nun films.
K. Selected bibliography (U /OU)
Adams, Richard N. Cultural Surveys of Panama,
Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras.
Washington, U.C.: Pan American Sanitary Bureau.
1957. An extensive study of Honduran social
characteristics.
Chamberlain. Robert S. Conquest and Coloniza-
tion. New fork: Octagon Books: 1966. A history of the
early colonial period, which discusses Indian groups
and early population centers.
Institruto de Nutricion de Centro America v
Panama. Evaluacion Nutricional de la poblacion de
Centro Anerica y Panama: Honduras. Guatemala
City. 1969. Funded by several U.S. Government
agencies, this study provides extensive data