NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 95A; GUYANA; THE SOCIETY

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• Collection: NIS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200070007-1
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CONFIDENTIAL
95A /GS /S
Guyana
June 1973
NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY
CONFIDENTIAL
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
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This chapter was prepared for the NIS by 1.he
Bureau of Economic Analysis, Social and Economic
Statistics Administration, Department of Commerce,
under the general supervision of the Central Intel-
ligence Agency. Research was substantially com-
pleted by January 1973.
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CONTENTS
This chaper supersedes the sociological cover-
age in the General Survey elated July 1969.
A. Introduction
Ethnic rivalries impede development of national
cohesiveness; origins of racial and ethnic dif-
ferences; formation of political parties and polari-
zation of party loyalties along racial lines; self
help programs and cooperatives.
B. Structure and characteristics of society
Largest ethnic groups; Burnham administration
represents black community primarily.
1
3
1. Ethnic and cultural Groups 4
Major groups �East Indians, largest single
ethnic group; Africans second largest; mixed
category next individuals with two or more
blood strains, one usually Negro; urban -rural
distribution.
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Page
a. Physical characteristics 6
Skin color and build.
b. Languages 7
English� official language; Creolese spok-
en among lower classes.
2. Social classes 7
Traditional determinants F status; origins of
social structure; changes in attitudes and
social structure.
3. Social groups and social values
Disparate racial and cultural backgrounds and
attitudes.
a. East Indian
Traditional family and social patterns; au-
thoritative father figure; changing atti-
tudes; customs.
b. African
Traditional family and social patterns;
mother centered orientation; influence of
Ftavery on family form; consensual unions;
common law marriages; values.
e. Other ethnic communities
Cultural characteristics of the Amer-
indians; family patterns and customs; other
minor ethnic communities.
Page
E. Living ,nditi -ns and social problems 22
Lc. s of living and social problems; large -scale
unemployment and underemployment; idleness
and crime; alcoholism and drug abuse; housing;
National Insurance and Social Security Scheme
benefits.
A
F. Health 27
Environmental factors affecting health; disease
eradication programs; diseases; nutrition; de-
ficiuncies in supply and distribution of food;
efforts to raise nutritional level; environmental
sanitation; sewage disposal facilities; m fa-
cilities and personnJ; folk remedies.
G. Religion 30
Religious affiliations and beliefs; slaves barred
11 from religious activities in colonial times; mis-
sionary activities; predominance of Christianity
among newly emancipated slaves; status of major
religions.
1.2
H. Education
Quality of instruction and literacy; level of edu-
cational attainment; increase in educational op-
portunity; strengths and weaknesses of the free
compulsory educational system; educational re-
forms and public expenditures on education;
enrollment; educational system; major problems;
vocational training; higher education.
C. Population 13
Population growth; opposition to family pla-u-
ning; geographic distribution; resettlement, birth
and death statistics; immigration.
1.. Size and distribution 14
Latest estimate; urban and rural distribution;
internal and seasonal migration.
2. Age sex structure 16
Median age; age distribution; differences in
age structures of the urban and rural popu-
lations; sex ratio.
D. Societal aspects of labor 17
1. The people and work 17
Human and natural resources; attitudes to-
ward work; preferences for certain occupa-
tions; greater educational opportunities; abate-
ment of discrimination; resistance to the
employment of women; employmert of chil-
dren.
2. Labor legislation 19
Major labor ordnances: enactment of the Na-
tional Insurance and Uocial Security Scheme;
lack of controls over organized labor.
3. Labor and management 20
Organized labor; background of labor move-
ment; status of labor movement; labor organi-
zations; participation in international labor
affairs; special- interest groups.
ii
I. Cultural expression
Dominance of British nfluence in literature; best
known authors; British, Dutch, and French
dominance in art; most productive artists; dra-
matists; music, especially calypso; musical ex-
pression integral part of Guyanese life; limited
folk arts.
35
40
J. Public information 42
Radio and press coverage; informal oral com-
munication significant; no television; only a few
book t. iblishing houses; no motion picture pro-
duction; limited governmental controls.
1. Printed matter 43
Journalistic standards; newspapers and peri-
odicals; library system.
2. Radio 44
Extensive radio coverage; broadcasting sta-
tions; programing; foreign broadcasts.
3. Motion pictures 45
Films imported from the United States, Eu-
ropean countries, and India; film libraries.
K. Selected bibliography 45
Glossary 46
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FIGURES
Page
Fig. 12 Guyanese riding bicycles photo) 24
Fig. 13 Consumer price index chart) 24
Fig. 14 'Typical dwellings (photos) 25
15 Slum area in Georgetown photo) 26
Fig. 16 Estimated per capita daily cal( is
intake (table) 28
Fig. 17 Vendor selling wares at outdoor
market photo) 28
Fig. .18 "Cottage- type" general hospital
photo) 29
Fig. 19 Religious composition of the popu-
lation chart) 31
Fig. 20 Representative houses of -worship
I photos) 32
Fig. 21 Typical schools (photos) 36
Fig. 22 Educational attainment of the popu-
lation (chart) 37
Fig. 23 Primary and secondary enrollment
table 38
I'ig. 24 Structure of the educatiot,al system
(chart) 39
Fig. 25 Library at University of Guyana
(Photo) 44
iii
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Page
Fig. 1
Geographic distribution of ethnic
groups (snap)
4
Fig. 2
Identificati(.n. of locat: i of Am-
crindian tribes (map)
5
Fig. 3
Ethnic groups, by urban -rural resi-
dence tchart)
6
Fig. 4
Childrrn representing Guyana's
seen ethnic groups (photo)
6
Fig 5
Vital rates chart)
14
Fig. 6
Population density, by administra-
tiv(. district (map!
15
Fig. 7
Population, area, and population
density, by administrative district
table)
15
Fig. 8
Estimated population, by age -group
and sex table)
16
Fig. 9
Age -sex structure, Guyana and the
United .Mates chart)
17
Fig, 10
Population, by administrative dis-
trict and sex stable)
17
Fig. 11
Labor strikes and man -days lost
(chart)
20
Page
Fig. 12 Guyanese riding bicycles photo) 24
Fig. 13 Consumer price index chart) 24
Fig. 14 'Typical dwellings (photos) 25
15 Slum area in Georgetown photo) 26
Fig. 16 Estimated per capita daily cal( is
intake (table) 28
Fig. 17 Vendor selling wares at outdoor
market photo) 28
Fig. .18 "Cottage- type" general hospital
photo) 29
Fig. 19 Religious composition of the popu-
lation chart) 31
Fig. 20 Representative houses of -worship
I photos) 32
Fig. 21 Typical schools (photos) 36
Fig. 22 Educational attainment of the popu-
lation (chart) 37
Fig. 23 Primary and secondary enrollment
table 38
I'ig. 24 Structure of the educatiot,al system
(chart) 39
Fig. 25 Library at University of Guyana
(Photo) 44
iii
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the Society
A. Introduction (C)
Ethnic rivalries c�untintt(� to inyede the dcyelop-
Incttt of a national cohesiveness ill Guy,uta. despite
periodic cfforls by those in povyer to diminish the
antakouisnts existing between the co(tnlry's tye(: Iarl;e
ethnic cunurt(t Ili ties�the Fast Indians. yyftu constitute
about :)I r(* of the perp(tlation. and the Africans' and
persons of mixed descent. It( (ontprise approx-
intatcly The basic rivalry is political and
('eortonIle and concerns yyhich group vyiII %yield
political poker and have preferred access to the
limited number of better employment opportunities.
()tltural differences provide additional dimensions to
the co.tllic�t. (:ompetition for the dominant role has
served largel\ to unite the African and East Indiall
peoples behind their respective political leaders.
I'orbes Burnham of the Peoples National (:ortgre�ss
(PNC) and Dr. (:he�ddi Jagau of the Peoples
Progressive Party (PPP). ;Aggravation of racial tensions.
stenuning in part from the Marxist orientation of the
East Indian leudersWp, led to politically inspired race
riots it the early 1960*s. resulting in nuuty deaths and
much destruction. The turmoil of the early 1960's has
not reoccurred. but it Ieft the Guyanese vyith a
profound sense of insecurity and reinforced the distrust
behyeen East Indian and Mric�an. it situation yyhich
not only prevents the dcyclopnu�nt of it unifie(I nation
but also threatens periodically to bring on renevyed
violence. The Africans. in control of the polit' I
processes since 196 1. have made sonic serious attempts
to reduce racial tensions. hill milt\ 1 ?ast Indi:uts.
abetted by PPP progagan(la, Ifeel that the Burnham
administration (lots not truly represent them. does not
really trust tht�nt. and will heel alloy\ than to a(Itieye
v,hat they regard its their rightful role in national life.
A1'estern contact with Guyana Oates from 1 -199
yylien Spanish sailors, their interest centered on gold.
investigated the coast: when nu gold was found.
however. Spain emote no attempt at c�oloni
British awareness of the area goes hack to 1505 when
Sir Walter Raleigh explored the coast and rivers. also
'TIIV d- it' IIitIlml eunu mold e used and pn leered In the
e Ivwvn limk of the Ne,;ro da\v% broi Lhl to (:11\;111:1 from Africa ill
Cllr 1701. Ietlh, and 19th cenlurirs. Uhler terms slrnletime, used to
identife Ihese persons include "Nvgro,�s "Irlac�k. it "AIro-
(:ueit
in search of g(rld. ;1g.tiu, no attellipl \\.Is nta(le to
colonize. British interest lying primarily ill harassing
Spain and pirating gold bullion and other ric�hcs front
Spanish galleons. In anise luence. the First settlements
ill the area that is rtoyy Gm �aua core made by Dtitc�h
traders vyhcr. as early as 1:550. provided knives. uses.
and beads to :1nn�rilldians along the Ponu�roou 11ker
in cxc�hange for vyuods. dyes, itnd hclltp. In 1621. the
DIItcll West India (;ontp:uty \\as granted the right to
establish pernutrtcnt settlements on the Berbice.
Demerara. and l�:ssecluibo Ris ers and to monopolize
the ;kf'rican slave trade in those colonies.
WiI" the inl� .ntc�tion of slavery, l(wal trading
bec�:(tue of secondary importance, being supplanted by
the c�ullou. tobacco. and sugar plantation agriculture
Of the Dutch. Initially located inland along lh,-� rivers.
the plantations m�re nn,ycd to the c rastal area as the
soil became exhausted early in the 18th (erttury. This
area. nosy the Insist densely populated part of (:uy:uut.
\\as reclaimed front the sea by the Dutch planters and
their slaves. Since much of the region lies bel(m sea
leycl. extensive system of dikes. (�anaIN. an(I sluices
vyas built to (Irain the marshlands and ut:utgn,ye
s\% amps and to control the tides.
In addition to creating it it(-\% e(�ononty. the
introduction of slaves also resulted in the establish-
nu�nt of it nevy society in which a small, ruling class of
(:auc�asians found itsclI vastly outuutnbc�recl. on the
one hand Iry slaves and on the other by it ncrt alyyays
friendly .-\nu�rindi.ut population IIlia Controlled the
forests and mountains of the i:ttcrior. ('nder the
circumstances. it vv as essential for I tc Dutch to
cultiyale the sitl;porl of the :Amerindians. vyith the
result that the latter vyere :ic�c�orded special Ireat men I.
No :1nu�rindian could Ire enslaye(I unless he e�unte
from it great distance and \\as sol(I by the local
:\merindians as :t prisoner- of -vvar. The Dutch 11�est
India C(mipam also regnlarl\ proyide(I special gifts to
the :kmeritidians. vyho vycrc enlisted to bunt down
rmum ay slaycs.
:1s treatment of. slaves Kas harsh. revolts \%cry fairly
fre(ptent an(I ere crrtelly suppressed. 'I'hc vyorst revolt
yyus that of l i(i yyhen some 1.IIIIl1 slay; �s, the properl)
of about 300 planters in Berbice. virtually controlled
the colony f *or I I months. Under the leadership of a
Negro mined (:rtffy. who proclaimed himself
governor of Berbice. the slaves offered to share tit(-
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colony \\ith the Dutch on condition Ihat (hc\ he Iwell
\Ville the ;till (d :kincrindia and rciuforcenu�nl, 11(1111
F.tirope and the \1'esl ludic,, the rc\oll ;u Iinally put
d(m n.
Shorn\ thcreafter. British interest in Ilu� arva
tkindled b\ Bal,�rgll in the l6th ce11tnr\ I \\a, rc\i\ed.
In 178 1 as a result of \\Ir Iwt\\ven the I' Ili led
Kingdmn and the Ne�tlu�rfunel,, British Ironp, occupied
the settfenu�nls of B crbicc. Dvinerant, and Essciluibo.
Tilt (101mlics NllbsveluentI changed hand, ;t n1nr111c�r of
times. Ix�canu� pernl:un�nll\ occupicd b, the h1iled
king(Imn in 1S03, and \ctrl finall\ ccdcd to the British
in 1511. In IS.11 the British cm I'll the three
colonies into one British (Irian ;t.
shortage of Lthor follo\\e(I the almlilion of the
slave trade in 15();, and \\;u intensified b\ the
enlancilMh011 Of slaves ill 15:38. These c\cnt, brought
about extcrtske changes in Cu\anese soviet\ ;Intl laic)
the groundwork for the present day racial disharmmi\.
dally of flu� freed sla\es IIImed a\\;ty from the plantations, and those remaining, demanded \\ages
that most planters cmild not pa\. (tn:rna's exports fe ll
rapidly because of the inability of it, products to
compete in the \\orid market wit It those from u(imilries
here slayen still existed, such as :ill )it and Brazil.
Three quarters of the plantations \yen� either
abandoned or cot is( li (lit ted for \\;art of \\orkcrs. Some
Irish� NI:dtese, lortuguese. (:11 ine,e� and other \\orkcrs
were brought to the country on labor contracts, but
not in sufficient nnndwrs. ,o that the planter, had to
seek-' elsewhere for other sources of cheap. abundant
labor. The problem \\as resolved ill 153,5 \\hen a group
of indentured laborers \\:ts brought in from India.
Thereafter. more and more 1� :ast Indians arrived.
Although immigration of srrc�It I;Ibor its halted
temporarily as it result elf pressrrrc from the \nti-
Slavery Socicty, which labeled the indenture s\stenl a
disguiscd form of slaver\. it ;is rene\\ed nn(Icr
government supervision in I8-15 and c�ontiitiwd until
191 T. when it its finally abolished.
Slavery and the indenture system it ffected the
\egroes and I�:list ludiaus in 11uoly \\ays. although the
latter wort affec�tcd Iess. Of necrssit\. the workers
adopted the language of their master,. (Corm real
patterns were larger replaced by the reginu�ntcd
str11ct1;re of the plantation and its immagerial system.
The caste� s\'stcttl of till- Nast Indians \\its destroyed, as
\\erc aspects of kinship and fancily patterns of both
:\fric�ans and Nast Indian;. The religious belief, of the
:\fricims slaves we re larger suppressed; yet the
Ahicans were denied access to Christianity because of
the close association in the planters minds betwverl
missionary activit\ and the cnranc�ipation nu,ycnu�nt.
Slaves \\ere denied the right of Christian marriage
lentil l 125, and se of their families \vas not
prollibilcd lull if IS:) I III-11 l llc I,t\ c c.lucli!rd ,I bcc
InctI IIll.\ Ic ;li nc(I \IIt 11U `.1 cif Me lt' ;111
c ill lurc: Ilrc�reforc Ihe\ av(-c�I)lc�II Ilu� prc\ ;iil IiritIsh
c�Illlurc�. \\itIt hick tic\ \\crc most I ;I III iIIitr
It tIll. :\hicall, left (hl- Illaillaticlu ,chat- of the ill
inlerm Irricd \\iII the 1 ur nc�,I� ;Intl (:IIII11 'l he
Fast Indian,. h(mv\t�r. di(I nil mmit tll\ cnlcr inlo
miwd union,. v\ (-it idler the\ had utimplcicd Ihcir
I eriml of indent llrc IIIIt r1�r11;li IH�d ;dot ll Ire fill Ills' rc�,I of
No Will TI it I ho II�II Ills� )lit lit ;Ilion, ullc -r (-r\ilit!
their in(lentum le�n(led If congrcg;Itc ill area of Ilrc�ir
ImII. frcc bct\ing land \\itI their a\ing, m
particip;tling in official land re chcnle
in,tcad oI returning to India Tllc\ gcncraff\ it:norcd
till� wcl(�t.\ "tat w till nll alld. Ill of ml( ptlllg
local ni(m rclaincd man\ oil their o\\ it custom, ;Ind
hm Iheir rcmmrc(,. \Ilholli;h cnlpha,izi111
lllcir cpa lit tcm these practice rc in
\\id(�,prcad acquisition (d land and tIc l-
of ,ball bu,inc �c hick w er;tuall\ provided tIe
mean of Iilm;Ird nmbiIiI\ forsonu�. Bccau
ethic groups contpo,i11g the cs(;IIdkhed soviet\ ere
Il mid lot;cthcr lhmugh conluloll participation in the
s)cial. canonic. ;out pnliticul file oI the colultr\. and
to mmic dct;rcc had c�lo,m(I rank,, the Fa Indimis
initia-11\ Imind that np\\aal mohilit'\ Ior than la\
princ�ip,Ill\ in occupation from \\hick the\ could not
easily be cxclncicd. such as la\\. Inc(licinc. ;111(1
c�ornnlercc.
To ,olnc (Ict;rcc, the \;hell ,\,tcnl of the F. :i
Indian, tended to prcycnt their as,imilation into the
estahlidwd societ\. !illations \\ith other t;rollps \crc
not close, and iulcrmarriat;c \\as rare. The occupation
(if the Fast Indians as indentured laborers, their rcln,al
to send their child- ,I to Christian denominational
schools (Ihe only outs available 1. and the po �ibility oI
their retnnIing to India upon completion o their
indenture fostered resistancc to assimi lit tion and the
de\eloprncnt of it ,cparalc conrtnnnit\. On the other
hand, the \fricans recognizc(I (:II\ana ;IS their
nuctherland. a(hyted the ;Ilrres of it, estalli
oc�ict y and. through effort and ed neat if )I
bec�anle art indispensable conlpocicnt of that iargcr
conununil\
Since 1911. \\hen the indenture s\stcm Is
abandoned. hat other (u\ancsc refer to slighliugl)
as tFlc coolie culture� (11' the Fast Indians has been
giving way to local c�erstorns and u that are uol ill
c1011flic�t with their (I\% it clhnic� \aluc,. Vestiges ccf Fast
India ll languages have bccn supplanted by English or
the rural patois based on English. F.ask- Indian children
arc Icing sent to school. \\ith gr(I Iig mindwrs
Itic�II(IiIIg secondary and higher cdllc�ational
institutions. Despite earlier rebuffs. more and more
East Indians arc participating ill public life.
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\mvri it( ians. tihost� couLacls Milli ;n\ant social
I:%� aI%a.I\s been tenuous, li\c in ititick scattered
tribal Net lla-nients I,1 1111- IIIinl\ popul :Iled Il aurt ;sins
Mill lmv%ts of lie inlerior and harm it grim apart
\Ithuugh suun� Ill 4d a \aricti of nuIr�rII lutes, nuasl.
especiall\ the older vviieration. ara- canlenl to lira-
their forefathers did in primilke. lrih:alk arg:uriicd
Cap tr Ill IIIIiIivs.
\\�ill the e\ception of tlr� itlita-, Iargelt British
e )it tri:tes. Ilia- F IIrapa-an and (:hinesa- curunmilitia
hate tended to hec all u� ,as sinai lit ta-d inlo the gcncr:aI
p( pulation. \lint lit art laic intermaIIicd it
IIte \fricates and think of themsekes :as o v.m a-sa-.
.0111)ugh the (:hilluw h a \l� also hccaua- alone
;u\anese in onllook and hao,v adapted :hrisli,u nit
their ca mmmiti ra-nwins litirlt endwise: interitim-
riage itith atlier rata-s dues not occur fret lucnlls.
liec�amc Ilia- British colonialists Iookctl dim it on Ilia-
P.arhrgut�se. Ibis attitmle etas ahsorlied hs the \1ric,mN
and the fast Indians ttlro u1 ten rcler tar Iln�na I Ilit
da-rugaturi term I'ntat;cv. The IN art cri;ucsc. hoii a-\ cr.
n�i;ard Iiensckes as srperior to hull Ilia- %Iric,a it, ,and
Ina- Fast Indian�. .\II ch-mvnts look thmit on In a-
.\merindi:uas. ho arc aftcn dcri.i%ck termed lip,
A
pcoplt�
The administration of 1'rinu� Minister Func's
liunrhanr. sshiclr is nnlliracial hill n�pn�st�nts
prim aril\ Ilia- Mriru cmmmmilt. leas mada- soim
t� ffurt� Ira pnnmte national units. stabilih. and
ccunouric dct elopn ent mid has tried to a\ oid
antat;mliii[lit the Fast Indian p pill ilia I it pit. \c\ertlic-
It�ss, racial tension. illthonglr it still remains
IWIlVatIt th su
e rface aof national life.
I. Elhnic� and cultural groups
\IthougF (:u\ana has hca-n callc(I :a land of si\
people%. official t�nnnn�ralians of tic pupul:atian hair
included s %cn classifications \thich are primaril\
ethnic and largt�li indicatke of arc:: al origin: First
Indian. \fric:ua. \liwd. \rncrindi :ua. I'ortngucsc.
Chinese. and Dthcr I�:uro pean.'' l sa- of (here la-nm
originalcd in Ilia- I9th center\ follimini; the
emancipation of the \a-gna sl:ces hell Ilaansalid" of
indentumd laborers m-re hroiatio into tic countrx.
nmalorih of these lahor(�rs tier(- Fast Indians inrt tics�
\acre smaller nunrha-rs al 1'ortuguesa- and (:trim .m..
Tlm%. the lours "hirlugiiese :uul "011wr Fiii o pcan
a�nablecl it distinction to he drain bel\teen the
indentured I'ortm mess labomr,mid thc'.�olan\ 's rulinit
class. Tie t;cagrap:ic dislribntion al the population
b% ethnic grutep is sh,mii in Figure I.
The Fast Indians, Ilia largest single ethnic t;ronp.
comprised an a-slrrnaled 51 of the population :as of
ve
S
George lawn
FIGURE 1. Geographic distribution of ethnic groups,
1960 (U OU)
jm man 197 1 irtn:II all itcre lit li\ays of ;III :our.
being da-scc ,de(I Irony IlldcnIIIred lahurcrs larau
from Ind iii "flit� n lit lurih it a- re IIindm fron the
l nitcd farm inces it(m l ltcr l'r,rdc in lh(� north of
Ildia: ahuut 16', \ta-rc \1 ii \liens. I.vss than ant� -t Ili rd
ul tic IIindii\ %%vrc ad lost cra air autcastt orii;in.
\chile 12', m-ra- Brahmans and Ksh:alri\as. the highest
caste gnnaps. Dic dislinc�lians al caste. the Indian
immigrants i\crc all trcatt�tl alike in their nc\\ role its
field lahort�rs. and the clahar:atc ritual distinctions
conuuun to tha- different Ilindu castes in India
heumne .nhtncrgcd in Iii- harsh rcu!itics al plantation
life. Silica- Ilia- beginning al Iha- 211th ccntur\. tha- lard
Indians Ilia\(- c\peria-nccd ;r dccliuimi death r;rtc
resulting lain itnl)roscen,�nts in riral health
candilians. %thilc the\ h;rNa- maintained it high birth
rate. \s a cimmomit\. the incre ascd in si /e ht an
;I\vragc oaf I. la, per :alm mn in Ina- period 19:11 1 a 19 Ili
and Ire ;Ica it\cr,agc of :i.(i', per :annuli bet 191(i
:Intl 19601 �:r higher rate of i;r( mIIt lh;ua that of any
al her clhnic grasp. \cc rting far ;Ippra \imatel
Ii', of the tip rli ilia Iian in 19 Ili :uad Ili in I Wit
l. bi
the late 190 the\ comprised it slight majarit\.
In I9, 1. tic \fricans cmistitwed 31 1 al the
population. Like the Fast Indians. thc\ \acre also
ratite (:uc:uu�sa-. (Icsc�cuda-d fmn slacs originating on
the ;Ili Ilea ca:ast of West \frica and frail sonic 56,ll(111
indentwed scr\ :alit, Imeght franc the West Indies anti
lfrica after Ina- abolition of slater\. Intpra\cd Ilea IIIt
conditions during the first half of tha- 20th crntcrm had
II�ss impact an the 14rtriih rate of Ilia-: \fric�ans as nun\
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\rcre iii-oan (1\\rllers It( illrc:rd\ the,(
ad\anlagcs. "I eonununit. inc�r-ased in siz( I
average of I.O`i Iwo Anna(), let n 19 :3 1 and 1916
ur,d b\ an average oI 2.; per annual ill Ih- period
I9_1(i to 1960. TI �is, gro\\ing :,t it slo\\er rats- than t w
1�::sl I "(I iii n c Ill un Ill ih. the Alric:u, grout, dro
Iron, :i5`'r oI tl,(� pylilation in 1946 lc, :i :i' in I)(ill
and to I(.ss Ilr�,n it third in the I:,l(� IJ(i() 's.
The li.x(�(I� categor\ includes in(fiNi(111:1Is \\ill,
h\o or nu,r- blood strains, MIC oll \\hick imrinall\ is
\cgro. Ill the earl\ da\s ,f' :11( colon\. persons )F
mixed descent (also kno\\n its color(.dsi \\ere nu,stl\
the offsl)ring cif \c�gro sla\- \\omen and British or
Dutch Ines. Later, afrieans ,,n(I colorccl, alike ,natal
\\ill, the Portuguese. An,crindi :u,s. (:Irincsc. :sal it
small nun,her ol' Filst Indians. 'I'll( t)rot)ortionalc size
of the n,i\ed grout) has remained largely uuc�h(u,gcd in
rec�cnt (.ars: in 11)1(i the\ account-(! for aI)t)ro\i-
n,utc�I_ 10(( of the population and in 1969. about
12 1. 'I'l actual size of the gn)ul).
t)robabl\ snnu \chat greater than rermi tcd hcc :,uu
114111\ to rsons of rnixc(l (I(.sc�cnt i(l(.r,til lh(.nseke, is
Af'ric�ans: in Fact� thv inixcd grout) is usuall\ considcwd
as it Dart of the African c�on,nl�nih.
Most present (la\ Anu�rin(lians arc desc�cn(Icd Iron,
h\o main aboriginal gronln. the Ara\\akan- and the
(:crib- siwaking tribes, both of \\Frick arrivcd in the
ar(�a that is I�w Cli ana Iron, south of the Orinoco
Biver in about the IOtfi ecnt,in. The proportion of
Amerindians in the I)ot)(Ilalion drot)lwd (Inic�kl\ after
the IwgiIIitiIIg of the colonial cm as it ncs,III r,l
n,istreatinent and c\postirc to diseases introch,ced I,\
Furopeans ;(n(I AFric�cins. OI itppr(,xin lit lel\ 16
subgroups inhabiting the area at the beginning of the
coloni:(1 occutrition. onl\ nine winitin (Fi( o 21.
These \ar\ in c�ult(Ire. stage of de\rlol)IlU�nt. ar,(I
(Icgree of assinlilatioii into the national sncieh. In
i 97 1, the Amerindians c� )Ili priscd about 1` oI the
I)ol)ulalion. it protu)rtion little ch :urgc ctluii(�
line. thus crciitini; ti>o au(1 ti>u I( cal
,u\erning authorities. I�'(ir Hit- must Bart. ho\irw�r.
rural African, and Fast In(Iian li\e peac::dil side h.
si(lc. Of the Allierilidiari population. appro\iniatck
(rtu� (Bird inhabit the of the coastal area. (tile
the remainder are disposed throui;hout the interior.
nsualk in small ill;a es of front 11111 t0 200 resident,.
a. Physical characteristics
1 ariels of plaisical Mies. cnsloniaril\ recokniz-
able to (insiders. rcflccl the ethnic (li\crsit\ of the
counts (Fit,ire II. The aver.i Fii,t III(Iial! is of
II IV( Ii>IIII st atur( i t I I a rather slight biil(I. Ilis hair is
black, either straight or a ;a no. I Iiis cies dark. Skin
color ranges Irani Inediint to (lark I) rO\in. Becaise the
\fric;uisdescen(I front \ariois \egroi(I triI )es alon." the
cst coast nf:\fric.i. skin color ranges front light bro\\n
to black. \lales aw�rage about 5 feet ,5 iichcs in height
and arc apt to be muscular. An :\friciitt tends to li a\c
black kink\ hair. if broad nose. and ciertcd lips. \s
most persons of mixed :uicestn descend front Africans
and Firopeans. the\ characteristics associated
(>ith these groups. Most obvious is skin color. hick
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r ;urges front il it vvililc Vocally Wri. d "high
c�olor to variou, darker shades. :\Incrindia ns arc
get it it little over 5 fvet i1( height, stockily built.
;crd IIII ar. xxitIi I it/.(- skin color. straight (lark
flair. and brow it eves. Slightly Mongoloid fiattncs arc
a >pun�nl.
b. I. im 1(a -es
E nglish is :tn;tna's official lankuatc. It is used on
the radio, in tilt- newspapers, and for instruction in tilt
public sc�lImds here ;tttemlimcc lhewetic�ally Ilan
bt-cn com ilson since 1876. \1'itll mitior exceptions,
partic�ularl itnong the older \inerindiais. it is
universally spokt-lt. Because corrcc�t usage of tilt-
language is umc of the prinic criteria of social st :this. all
echo consider thcrosclves in the IIIi(I (Ilc class urabove
Make even effort to speak its grammatically as
possihlc. AIm the lower class. It( wcyer, tilt- spoken
language. called Cr(�olese. is :tut ungralnnatical patois
based on I ?rlglish and containing Portuguese. Dutch.
IIin&. :\frican. and n
\merindia \Ards. \cverthcics,,
it ears usually he Understood by ;1(l outsider after a few
brief contacts. nunbcr of :\iiwriIidi;oIs ,peak
dial :�c�ts of three indigenous languages� (:iirib.
:\rmakan. or \\'arrau. Bctwecn one -half ;111( two
thirds of tilt- \incrindians. how ever. have k%imed to
speak. read, and w rite some Fyidish in ,c hoc,i. ;111(1 it
fcvv in the southwestern part of the c�ountry bor(iering
Brazil arc also able to speak Brazilian P)rtuguese. The
F irst hidian Izm9iial;cs, prim trily I lindi. Bengali. and
Oriyit. have been displaced by 1�:nglish except anitrng
some of the older East Indi;ins. The use of CIiuest- ;111(1
Porlug(rese has virtually died ont. an(I the \frican
languages of tilt- Negro slaves have been conlplch ly
forgotten.
2. Social classes
Self government aril subseclrreut independence
have provided the impetus for it rcc�asting of social
classes. .'dthou it maiorit\ of individuals on the
bottom ruug of the ,oc�ial laddcr renulin the least
privilcgt-d group. the more able of tilt- old middle class
have moved ulmard into bigh stahls pos lions
rcplac�iog the forme British elite, while the middle
class has expanded substantially.
During the colonial occupation. the :\frican and
mixed groups ac�ceptc(1 the culture of the 1� :11glisli-
slwaking white po pulation. among whom the
principal determinants of status were skin color.
education, occupation. and wealth. Of !hose. the
ovcrridin,g consideration was the degree of \%hiteness
of skin. To be horn of mixed parentage and to have
light skin color ation better than to be pure Ncgro;
to Itt� :ter o It rolit it Idler t [tit rt to Ito� it cltcalroill.
:ctrro�c�t list- ref' tit( Engli,lt L11tgrlagc% iochiding the
ability to read and rite�. and knovvle(Ige of proper
dress and behavior were other marks of .tattis and
privilcgc. sultjec�t alvv:tvs to the insuperable barrier of
skin color. \s late� as the 1950*s. for i�vimple. the mixed
soc�ic�t\ of Getirgetovcn \vas described its 11ty world
vv here 'high color and 'lovv c�olor' arc prem-cupalio ns.
jerc parents plan for IIwi, (lit ughters to Inarn lit (-I
with lighter skins plan their oa n. and vv hits skin is the
hope and aid of all."
Ila\illt; accepted the social s\stcnl of the Hfltglislt.
miln\ of the \fric; ns and persons of ntixe(1 descent
acquired an education and nurvecl into nliciclle clans
oc�ctlpat it Ms. such as teaching. the civil sen ice. and
other white- collar arras of sonic re�.ponsibilily an(l
prestige. As the hutugucsc itild Chint.". also acoluired
I� :nglish education and c�ulturc. the\. too. gradually
iIM into higher status gr( ill)\%ard fimbilily
Irving facilitated b\ their skin color imd the wealth
that manly had acquired. Most of the 1� :ast 111th :11cs.
however, made little effort to enter (;Imanwc society.
Because their children were rarefy sent to sc�honl, the
nmiority remained illiterate until wrC into, the 20th
c�cntiirv. I.ac�k of cducatiou and it tendency toiv(arcl
aloofness, eouplecl with rural residence imd alt initial
refusal to accept filim\ of the status svntbol> of
;nvancse soc�icly. ;aa(!e upw;trd mobility virtualb
i MP( ssible� for man years. F\c1ltually. however. their
tencicncc to save and their belated willingness to
spend moue\ fnr their childwn's t-dtic�ation pro\ided
MM" with the nit�;111s of gaining higher tilt ns. Sinc�c
the turn of the ecnturv. iiwi number, have
IMRCd into middle -class oc�c�upalitm
�film,. the social structure at mid 20th c�crti m
c�orlsisted of it white aristoc�racv comp )sed of c�olorlial
a(Inrinistralors. c�onnmcrcial and ind,istrial executives.
and plantation ow errs and managers: it middle.
generally cowwrv;tticc. �lass c�ousisting of .\fricaos.
persoits of ulixecl descent. hutu;-uese. (:hirtese. and
educated F;�st medians oecupciog the upper. middle.
and lower tiers of the proli �ions. eonlnterc�e. and
gor n
vi 11 an uv
d a loer etas, cmlillosud of skilled.
,t-nli,kiIled. itnd unskilled urban workers. it nost all of
them \fricans. and of I:aa Indian and \fric�an
agricultural luborcr, and small farmers. The advent
of turiversal suffrage. the crcatioii of mass political
parties. and the introduction of constitutimial re forms
in the IS 50's and of self- goyernncnl in the Imitl
have brought about signifi(-alit e�hanges in the
c�onlposition of the upper and nliciclle classes. Mov irtt;
into position, of amthority in the lop cc�hchm 01' the
nations political and social structure arc� former
;uetnhers of the nliciclle c lus> who hay c clu;llifit-d by
8
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25X1

ren lit iled on the ,Agar III;Inlall(iIIN. Ili lt, (iIht,rs
IwcaIIIt' indt,peudt,nt rice I';urners.
In Iht, rict,gro\\iug a re; is. n;uI\ FiINI IIldians ha\c
tar elf rc%erted !o the c\telldc(I faIlliI s (ins
renaimnit in their parental home, after rh ;trriagv f(ir a
\ear (ir nur(� (ir until the hirth of one or I\\o children.
On lilt sugar estates. h(i\\e\er. a son ur.ur\ Itt� allntic�cl
it house inunc(liatel\ up m Inarriagv. If there iN ;I
scarcit\ of houses. a nutffli(�r of,ons an(I Iltc�ir lit milic,
nut\ Ii\e i t I I their part,ul,. ItII t;(�IIc�r;III ill shch t,ast,,
(�it c�II famiI\ ha, its o\\ if room. it if kitc�h(�n. and a
,t, fit rate hudi,1et. FasI Indian cushmi rc�(Iitirc�, t fit I it
\aunt; \\ife Ii\ is in lh(� house of 1wr nrcttIwr- in -la\\ he
,uhscr\ient to her. .\s the \\i\eN l'iII(I thi, Ifrac�tict-
int,reasiIigI\ ohjec�tionitIde. hm if( IN ,r�t up their mII
("I;11)Ii Iis fit ll\ Iva nc\. if No ;t, cc( n(iuti-
call\ possible. In cmi'v(ti(�nc�c�. the Fast III(Ii;III %illage
i, get writ Ik di\ ided into a serieN of Lunil\ t,lu,I rs
\%ho,(� nit�nht,rs arc� related to one an(itI r throcn;h tic,
of blocto het\%een males. .\nitmg rice larnit�rN. thest.
Tamil\ c�! Istcr, frc(lut,ntl\ form a c(upontte economic
grout) for gr(t\%ing rice as if crop.
East Indian grids are e\pecled to ntarn belme at(c
20 and ho" bt,fom age 25 unle� thc\ are actlhiring
hight�r cdctcation. Pcrson;Il choice is Iec(inting
iIIc�rcasinglc important in the selt,c�tim, ntalt,s. ;In(I
n o� cOIIIdc lulu� if I)iIr(�nlal opp( )siIion is ,Iron,;
\crertltcles,. arranging tilt marriatte of one's children
c( IIIiIIIIcs to be a n;Ijor parental responsibiIiI\. at Ieast
in coral areas. Mt Ili m:;h caste h lildv sigffific;tncc in
mist its pec�ts of c(iII vIIIonIr% lift,. Ilincln parcel
prefer marriage \%it III the ,amt, or higher caste.
\rung nun' fnhtrt, prospccl,, ho\\c\cr, arc ;Ils()
important c�offsideratiuns. and art, iikek t(i ftc of
paramount concern to url )if n pawnts.
:k, marriage is mgariled its a major rite marking the
transition froth 1th to ad lilt lit o(l. a clahoratc a
\\cdding its nean, \%ill permit iN ;c nct,essar\
affirmation (if Nocial preNIige. IurtictI lit rl\ among
ndu,. \I itriIiII union, Ina\ be esl ;IhliNht�(1 h\ a
IIindII or NIllslint religions cerenunt\. IA it legal,
regish�r((I :narriagc \\ilh or \\ithoht it religions
ceremou\, or h\ if c�ornnron Ia\\. or"c�Itstomar\ ffnion
not c�cichrate First marriage, are gt
,olermtized h\ re!i0mis rites. Sincc 1957. ho\\c\cr. if
Ilincln or Nkslim relit;iow, official. like it Christian
c�lerp roan, eta\ perform if (egad ccrenton\: hence. first
marriages rto\\ tend to ht, automatic�all\ registered and
1eg111. \e\erthcless. Iran\ Fast Indians cvnlimw to
prefer if religious rite onl\ or it c�otnnwn la\\ union.
Loth of which make it possible to a\vtid c�oNtl\ (li\orc�(-
1,rocce( ifIgs in cast, the marriage fails. .01mngh
Christian churches olhjec�t to c�onuffon I ;I\% lotions. Ihe\
are sanc�tioncd b\ tilt IIindu and \lusliill cunl-
ntunitic,. II, ho\\c\cr. an unret;i nt;rriauv
endures for 6 ()r mm \vms. it is n,u:tll\ legilintizccl h\
rcgisl fill iill.
Quilt� Ircclucnll\. \%hen ;I rtc\\I\ nl;trricd t,ouplc
IiceN \\ills llle Imshan(I'N p ;trent, fur ;In co-ndc(I
period, the \dung gift� \\ill Iu�conu IissaIisliecl a If( I
return If( tic: cort\crsel\. Ilt�r II(1,1 )it t1(I ur IIiN I)arc:tIN
Ina fort,�(� her to k%i\e iI I li Iind her not to their
liking. \u Nocial Ntignut aIlat,he, to c�ohple, II(I
It,rminato if I Ili( II, Ic�t;,tl (ir (ithent,isc, ;if id cNtahlish I
n(.\\ Irun,(�hold..\ girl ;I\ ha\v� If iIfIicn Ir )if I Nc\craI
nni(in, hefnrc ,ht, settle, (1()\% if penff;Inenll\ \%itlt if
man [to. clffitc pr(ibabl\, ha, liml,imilare\periences.
(A)scr\ers cslinmatc that (ine -t hi rd to (ine- fonrlh (if all
Fast Indian couples ffn(Icrgo nmri tit I I;Iilures. III such
cases, the fit( lbet IrsialI\ t;(kcs the children. but
t,ust(int rt,clhires that the lather help ,Itltltorl them
until the mot1wr remarries. In fact. a mother or her
fantii\ nla\ in\oke Ic�g ;(I assist imcc It. insure their
,app ut.
In the Iradilional Fast Indian h(iuschrtld the l ;Viler
is it o�Npt,c�te(1 ,aid authoritarian figure. 111 ullit t
members of the LttniI\ it re ill lorolinaI(� to pith. hi
ishc, arc la\\. If(- controls lh(. Ilcti\ IIivs of hi \\ifc;tlid
children. and he is the icltlgc of ri lit ;nit1 \\rong. in
fact. t-0-mal n�t,ulation Notch it It t�.(I and It nal
lit \%s, arc onl\ rc pvcIed after Ihc\ h;c\c Item
in!crpreled h\ the central ligffrc of f ;(ntil\ autlulrit\.
loffffg children arc tcrtdecl b\ their mother. hill it
Ito\ gr(i\\N older he wile under Ili father'
Nuper%ision. The killer ;cr for his c(lucation.
teac�hcs hits lielcl\%(A. ()r find, hint if jol). I le Ina\ ;d
eh(io,c his Non', \\itc. 'I'ht, No iN \heele( I I ho\%
dcfercnc�c to hi, f ;clher. to rr�Ir ;tin froth f ;(IIIiIiitrII and
nc\cr to challcngc palertud ;t tit ho it\. shoild the
lather die, the oldest No (icing at I (mw gcnerAl\ iN
rec(ignizvd a, ht,acl of the I'aI Ili I\
I);IIIghler rt�IIiiiiIi under their mother'. tfftclagc
In(tiI marriage. She te;w1w, Ihent lu c�(iok, t�\\, keels
house. and tcgard lilt, men (i(t the hoh,(�hold as their
prcticc�t(irs and superiors. The Irmlili(mA Fast Indian
\%(iman t,mg;(gcs in fc\\ act i\ itics outside the honk Iltat
;ere not ;(ssocialcd \\ith her role ;I ife and mother.
.\n(ing orth(ido\ \1ltshInN. \\illicit ha\c If() \,ticc in
the Janaal is \1uslim religions as anion 1 t(c! th(
Ina\ n(it \\orshi1) in the nto Similarl\. ;Intone
Iilldns. cer!ain ritual (ib ;(rc permil led onk
to Inetl.
\wmall\, ,pomse inherit from cac�h (tht,r. hill if it
\\ill is dra\\n ffp the children ma\ sh;(rc ctlffall\. In
practice. daffghterN rcc�ci\e It,� lht m stiffs. as tits�
Inarria,gc eyense, and (1o\%rics (if the former ;Ire
c hargcd ag;Iilist their ,hare.. 'I'll(- girl', (lo\\ r\ consist,
of fit( wablv pro pert\, ,itch IN li\(- towk. nit)in�\. ;Ind
I
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je\celr, while the bu\ net\ receive his share of the
patritmntc in land.
In lliv kinship Imttc�ru of Itmcr stratrnt Nast
IIRIiltlIS. the ife of the fit lher*s batwi (elder brother)
plays it major rule in fantil\ life. Considered second in
impurtance to the mother, she is kimmi as bar�ima. or
as "big nturuna, to her nieces and nephc\\s on her
husbaud*s side of the fans(!\. lu addition to
cunsangcinal relatimiships, I'minal kinship terninnl-
og is entplo\cd b\ moist Nast Indians as a uu�ans of
expressing respect fur friends and c mupatriots. It is
connon, ful' ex ;tnple, for \uung people to call old
pec.ple ajult or nano and ajiv or nanie (paternal or
ntateu;; I;randfather, paternal or maternal grand-
mother); fur older people to call uung people beat t or
Italic (son or daughter): and for net to refer to other
men as b1lai (brother). In addition. it matt might call it
close friend ba�kuh (eldest brother) and the friends
\\ife bhotwic (sister- in- la\\).
"Traditional famil\ mud kinship patterns are slo\\I\
changing its 1111111\ East Indians emerge from ethnic�
isolation. \e\\ acquired educational and business
uppurtuniltcs, along with participation in politics,
have resulted in a gradual acculturation into national
life. Change, ho \ce\er. \;tries bct\\ecn urban and rural
areas and from illagc to village. &-pending un the
degree of interaction \\ith other etlmic groups.
Nevertheless� family ties and rural residence, together
with distinctive relitrious behefs, have enabled must
East Indians to maintain c�ultimil separation from the
mainstream of (;u\;tnesc life and to preser\e
traditiuna! \clues and customs.
The t\pical Fast Indians idenlit\ is routed in his
family and cunntunit\ role and in his religious beliefs.
In this context, a fnndanu�ntal cure \;due is
egalitarianism, referred to as mali. Probabl\ derived
from the English \Nord "n;cte." mah denotes it blind
bcl\\c�cn nu�n oc�c�up\ing the sartte slams. \Iali is
enforced not oul\ b\ such cununon social controls as
;ussi1), ridicule, and scorn. Ilia also b\ lftc� so- called
"eve pass a public redress of insult or humiliation in
\\hic�h the accuser requires the offender to either
reaffirm the blind of their equal status or to \alidatc
his claim of soperiority. The c\c pass thus clisc�onrages
individuals from adopting sonic of the \:dues and
s\ mlmis of the modern Wcstern \world.
Nevertheless. \\calth is valued, but u111\ as a
cornnuxlity to be husbanded and used to discharge
religious obligations. to make morc n umev. to cdrtc�ate
ones c�Iildren. and to invest in land. O\\nership of
land, in fact, carries \cith it a certain m sticluc. and
most Fiist Indians \work their land intensively and
c�arcfully. "Thrift and personal reserve are also highl\
y,t�Ilim! of l:insl ip lee m an� bawd on local usaj;v
prized. "Thus, the Flast Indian \\arks hard and
eunsutres fntgall\ an\onc \\Iio spends foolish(\ and
exlra\agantl\ is derided as matt of lo\\ trite. The
astral F.asl lucliatt Mm nut\es to tu\cn does clot c�tuttlat.
the urban d\�,eller in conspicuous \\a\s but slri\cs te,
establish econuntic independence. Cununuuit\ and
religious leaders, nunro\er, tend tcu Ile clra\\rt front
those Mm bare suc�cveded financiall\.
:kIthuugh Nast Indians vwre dm\ to accept it and
c�onlimic� to assail its F(irolwan bias. education has
bec�onu� a param ;cunt \ahic mid one of the most
inportanl forces t>runu,liug their iulegration into
national life. It provides it knoMedge of th Fnglish
language and c�nllure that are requisite for up\\ard
social nd,bilit\, opening the \ca) to civil ser\ic�e and
other \\Iite cull :cr entplo\mvnt. More and Inure. F,: ist
Indian children are attending school. some thrmtgh
the uni\rrsil\ level, and thereafterentering fields octet
the almost exc�luske pres�r\e of African" and
F.u rolx�ans.
The East Indian is proud of his ori6n in India.
\\hose independence has enhanced his ethnic bride
and given added mciming to his traditional \ca\ of
life. Ile esteems those It(, support the ethnic
c�on Ill unit\� mvi c�haut I e\ample. \\hu sponsor
radio programs of Indian Intuit. Con\ersel\, he
disapproves of those \\ho fail to publicly sul,port the
famil\, kinship group. ur ethnic c�uuurunit\. an
altitude hic�h tends to exacerhale interracial tensions.
nuntg the customs ohscr\cd b\ the East Indian
cmium ntt\ are thecelebralioasussuciulcd \\ith lIindu
or Islamic religious riles. such as Occpavali, it Ilindu
festi\;tl of lights to placate Kali. the goddess of death
and destruction. In addition. IIindus norm; all\
celebrate the \inch Da\. \\lien it ne\\Imm child is
given his name b\ it pandit: muurcnt. hen a child
rec�ei\es his first haircut. usuall\ about the age of 9
months: ritualized engagn
cu�nts and \\eddin(s:
funerals (dec�cased persons are buried, rather than
cremated as in India I: c�erentonies in nte tit( r\ of
ante \tors: atul the su called p /qtr. "I'he ya- is :t rile of
thanksgiving for such events as a good crop.
conpletion of it it(-\\ house. or :'eco\rr\ from an illness.
Uepcnding nu the \\calth of the famil\. it qw Ina\ be
an e\pensive affair. it large nntuber of friends and
relatives being invited to share in the festivities \%hicit
may l ast for several claws. Food and drink is supplied to
all guests, and the officiating pandit is pre sented gilts
in keeping \with the rc�sourc�es of the host. Religious
obligations and duties. in fact, require� al least one
fourth of all earnings if one expec, to be considered a
"good ttinclu. I'hc demands of religious obseryancc
account in part for the stress placed un m b\ the
Fast Indian community.
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25X1

are all popular; nu�n gather iu tit(- local ruts shop to
exchange g)ssip and discuss pmlitic�s. x /ImIc\ also
provides the mu�aus kith \\hich to ac({uin� good
clothing, refrigerators, MCWIcs, St-Wing mtac�Itines, and
rather items haVing a sl;ttus cmmnotati(n
The :\fricans perceived the value ()f education much
earlier than the Fast Indians and ctlilized it to ac({uim
n dotnivancc in the civil ser'fce, !hc {>rofessi(ns. and
other 1)rivileged occupations. nuuunity Ica( Ivrs are
apt to be schoolteachers mr others who have acquired
tilt education. Although the \frici ms continue to
esteem education and patblic sere icc more highly than
clo the Fast Indians, the latter have recently begun to
compete witli theta for the higher ec�ononuc� and
political positions ill social\, a that tnany
:\fric�aits regard as it usurpation ()f their hereditar
rights.
Although the r\fric�ans had aI\va\s prized a light
complexion above ail else and had sought sla\'ishl\ to
imitate the British c()lonialisl, the middle and tipper
classes have began to take a much greater interest ire
their :\fric�an heritage and to dvvclop a g�nuime pride
of race, reflected by interest in the international
"black power nuWrmu�nt, "smII music, and the
literature of M'rica. The\ are proud ref the former
c�mlmnies in :Africa and the Nest Indies reek ruled b\
Negroes. The averagc :\fricam, ho\cc\er. althougl
;I wa re crf It is \friean Imc�kgrnmid. continues to
maintain it Westernized (r "c�re()Ic outlook ota life.
c. Other ethane communities
:\nuntg Gti arms other ethnic groups, \mcrindiaus
have the most distinctive life style. .-kitlimigh cultural
change is resulting front increasing c�ontac�ls \\ith
missionaries, g(wertiment agents. and others \\im
vcnture into the interior, imam \mcrindians retain
tliv:. traditional Ica\ of life and remutin (ntsidc the
national social structure. The tropical forest culture of
the \ari(us tribal groups shos\s trans points ref
simtil:arit\. 'Tribal difrc ,entiation is recognized. but
organization (lows not extend be\(md the village le\e1.
None ()f the groups ac�kno%cic(Iges class r caste
distinctions. Village hca(Is, k w n as "c�aptit ins, err as
tushaus. and other leaders arc gencraII\ chosen
informally on tic basis (f abilitc.
"Tile extended family and nratril(c�al residence after
marriage are traditional among most tribal groups (tile
Wapishana are the principal exception 1, as the gro mil
is expected to screw his wife's kinsmen. 'I'hais, it
household with sm-cral daughters might contain 2 20 (r
more people. Such aclivitics as hunting -and farming
are undertaken in gr(nps, turd the ung obey and
take care of the old. As it trial marriage cust(tnaril\
12
precedes a permanent a rangenu�nt. tilt \mvritidian
m muut mitt\ hay ;i child before she marries. \\'hemp er
'heir inflnen(�e 1m ails, missionaries hta\c insisted that
after it religious cercinon\ a married c�(uple
occupy a separate house. In such caws tilt� s�raa- in I'm,
Iiving in his (mII house, mm longer feels obligated tar
serve the old pecrtrle. and the littler mtit he It \%itiont
their Ira(IitimnaI II Iva its of sappmrt. In tu�eas not
i,Ifluenc�e(I bs missionaries p gnu\ is mfteu
permitted. \s a ife gr( \\s crl(I :\mt(�rindian i cs do,
most crf the heap \cmrk and ;tgc� rapidl\ 1, it is not
canc�(nunon for her hushand to mam her (laughter k
another than. Marriage to hm sisters suc�c�essivel\ also
is not unusual.
\\'(mien ()f the illagc assist at childbirth, at hic�h
true, among sonic tribes, ((trade is practiced. a
custmn in M ic�h the father gmcs to bed as if for
childbearing. I'ubert\ riles sirs among the different
tribes but generally include fasting, exposure to ant
bites (an extremcl\ paiit fid experii- (c�e(, and
flagellation. Burial is usual. although the final rites
mra\ be delawd as long its a \var. Burial ceremonies
mta ills() :aging and dancing ;(rcl, in some
cases. mtnt i tl Ilagellation. \lost of thee- practices.
'hmccvcr, fame been disc( mlintu�d in areas under
missionar\ influence.
Spellc�asting, f(rmu�i practiced h\ till tribes. is n(m
c�(ftfined to those ire the more remote areas. satc�h as the
Mac�(tsi and Ialantona tribes. Spells are c� ;ast b\
1 )1(scint< in the direction of the sictint and s ;a ttg
appropriate mmis. The persons bre;ith. c�omsidered
the pinsical part (f hi, spirit. is belie\cd to inter the
iclimt's b()(I\. Miere it acts as dire(((ct be the spoken
charm. The ohjec�t (f the bl,m ing. hoes es cr. is not
al\\a\s a ftumtan being ;std the intent need not be
harmful. 'Thus. blmming can be used to cur� illness. to
exorcise spirits, to prcenl mr brine; rain. mr to
;acc�omiplish almost ;ua\ other purpose.
I.i\iia,g patterns ()f the (:hieesc. F.umpean. and
I c(mtminnilies are tielennined I:irs;el\ b\
British social norms ;ind \alncs. The (:Itincse
distinguish bet\\cen "local -born" (horn in (:n\anai
and "home -Imm'' (b.)rn in (:hina The formu�r ha\c
fe\%. if an\ cmil"wis \\ith (:hina: tuam\ ha\ gi%rn up
their (:hinesc names along \(iti the :himesc I ;anguagc.
Since the earl\ 2 0th (�emir\, faindies hace not been
organized along dial mr extended kinship lines. and
most do not (race( their ancrstrt bc\(ud the first
inuni ,rimt. Mane home -born Chinese plan. smnu
Mhat \agnel\. to return to China at smite future dial,.
Thee mua\ send their sous to Chi for their
prelitminar\ e(luc�ati(n, bill for their a(kanced studies
the\ are likel\ am send them tm England mr the t'nited
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States. A certain wsiduunr of Chinese behavior and
y:lucs and a sesrse of group identity explain their
tenderrc�y to marry am org thenuehe".
The European c�onu11unity, Which numbered about
5,000 near t e� end of the colonial period, has
decreased in relative size it ,(I in ec�onontic� 111(1
1::)litic�al influence siuc(� indcpeudenc�e. Although the
I'ortuguesc have te11ded to I)CL-0111C lSSilllil into)
the 9(-ncral population. their Ronan Ciltholicis and
their general image dating from the nrid -19th c�entim
as traders and pawnbrokers are factors in preseryirg
their status as i t separate group.
C. Population (U /OU)
(:uvana's population, estinia` d at slightly more
than three- (lu arters of it million at the end of 19 has
more� than eloublcd since the end of W'orld \i-ut H.
During the 19 -16 -60 intercensal period, the population
greys at an average annual rate of 2.9`('. but a
declining birth rate and increased emigration served to
lower that rate to 2.51; during the period 1960-
Should the population co:tinue to increase as it did in
the 1960's, it would double in 28 years, reaching I
Million in 1984. If the� birth rate continues to fall,
however. Guyana's population will grow at a slightly
slower pace, espcc�i1ll\- if the yolunu� of (�migration,
largely responsive to changes in soc�ioecononric�
conditions not only ire Guyana but also in the United
Slates, Canada, and the United Kingdom. remains at
tFrc Ieycl of rile 1960's. The current age stntcture,
noncthcicss. is highlY conducive to rapid population
growth in the future. whether or not fertility declines.
:111 increasing number of women are entering tilt--
principal reproductive ages each \rar. and large birth
cohorts are to be expcctcd annually in the near future
even if there is some aciclitional decline in the birth
rate.
`lost Guyanese think of their country as
underpopulat(�d. and nuury official" believe that
increased numbers of residents are needed to dcvclop
the vast� virtually uninfrabited interior. Accordingly.
although public officials are aware of the socioeco-
nomic problems attendant on rapid population
growth, there has been little support for programs
designed to limit that growth. Family planning is
firmly opposed by the Prinz Minister and is a dclicat(
subject in Guyana. 'I'll( racial charactcrof the political
divisions wimin the c�ounln makes family planning
activities particularly suspect, with political leaders
being unwilling to endorse it program that might
restrict the growth of their constituencies. As at result,
there is no official family planning program in
Guyana. although some Ministry of health personnel
are kuowii to hope that the r:ratc�nral and child bealtfr
clinic" might ire (ire lout; run p�)yide the nnc;t r" for
such it pn)gram. In the nuaurtinre farnil, Ol;euring
advice is available to tho"c \%lm uek it from thcir
physiriam.
Government action in the fiel(I of population has
centered 11ruriuly ()it prot;ran:s to effect improyenu�ut in
t!ic grossly uueyeu geographic distribution of tilt-
pc;perlution and to attract immigrant". \either
eudeayor ha" uret vyith ill uch succe file
goyerntnent re"ettlemert project". designed "to
populate the couutry'" rich interior ill order to meet
ibe industrial and agricultural needs of future
generations,.. have not had if significant i11rpact o11 the
distribution of the pOpn fit linu. Moreover. ,ll It( uglr
Guyana hishtricalI\ has been it laud of immigrant
en)igrants have outnrrnrbered immigrant" in too"
years since World War II. "I 'he Borrham admini"lra-
tion has encouraged tilt- immigration of \egroes from
the W Indies lend the "rei it r ill igrat if )it of earlier
:lfric�ait emigr:u,ts. Its irn it iii, rat ion polic�ie from eyc r.
are based mire on social and political con"iderartion"
than on demographic factors, inrnrigration of \egroe"
being seen as it means of reducing the nutrgin of the
Fast Indian majority.
I'he mgistration of births ;urcl death", exc pt ;unong
the :ltnerindian c�onrnrunit\ hats be(n rr;nonably
c�onrplete in the years since the end of World War 11.
As ascertained by the registration of birth". the birth
rate. rose during the 1950's. reaching a.t peak of -I 3.6 per
IM00 population in 1955 -59. before beginning a
general downward trend in the 1960*s (Figure 5).
:11thu.rgh the rate for 19.O (x36.5 per 1.000 popur rtion
is high when compared with that of cleyel,)ped
nations. lh(� downward trend indicates that gra dilally
increasing nundwrs of Guvauese are limiting the size
of their families. nrtirrly for economic� reasons.
RcfIvc�ting in part it decline ill the infant mortality
rate, which dropped from 50.1 cicallrs of infants under
age I per 1.000 live births in 1915 --19 to .I'10 ill 19 0.
the dearth rate fell from I-1.1 per 1.000 population in
19- 15 -19 to 6.6 in 1970. The 1970 rule is Unite l(m.
resulting from the fact that it large proportion of the
population is in the younger age" where death rates are
low. If Guyana had the same age distribution as the
United Stales, for example. the death rate would be
substantially higher.
As it c�onse(;uence of' the declining death rate. life
expectancy at birth has been increasing, as sli(mn in
the following tabulation (ire veatrs):
1950 -55
55.8
1955 -60
593
1960 -65
51.6
1965 -70
64.7
Ili
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Per 1,000 population
SD
Births
40
30
20
10
Nutural Deaths
increase
0
1945- 19So- 1955- 1964- 67 1970
49 S4 S9 64
FIGURE 5. Vital rates (U OU)
F'we1)t for Arkt-ntina and Cruguax. lilt- e\l)cctanc\ at
birth it Gun;ua in 1965 -70 \\as lougcr lhim it: any
other South :\mcrican country.
Finh4r:ation has III., cd an i:)tortant rule in
lmwring Gmima's rate of L-ro"th. On the hasis of the
ewess OI' births mer deatfts. the px)pntl ition %\0
have grm\n al an a\cragc annual rate of about 3.1
during the 1960-70 intcrc�cnsal period. but enigration
cut that rate to 2.3 I� :uc�h \car during the 1960l's,
cnrit; rants outnumbered immigrants subst:uttiall\. the
excess of cmivants o\cr imtnit; rants throughunt the
10 -\var period sctrpraassing 111,11110. For 1970. the most
recent \car fctr \%hic�h data arc a\ailable. cmigratats
untnbcwd more than E200 and immk4rimts totaled
almost 2,000. The cnigration. \chiclo has remained
unc�ontr(dIed. is a nutttcr of c�uncorII to the
s4( werttnacIIt. pri Ina riI\ because nun\ of those c\ ho
end gratc arc skilled persorts \\hose tit lctits arc lived((!
luc�ull\. Mosi emigrants leave (:tiana for economic
rc:.isuns. and most are L)ound fur the l"nited States.
(:anada, tilt- l'nited Kingcloni, ur the West Indies: the
l'nited States is the destination of lftc largest single
number. Beeansc of it lant;uagc barricr, I'c\\ 0i anesc
cmigr:atc to I.alin .\mcrican c�ounlrics. Tlic largest
,inglc r.untht-r of immigcutts onu�s from the t'uited
hi:.gdont, fI)II( ed b\ tit(' t'uited `malls and tit(- West
ndics.
1. Sire and distribution
According to tit(- p)reliminar\ resctlls of the c( Hsu. of
pril 1970. GII\an:t load it population of 1 1.23:3.:1
27", iucreasc O %c r ill 1960. 1 lip
tit(. (-tilt o1 1972. tit( 1)(yuhtion al csti "Ill It'd to
reaeht-d i(i:i.(11111. (:ti\:unt tlus has inbabit,uots
than am other hidepx�ndcnt South :knu�rican cmmtrs.
altFough it, 1)op ulatiuu c\cceds that of Surinam and
French Guiana. In both p(tl)ulatio n and arca, it is
roughly c�omparablc \cith the state of Idaho.
Bcc�ause its c\lcn,i\c fon�sled and sa:utna ar(as arc
c\trcmcl\ ,1)arsel\ polntlatcd, li, it \crc log%
dc�nsit\ of st-ttici n�nt. there being an estinualcd 9 1
p- i per scluarc milt- at mid\car 1972. '['fit- nalinnnl
acragt-, norco\cr, musks lilt- trcnu�nduus .:arialion in
density t-sistiug \cilhiu the c�ounlr\. (t gcncral.
p op)ulation c�onceutrations and 1)o Imlatiotn (Icusilies
:art- ht-:i\ in the eastern portion of the coastal plain.
nutdc,t in the mestern portion, t-\trcut-l\ s1):arsc in the
lomst rci6on immcdiatcl\ behind the plain. and
%irtualls nouc\istent in tit(- rest of the comitrn (I igurc
W. The coastal plain. c�otn1)risitm less Ihan .i( of the
total area. contains nmrc than 90 of the cmintr\'s
loprulution, aud densitit-s in this area often cwced 500
per square mile and rise \srll abort- 1.11011 in sonnu�
section,. B\ contrast. t ^:c(�1)t fora fe\\ scattered mining
and hnaherutt_; scttictnem Mod isolated ranc�hcs. much
of tit( remaindcr of the comma\ is l irgcl\ uninhabited.
\c ith dcnsilics of Ics, th:ot I person per s(luarc mill�.
lnuntg (:n:ur.a s nine adminislratke district,. I -.ast
Dements, in which tilt- national c�ap)ital is loeatc(I. is
b\ for the most populous. In 197 it cont:riucd :alnmt
half Iti(( of tilt- total 1op)ul:ation. but accounted for
Icss than 2(, of the national lerritor\ r I. 1�:asl
Bcrbicv. tilt sceo11(1 tuost p)olmlous district, had 1'e\ccr
than one -haalf the number of inhabitants of Gast
Demerara. it, an art-a morc than h\c tinit�s as larg(-.
liulnntuni. lilt- largest of the miminisir:ati\c districts.
inakcs u1) 15 of the total area of (:tnana but in 1970
had only 1 11 residt-nts, or 1.6)(( of the lot al
pxtpntlaliou. Population (It-nsit\ in 1� :ast Demcram in
1970 c\us 25S persons pvr square toile. III the other
eight districts, it ranged Iron :I high (d T I person, per
s(p iare milt- in \\'cst Berble(� to it 1M\ of I persons for
ever\ 111 syu.arc miles in Bctpununi.
Gctv;uut poprtlation is predominantl\ rur the
bulk of the cmmtrn *s inhabitants liVing in snutll rural
comnomitics. Traditionally. the urban population bas
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MaDaruma
I
2' 1 ser Os He
Suddle., jee en Hoop
GE n mC or e
Fort Wellington
9artiea I ,5.. New Amsterdam
4
Administrative district boundary
Administrative district capital
National capital
ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS
I.
North West
2.
Essequibo
3.
Essequibo Islands
4.
West Demerara
S.
East Demerara
6.
West Berbice
7.
East Be. bice
8.
Mazaruni�Potaro
9.
Rupununi
Q
persons per syu,re mile
t r' 10 Soo
E t
0 39 19J
Person; par zp�e kilometer
Cola I 1 196';
FIGURE 6. Population density, by administrative district, 1960 (U /OU)
FIGURE 7. Population, area, and population density, by administrative district,
1970 (U /OU)
17
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IlEltsoNs
PERCENT or
Pt:al EM,
11F:II
AUUINISTRA�I' 1% r: Ills
14l l' I' 1, ATI U N
TIITA 1.
Pt, I'1'LATIt,N
uP TtlT.tl.
SOl'.UtF:
A H EA
AIt EA
NILE:
11.ast 13PrhiPl'
I Ili, 630
-I1).:5
7, 1711
N, l)
East Dvinentra
31:7,1172
;W.1)
I
19 6
,32,ti
Essequibo Isla nds
/I
N2�
.i, i
20.1
Iltz ;lru11 i- Put:u'u
13, 137
22,.S
North West
I(i, 233
'..i
S,21
_r .n
Il.li
liupununi
13,711
.4.;)
2.11
West 13r�rl)it'(
/.9
:37, 133
i.. 1
11,
West DvInerara.
:Ili,!I'S3
S7,337
r
191S
1).t;
il.l
12-2
2, 1117
;r
:111 IJY� tllu
711,233
1(11).1)
Sa, 111111
11)0.11
S.li
17
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been eeluatt-d yvitl the residents()((:eorgetn\\n and its
suburbs and of \ev\ Ai ster(Iam. l'nder this defini-
tion, the rtrban population aecounled for2-I. I'i of the
total population in 19t31, fur 27.6'; ill 19.16, and for
29.0'; in 1960. Applied to the 1970 census, ho%%e er,
the traditional criterion fur "urban" in Gtnana
yielded it proportion of uuly 25.9"1, a Figure which
vvotIkI seen to indicate that the grad( tit l trend tu\%ur(I
urbanization \vas reversed after 1960. It is a fact IIat
the proportion of the total population represented b\
the inhabitants of Georgelo\vu and its suburbs
declined between 1960 and 1970: oil the other hand,
the traditiuuul definition e\cludes comimunities \vhc,se
growth \uuld appear to (IualiF\ them fur urban status.
During the 1960's, for v\,imple, the former
luclenrie� \1'isnutr� (:hristi:uburg area, no%% Lin-
den, grew rapidly, it(-\\ residents being attracted by
e \pan(ling bau \ite production facilities there.
According to one cstiniate. the population of hilden
was about 30,000 in 1972.
Tlly population of' Ceorgeto\cu, including suburbs�
ruse from 1 18,391 in 1960 to 167,078 in 1970 (and to
an estitnated 170,000 in 1972), but the population of
the city itself (Ieelined from 72.96 to 66,0711 as the
result of an exodus to the suburbs. Although it is the
largest urban area and the center of national life�,
greater Georgetown gm\v A it far slo\ver pace during
tit( 1960 -70 intercensal period than the co(onlry as it
\v hole, registering an average :rtu(oaI nite of growth of
duly 1.2 This situation. i mi(ptc anung the capitals
of South Anwric�an countries, stems front several
factors. First, the birth rate in the greater Georgeto\\n
area is lower than that in the c-mintrvside. Sec�on(Ily,
the� area siiff'(�rs from a high rate of unenpl)} llwilt and
has not attracted muuty in- migrants. Finally. it is
believed that large nunbers of etnigratits, especially
those witli some schooling or skill, conic from greater
Georgei( Despite limited growl f during the
iit tereensal period, the greater Georgeto\vn area
:tccututed for 23. -Io of the total Guyanese population
in 1970, compare(( with 26.7'1 in 1960. and it \\as
more than nine tittles its large as \e\v Ansterdani.
New Ainster(latn's p(q iii ition ruse from 1.1.05 in
1960 to 15.199 in 1970, an average of about 2.(i per
year, and wa,, estimated at 27,000 in 1972.
No measurement of the vohome of internal
migration has been published since the 1960 census,
when it was :ascertained that 26'1 of the nati ��-bunt
were living in it district other than tit- one of their
birth. Alnunt Wi of the native -bun. resident(s of the
greater Georgetown area had bcerl Inn elx \\beer in
Guyana. the proportion \vas e% higher in Ve\\
Amsterdam, and it exceeded i in \Mararuui Potaro
District. Since 1960, there h:!s been co!itin ill ng
1 6
Int eru�rI of peoples. \\ilh migration patterns being
close Iy linked to thine of economic development.
conparison of d :ta fro in the 19(7(1 mid 1970 censuses
shows that the vaHow, administnotice (listricls,
although lhe\ all gained population, gwvv (Iil`feren-
liall\. Presuntahls those districts registering increases
abo\e the natiunul average�West Dencram, West
Berbice, and liuptintini gained population as i t result
of in mignotio n, while the other districts, all of vvhic�h
sho\v('d an increase belt)\\ the national ivvr,1gc. lust
population through out- migration.
Ili addition to internal migration of it peruanent
nature, sonic seasonal migration takes place, fimillly
fr(mi coastal regions to the interior. (:01(1 and diunmild
prospectors and tuincrs, known locally as porknoc�kers.
constitute it large portion of seasonal migrants. but
others \vork at Iunbering operations and in the stoic
quarries. \ormutlly, these seasonal migrants mo \c to
jobs in the iulerior (luring tfe (Iry season, hoot return to
their pernaucnt homes when the rain\ season begins.
2. Age -sex structure
\Ithoctgh data Iroin the 1970 census regarding the
age composition of the G11\111lese population have nut
eel hcen published, the pupul:(tiun is kno\vn 10 be
(Iuite vo(ong. :\c�cnrding it l'.\. eslinutic. the
nu�dian age at mid\ear 197'? \vas 17.1 vc :rs, figure
more than I I ears Ielovv that for the ('nitecl Slates.
Nonetheless, the 1, N. eslinn:te implies that tie trend
since al least 1921 toward :u ever younger population
\vas arrested (luring the \cars 19601 7(1 and had been
revered h\ 19 (The me(lian age in 1960 \vas 1
\cars.) "11111s. the estimate accords \\itl the kno\vn
decline in the birth rate (luring the 196(1's.
FIGURE 8. Estimated population, by age group and sex,
midyear 1970 (U /OU)
(Percent)
rr n
WE G114111. MALK FEMALE SEX Es
It I
M.
Iq.n
Ir;,i
:i 9
l:; .r;
1
1:;.(;
Ili I I
13.:;
Is 19
lI.r;
�I 21
S. f;
s'.
,s.
25 39
6.
:ill :i1
;.1
a5 $!t
.;.3
;.fi
Itl II
$.1
15 19
511 i 1
i.r,
3.(1
i.lr
till 6 l
11 i.5 lilt
70 and (wer
All at os
1(111, rl
M0,
111),(1
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United States
I
MALE FEMALE
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 F, 7 8 9
Percent
Aq,
70
and
65 -69
60-64
55 -59
50 -54
45 -49
40-44
35 -19
30-34
25 -29
20-24
5 -19
0-14
5 -9
0-4
FIGURE 9. Age -sex structure, Guyana and the United
States, midyear 1970 (U /OU)
According to the U.V. estimate, 32.0`'( of the
population at niicivear 1970 were under age 10 of
proportion ill 1960 \was and 56.9 "1 \yerc tender
age 20 (Figure 8). In contrast, oil\' 3.w'i of the
population were age 65 or older and only 1 I.OS; were
age 50 or older. All together, 19.01; of the population
were in the dependent ages (()_I _j and 65 or older),
%%hereas 51.06 were in the working ages (15 -1).
providing it ratio of 963 persons of dependent we per
1,000 of working age, it figure sonic -W' higher than
that in the United States, but sligfltlN. lo\wcr than the
985 registered in a
1960. Guyna s age -sex profile.
compared with that of the United States (Figure 9),
shows that the proportion of the Guyanese population
tinder age ..3 is alnosl double that of the United States.
attesting to much higher level of fertility. In
fact, Guyana has a larger proportion of persons in all
age groups under 35 than the United Stales.
Conversely, the proportion of the U.S. popuL�ttion in
the middle and older ages is markedly higher than that
of Ctlya:la.
The 1960 census n�ye;ded differences in the� age
stnre-tures of the� urb;on ind rurtl populations,
differences \yhich are� believed to laye persisted. Ill
1960, children under arc 15 wc�oiinted for 18` of the
rural population, hilt for only 11''(' of the urban
population, pointing 111 the higher hirth rate ill the
coortryside. On the other hand, the proportion of
persons in all age groiips 1 and over \\as higher in
urban than in rural areas. lu urban areas there \%ere
`i A persons i the deperldcrlt ages for ac�h i.O(t) i
the \working ages. ill the countryside the ratio \\as
1.034 per 1,000.
Aec�ording to prclinninary data train the 1970
C("Isus, the population c�onlprised :355,75 nodes and
:358,480 females, or 99.2 male, per 100 femilles. it
figure ,linos( identical ,%ith that registered in 1960.
The sex ratio varied substantially. ho \%ever. b\ place
of' residence. In urban areas (i.e.. greater (:eorg(�tc\wtl
and New Aunster(am), there \\ere 91.8 nodes per 100
females, reflecting the predilection of \()lung \wommll
and \yidow, \yith children to nove Front rural areas to
urban centers. In c�onlrast. there \\as un excess of rnale;
in rural areas, the sex ratio in the countryside being
102.0 males 100 fennalcs. Fenudes outnunthcred nudes
oil\ in those adutinistratiye districts ill \yhic�h there
\vas an urban center. Elsewhere. the uunnber of nudes
exceeded the number of fenales. The sex ratio \was
highest in Nlazarimi Potaro. an interior district \%here
(1cononic� ac�tiwih centers on lumbering and mining
(Figure 10). Ire 1960, sex ratios also varied \yidely by
ethnic� cc:nutnimity. being lo\y aillong the :lfricau
(93.9) and Mixed (95.1 groups :uld high inionng the
Chinese (121.1 Other 1-;uropean (1 1 .1 F.asl Indian
(110'17). and Anienndian 101.1 c�onnnunities.
D. Societal aspects of labor (U /OU)
1. The people and work
Ire view of the preponderance of the rural
population, the lo\y levels of skill \yhic�h prey;til in the
FIGURE 10. Population, by administrative district and sex, 1970 (U /OU)
AU \II V ISTHATI\E: UISTRa9'
MALES PER
MALE: FEM A1.E 1111'111 SEXES 100 FEMALES
-:ast lierbic�e
East Dvinerart
I':sSeq u i bo
I-:sse-quibo Islands
\I azat�uui- Potaro
North Wvst
Iiullununi
West. lie+rbic(
West Demerara
7:3, 1711
73, 151
I 16,630
99.11
167. 82 1
17.5,211
:1:),(172
95,1
2, \,759
2N, 1112
51),,~1)1
III_'.:;
ti, 115
5,292
I:1, 137
I1;3.9
8,396
7,837
1 1i,233
107.1
7,1:11
6,6(rd
1:3,71
111 \.0
15,511
IS,37s
31),922
100.9
1:3,77:)
13,562
~7,337
1110.5
All Guyana 355, 7:13
3:i\, N) 71.1,233 99.2
IN
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labor force, and the ample scnppIN of arable land,
agriculture� tra(I itiouall\ the leading ecc,nc,uic
activity� \could appear to afford the i;rvatest
oI) portctnity for emI)Io%ment. Agriculture, itO%%c%cr. is
stronglc oriented to\\ard the produc�tiou of t\vo cash
crops, sugar and rice, the first of \\Melt has beelrltle
inc-easingly mechanized, thereby limiting the sectors
capacity to absorb additionai numbers of \workers. The
t\vo crops, moreover, are grown in the same areas and
have Complementary seasons. so that, in some
innaances, the cultivation of both is done by the sane�
\workers, further restricting the c�apac�it\ of agriculture
to reduce Gu%ana's almadw substantial labor surplus.
Despite it critical need to lessen the nations
dependence on sugar export revenues, as well as on
imported foodstuffs, efforts to diversif*w agriculture
have had onlw limited success. partk because of the
difficult\ of enticing \workers a\wa\ from the
established cash crop operations. Irt f:,et. bec,,usc of .t
\widesp wit d predilection for cash incense cout-
paratively fe w isdividct.ds practice scnbsistauce
farming, and barter is considerably less commons than
elsc\whcre in rural South America. The iabilit\ of the
money economy ill rural Guyana notwithstanding, not
all persons are attracted to agriculture. :Although
upwards of one- fourth of all \\orkers are engaged in
agriculture, the activity is gencrall\ shunned b\
numbers of' the ethnic minority groups. For them,
ho% cvcr, alternative work opportunities are scarce.
M sing, for example. \%hick is the nations second
most important economic ac�livit, employs cont-
parttkek fe\y workers: as of said -1972. moreover.
sharp inimpo\wer cutbacks \were being made by the
Reynolds Metal Co., operator of the largest private
bauxite c�omplcx in Guyana. While the rate of growth
in light manufacturing. construction. and transporta-
tion "its hastened after indelwndenc�e, it dearth of
modern occupations parallels the cc�ononty's early
stage of development.
Reversing the pattern that rem:dned ill effect during
much of the colonial period. when African slaves
served as plantation and farm laborers, the East
Indians have it virtual man oply over cnnplo\nnent in
agriculture. Most are wage laborers on large sugar
plantations, hunt the diminrnlion is the demand for this
type of labor increasingly has forced fast Indians to
turn to \Jrd the c�cnitivation of rice oil small, rnsnally
rented. parcels of land. Although most of the
cultivators \work indvjl vndently, little of their
production is destined for personal- consumption, as
the bulk of the rice is sold to landlords or mill
operators, many of \whom are also E.asl Indians. Some
East Indians, however, have nim off the land to
hccom e blue- collar \workers, merchants, civil servants,
or professionals.
15
having abandoned agriculture \vbcm tile\cr\ its
abolished ill I83S, lhc� Africans gencrctllc disdain
manual labor. espec�iall\ farstiug. \onctfteless, those
%\Io do :tot possess the rc�cluisite training for \vfnit(�-
collar occupations appear to adapt readil\ to
industrial and service oriented jobs, thus. Africans
predominate in manufacturing. in mining. :std ill
most urban scrvic�cs. The\ bold it majorit\ of civil
service positions, pre\ail in the ranks of lbc Guyana
Defcnse Force, and occupy most jobs ill lbc state
enterprises. Ilatbcr than \wholly refleclint; a bias inn
recruiting practices. bo\\cver, the dispropi)rtionate
representation of Africans in public joys call be
ascribed chieflw to lbe c�onc�entratiom of' F,ast ludi:cus in
areas outside the cities and to the resulting disinterest
and lack of" preparation for \work ill nonagricultural
fields. Africans who bawe remained in the c�ountr\sicic
hawe hucl little c�fnoicr but to emguge in subsistence
faruio:;. I CII rising Subsistence farmers. hcr\\mcr,
there is a tcndeh l for at lead one ncentber of the
Tamil\. usually all adult snack, to obtain it
emplo\ menl ou it temporary or seasonal basis so as to
make possible the acquisition of muutufac�tured
consumer goods. Although sonic seek such \work in the
to\%its and cities, most lure to rural based operations.
including plantations, mines. and lumber stills.
Prefewnces for certain occupations arc also
manifested b\ members of the lesser minorit\ groups.
Eitro peaits work mainl\ in urban centers. as
shopkeepers or as entrcprcneurs and professional":
suury oc�c�upy tcc�hnical and managerial positions \with
Icrrcign firms operating in the country. In the past. the
upper levels of the entrepreneurship \were dominatcd
by Caucasians. but their position bas been succ�essf'ully
challenged b\ other groups. The Chiucse. ho are said
to operate nearly every retail store in the mining areas
and ill the small to\\ns of the interior, arc mostly
engaged ill trade. Although a fe\w Amerindians bold
public ser\ic�c jobs, most dislike the discipline of'
regular work. Anunng those ho have abandoned it
primitive life but are untrained for public jobs, some
are loggers during the rainy season, some are miners.
and others are cattle bands on the rauchcs of the
Kupununi savalluas. People of Inked ;uttcc�edemts
generally gravitate toward clerical positions ill offic�cs
and shops.
Until the early 20th century, fe\\ Dust Inldiams
sought estploy sent in nonagricultural occupations.
Is addition to being handicapped b\ it lack of
training, t hc\ \were the subjects of outright
discrimination by Africans it d Europeans. ho
considered them socially and intellectually inferior. As
a result, most mast Indians who migrated from the
coustrysidc could only obtain menial employment.
Eventually, it fc\w members of this group ac�clutircd
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training ii c( )fit lire. or nre�dicinc� fieIds I ck
did not hold much attraction among :lfric;its. I,ut
Nchich have remained I>.tprtlar aiutng middle and
upper class Fist Indi:uis. (:reatcr educational
opportiidtics. c�ouple�d %%ills an a )it t nu�nt in
discrimination, sthscyucntk enabled l�:ast Indians to
gain entr\ into, %%ider %,trio\ cif fieldk in loth private
and public sectors.
While discrimination lased cue race has tended to
want-. there is considerable resislaicc to the
enplo\ nu�it of %%miler, especiallN in the S: gar
industn and
ill other acti\itics \chore substatial
uncmplm rent and undercmpl +rs ncnt csists among
nude brc:alcciincrs. :fin official report. ho%%c\cr,
ascribes the (I iffie�ttlt\ expericnccd b\ )nte�n jetb-
seekers to the a\\akening of a "social conscience�
concerning the perfornutiwe cif arduous tasks Its
c(mc�n. The lo\% partic�ipalion rule b\ )if etI in slit�
labor force and, for that rtuttter, the lu%\
participation rate b\ the population its it \%bile also
results fron the Eiist Indi tr aditional pro bibition
against the enplct\ iu�nt of \%onu�i outside the
borsehold. This, the� bulk of feialc \wtrkers are
1l"ricais. Irrespec�ti%c cif cthiic Iackkround.
entplo\ nu�nt opporl;rities for %ccnu�n arc greater ii
the cities, icrc� tI it re is it greater \it rictv o! jobs and
\chcrc social crstous tend to Iose their ri16(1it.
:1lthougb earnings for %\ontt�n are loner thin lbose fur
nu n, the moiler of %\miner job seekers has increased
A if faster pace than availabilit% openings.
Compamcl %\ith most other cauntrics of South
:1nu�ric�a, wherc school attendance rates al the 1e\ (d of
prinar\ education arc lo\\rr, frsc (:c ;icse c�11ildreiI
under age I 1 bold juts. Ali ld lal tor lit \%s arc stric�tI
enforced, cspec�ialI\ in the large industrial cool
c� omntercial establishneits. 'thus, the cntplo\ oleos of
children, partic�rlarl\ as unpaid Lunily \\orkcrs, is far
nutm %\idcsprc�ad in the c� )if ntr\sidc, and mink
,rang ric�cgro\tcrs, than in the cities. 'I'Fe labor force
participation rate rises sbarph, among youngstcrs osrr
age I -I, earn though free ccbu'alion is a\ailuble
through the scc�oidary Icvel: nam of those \\bo drep
aril of school, bo\\rvcr, must pis for menial jolts and
often (ace Iong periods of unemplo\nu�nt. ;knuug
those ho re�nntin in school, on the other band, fe\\
pursue vocational or technical training. The dcnuid
I'm skilled personnel at all levels far excrcds the supple.
but mangy� Gu anew, partic�ularl\ the :Xfric�ans. are
inc�linecl to equate n;cnual labor with 1mver social
standing.
2. Labor legislation
:Although some three dozen statutes front the
e�oletnial periud have been presc�r',e(I, the basic labor
dociia�it is Ordinance No. 2 191? c�ustonarik
rcferred to as the Labor Ordinaic�c. %%hic�It authorizes
the t omcrnmc�nl to.c�t laborstandards. inducting hours
of cork and niniuuun \cagcs. and to n�.tiulate lalor-
managencct relations. espec�ialk :t pertains to %%ork
cotrtrac�ts. Tm otfcr Lms stand oil I.tr their impact
on labor �the Factories Ordinance 19.17) and the
coisoiidated Shops Ordinance 195S). these acts
t;ovcrn conditions cif +ork.uil the naxitiunt length of
the \%ork\\cek ill it IulI range industrial and
coiunercial estaI)Iishtneuts. TI c rcn iii iid i it I ;:bor
statutes are cithcr tailored to the needs of specific
groups, such as rice. sugar, and dock \corkers. or deal
\citb such spcc�ialized matters as rccmiting prac�tic�cs.
apprenticeship, paid bolida\s. housing, hazardous
occupations� industrial ac�c�idcnts. aid %wrkntcu's
cuntpertsation: the specialized lams apply to \\ork,�rs if)
;t %ariet\ of industries.
Suppl-nu�rticd b\ the (:onslilution. the current
legislation rcpresents it cuntprelienskc c�ollec�tioi of
safeguards for both labor and manas;cntcnt. 'through
the Miuistr% of Lalo� and Social Sccurit\. \shich
enplo\s if corps of inspectors, the goxernnxnt
generally ath-mpls to cnforc�c cOuiplianc�e \sith the
statutes. I'laces of cntplo\ ment are inspec�tcd
periodicaIk. and official reIf reset tit ti\cs are mailable
for hearing gric\aices ludge�d bs indi\idnal \tctrkcr�, or
trade unions. Nonetheless, conpliallcc \\ith the
egulations of the part of cmplocc�rs is said to be far
Irons uniform.
Inasiuc�h as the colonial labor statutes cMcrc�d a
broad range of matters, there has bees a pauc�it\ of'
such legislation in the postim1cpendeice p�riod. The
most notable measure cnac�led since 1966 affecting
labor \%as that \chich created the National Insimtnc�e
aid Sctc�ial Security Scheme. In 1969, ho\%ckcr, the
i;( crmnent drafted it proposed Industrial Relations
1ct. \%bic�h it sibmitted forc�oisideratinn b\ laborand
managcntettt_ Featuring it conpulutn arbitration
provision. as well as prohibitions against strikes and
\catlkorts during the adjudication of labor disputes b\
incbstrial courts. tla� proposed) Aalutc met strenuous
oppositicvr, from organized labor and, at last report.
had not been cnac�tcd.
'I'll( go%crnmcnt eserc�ises little control mcr
organized tabor bc\ond the nininntl degree of
supervision presc�ribcd in the Trades Union Ordinance
(1921). the nations oldest existing piece of labor
le0slation.:kmong other things, the statute. together
\\ith if supplementary ordinance enacted in 19 -1i.
provides that any s( en wwkers may ;nionize,
provided thcy file an official application for
registration accompanied b it list nf. union officials
aid it cope of the crrgmization's b\ laws. The bylaws
19
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itrc recluirc(I to outline the gnmi)'s of,ieclives and to
contain detailed provisions concerning the collccli(I
an(I disposition of union funds. Official registration
c;ut be denied if the groups c,f,jectives :u iud to be
illegal, and it registnttion c:ut I itbrc,gate(I if ;I union
deviates front its slated objectives. FiIIwr aclitM.
however, can be appealed lbroctgII the civil courts.
:3. Labor and management
TI c organized Iithc,r nu,vernent in (:uv:u lit which
in recent \ears Irts served as an arena for trade
unionists and ambitious politicians alike, is some fill
\ears older than the nation. Cmiccived during the
colonial era in the wake of it bloo(Ix rebellion I,\ clock
and sugar workers. the are;t's first L�tbor organization.
the British (:ui:(tta I�abw L'nion. struggled fc,r
recognition I,v the business contntunit\ and general
public for over two dcc�a(Ics, evert though it obtained
legal sanction sonu�what earlier 1920 lit the face of
managenu ut opposition. the colon\ s earl\ trade
unions, most of which (Nrre organized along industrial
lines and were pattcrned ;tfter those in the L'nitvd
King(lont, nu�t limited success in furthering worker
interests :end in promoting membership growth. I or
example. it xva, not until 1939. \%lien organized labor
conlprisv(I only about 5.000 inviiibers, that ;t
rnun;tgvnelit group consented to engage in formal
bargaining negotiations \(ilh trade unionists. Six \ears
elapsvd, however. before the first ((ritlen agreement
etas fonnnliled it the result of c�ollec�li\e bargaining.
'I'bc� labor nu,vcnu�nt ttriinivred strength during the
19 -10's, it dvc idc� of relative ec�om,ntic� prosperity :Intl
rising evec�tations :(thong workers. The (�c,lony's first
confederation of trade unions, the British (:Ilian;t
Trades L'nion (:ounc�il (13C'I1'(:), was fOmAc I in
19 -10. an event that was h\ iftc passage of
legislation calling for the appointment of it labor
commissioner responsible for regulating worker
nuuutgcntc I t relations and for assisting in the
settlement of disputes between the two groups. Ry
mideentury, (cork(.: (Icntands for higher wages. better
working conditions, and an end to discriminatory
vmploy mcnt practices increased timrkedI\ and were
often it ttctided by strikes. \\'ilh lht accession to po\(er
of the (:onunnnist- orientt(I PPP, political factors
added to the IIIrblllence. I.iIrgvI y as a result of the
PPP's attempt to broaden its b;tsc within ill(- labor
movement after gaining control of certain unions, the
country was plunge(( into it series of long and c �stly
strikes, many of them violent, espcciallv in tbc�
1963 and 1961 In addition to exploiting political and
cconontic issues, the PPI' proved to be adept at
capitalizing on longstanding� but until then nu,stly
0
latent, riwi:,l aiit:igonism that I,( )I u,tl\
between I;Ibor and ntau ;tgcnn�nt bnl unong trade
unionists as ((rll.
hclative ;ill[] rclurued to the labor utovtnu�nl
lolloing the ITI`s defeat :It the polls in 196.1.
It Ill the I)IT's attempt Ic, gain control of the
nu,venu�nt \(as cltcckt�d, ill(- I,art\ b;(s continued to
ewrl cousidvrab!c inf1uenc�e over certain l(wids,
parlicctlarly those n�pres�nling sugar \(orkers. Political
involvenu�nl in trade union ;Iffairs has riot been
confincd to I'PI' pit rtisaits, ho\\c\cr. While formaI lies
bel\%vcn labor and political entities are nonexistent. a
network of inform alignnn�nts t\ists bets%ren traclt
unionists and the hatters of all politicid parties,
including the P\(:.
Even though org;tnizcd I;tbor has remained it fonim
for political ;sues, the incidence of strikes and violent
confroutalitnts tended to decline after 1966 (figure
I I \s in the \ears preceding i it, cpcII(Icnce. workers
iI the sugar in(IIistr\ usually have been responsiI)Ic for
the hulk of stork stoppages. as cc ell as fur the IIigII(�sI
losses in N(nrk Iinu�: in fact, during the (lec�acle c,f the
1960l's, sugar workers accounted for (ia`( of all strikes,
cotnl,ri i I I g af,out i(i`i of the total mother of IIlitn
(lays lost. '1 c an I() rtnt of \\ork time lost hc(�ause of
strikes in 19W) \(;t lbc 1o((rsl since IwiI. but it Ill
on the hecIs of Ilea\\ losses in 1968, it x ear in which
sugar (corkers struck for and ((on (%ugt inc�reascs of
from 7 :Inc! guarantees for generous
prodtic�lion- incentive bonuses. In additirm ti, (be effect
s0c
Man-days Lost
(in thousands)
400
300
200
100
Strikes
0 I I I I I
1960 61 62 63 64 65 66 .67 69 69
FIGURE 11. Labor strikes and man -days lost (UiOU)
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of having %eon those benefits, the downward trend in
the� incidence and duration of strikes during 1969
appears to ha%e been related to it shift in government
puliCN concerning its role during labor- manageneut
disputes. I Living previously confined itself to the
mediation of disputes after the initiation of strikes, the
government begi"ning in late 1965 endeavored to act
as an arbiter before the onset of work stoppages.
As of the late 1960 roughly one- third of' all
Goyanese corkers ..ere trade union no�nbers, a
substantially higher proportion than that encountered
in the United States or in most of the independent
nations of South America. At that tithe, the claitmee:
membership in Cuyama's 6: trade unions W;ts
approximatel\ 70,000 corkers, over 85 "1 ol' whom
belonged to one of the 12 iargest entities; about half of
all unions had fewer than i00 ncnbers. "I'lle
who of those ho paid union dues kits high
(nearly 55 nutinlY because most employers
\%ithhol(I the reeluired it sscssmo�nts from \%orkers'
cages. As in the Past, most unions are organized along
industrial lines, also, most are headquartered in
CcorgetowII, with the larger organizations nutin-
taining local branches elsewhere. With one notable
exception, the major trade unions are affiiiated with
the Goyana Trades Union Council
succeeded the BGTUC as the major labor c�ou-
federation." The only other significant labor central is
the Federation of Unions of (:moment Employees
(F1'CF). v;hose tmenbership has tended to gro\\ in
relation to the cxpansiol in public services; FUCI: s
rank and file is c�ollwosed almost entirel% of bloc- collar
workers, most of whotn are also members of CTL(:
local affiliates. White collar government emp!oMees
are represented bs two organizations, the (;tn
Civil Service Association ard the Govana Teachers
Association, both of which are :TUC affiliates but
independent of PUCE. The practice of segregating
workers according to oc�cII pi tionul t vgo ry is
widespread, as unions representing it single industr\,
or c\en one plant, usually "maintain separate sections
for blue collar and white- collar workers.
Organized labor grew during the earl\ 19,0s.
Embracing 21 affiliates, or about one -third of all
unions. the CTUC alone claimed a total no�rnbcrship
of 50,000 as of early 1972. As in past \cars, its largest
and most powerful affiliate the Manpower
Citizens ;Association (MI which represents the
bulk of laborers in the sugar industry. In the mid
I960�s, MPCA's membership reportedly stood at
about 20,000, a figure that probably has fallen
'During; the ce�ars 1966-71 the GTUC \%as kno\%n as the i ;mana
Traelrs t'ninn Council.
wne hat ill \�ie\\ of the rigorous competition the
union has recievecl (run its chiel' rival, the Cu\:uut
Agricultural Workers I''i ioo (CAW['), during it
period of declining job opportunities in the sugar
industry. Ilacing nntinlained close links \citb the� I'I'I',
the GAWU, the corutrs's largest unaffiliated union,
had not obtained official recognition as of mid
obstensihl\ becaosc it failed to represent a majorih of
its comslituculs; it claims in excess of 1.1,000 na�ntbcrs,
including Sono� echo belong to the MI'( as cell.
Jurisdiction disputes belscret X11 :A and
often involving C�IT(: and political groups, base been
a major source of c�onfliet for over a decade. lu
addition to CAWU, the oml\ other significant union
tied to the PIT is the National Association of'
Agricultural, Commercial, and Industrial Employees.
it Cl. TC affiliate c\hich essentially represents white-
collar emplmees in the sugar industn.
"I�he oldest labor organization. the Gi aua Labor
Union, former percer base for Forbes Bunham and it
c�bosen instruno�nt during bis tenure as I'rino� linister.
is also one of the natiou*s "lost influential groups; it
maiul\ represents stevedores and lumbei trill and
construc�lion %corkers. Because of the inI,orlance of the
bauxite indostn. and despite the gmcmincids
assumptior of a managerial role following nationali-
zation of the Demerara Bauxite Co. in July 19 I. the
Mineworkers' Ullien ((:alt' alread\ one oI'
the largest and best organized unions in the� nation.
c�at be expected to remain strong. at least un paper.
Nlost all of the organizations 5,000 members are
e"nploYed b\ the state bauxite complex, the others b\
Bey holds. Although it considerable overlapping of
com�lituenc�ies exists in organized labor, other
important unions represent office emplo\ees (other
than professionals and toait agers). retail sales
personnel, \\age earning rice corkers, transportation
.corkers, postal entplmcc,. and sin- c�ialized \corkers in
the sugar industry foremen and mill boiler
operators).
"The Cu\anese trade union movement has icngthv
history of participation it" interiwtional labor affairs�
having hosted the F irs; Caribbean Labour Conference
Ili 1926. Since independence, the :'I'U(: has been
affiliated with the Caribbean Congress of Labor.
I'll Im�gionaI branch of the Inter-American Regional
Organization cf Labor. which is in turn the Western
Ilcnisphcrc division of the International Confcdera-
tion of Free Trade Unions (I( :P "IT). Additionalk.
most major unions are affiliates of International "Trade
Secretariates: during the late 1960's, five unions were
linked wit It the International "Transport Workers
Federation and tIt rcc kith the i'ublic� Services
International. The XIN :A is associated kith the
21
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International Federation of I'lantalion. AgricIIIturhl,
and Allied, Workers, while GM U holds mendwrship ir1
the Internalion,el \lelal\\orkers Federation.
During the 1960 's, the ICFTU and soffit� of its
affiliates, notably the :1nu�ric�an Federation of Labor
Congress of In(lustrial Orgmizatios, ac�lively assisted,
(;Ilyanese unions in resisting the I'I'I' atle ',pt to
domindtte the novena nl. �I�he CTUC and its affiliates
have :dso rec-eived assistance from the Agency for
International Developr neat (A11)). most of it
channeled through the :1nieric�an Institute for Free
Labor Developnu' ',t (AIF1,D): during the years 1962-
7? the institute trained som -TOO Gcryanese trade
uuionistS. Limited external assistance� has also derived
from the International Labour Organisation. vyhiclr
Guyzarue joined i' after independence.
Unionized sugar workers are among the nations
hest organized Mud most disruptive ele ',u�uts, heel
employers a managers in the same industry also
comprise one of the ,lost powerful special interest
groups. Essentially representing two firms whic�11
monopolize the industry. the Sugar Producers'
Association (SPA) has been it trend- setter ill industrial
relations for many years. While c�onevntretin oll the
promotion of its nu�mbers' interests. tflc SI' :1 has also
supported a minder of worker welfare programs,
mainly in the realms of' health 1111(1 housing. :111
affiliate of the� West Indies Sugar Association, the SPA
111zei',thcins close liaison Wit11 the goyern met It,
partic(tlarly as concerns economic affairs.
Two ad(litioffal management organizations, the
Georgetown Chamber of Commerce and the Rice
Producers' Association (BPA). rank among the nations
most active special interest groups. The former entity,
:r1'a11a's oldest of its kind, is dedicat(�(1 to the
promotion am(l prote'c'tion of track, both foreign mid
domestic. The latter group, although less important
from an ecouofflic� sian(lpoint, wields some political
power. Co1111)osed of surdl -scale cultivators and
landlords, the RNA, which has comsistc',tly opposed
governmental measures affecting the rice industry, is
controlled by the PPP. More than it dozen other
management organizations operate in Guyana: they
represent such varied groups as nulnufactures.
shippers, retailers, comtrac�tors, engineers, nIi',e
operators, automobile� and agricultural maebinery
(list ributors, mine operators, lumber exploiters, bakery
proprietors, rice millers, and riceland owners.
Ma11a9cmcmlt is apt to he paternalistic i', its
relationships with workers. Striving to cultivate am
amicable working environment. ',lost nimagers are
attentive to worker grievances and seek to apply
solutions. This is particmlarly true in the nmmerous
small establishments, where workers are seldom
as
organized and tlu� emplo\er is ill clo contact with
thee. and ire the� large foreign owned firms. T1 e�
govermient tended to cowl and fayor organized Labor
(hiring the early poslindepemlenc�e period, bml its
expanding role in ',atioual economic affairs, Troth as
111 entrepreneur and as it promoter of the c�uoperatk c
1110 veffheml, appears to be bringing about :e ehaege.
I iudling itsell' in c�omepelition with private enterprise
and h,eyirlg hee�onre more sensitise to econoneie
imeperaliyes, the government during the varls 1970
dleycjoped if more ss ',palII01C outlook concerniug the
problems of Ilitilageneellt. In this milieu. the
charac'teristic's of labor leadership also appeared to
ueulergo c�haege. Whereas ill the past labor leaders
were roughly diyide(I I)et4Nee�n those who relied
heavily off government support (the majorih grou
and those who believed that labor's best interests Lev
in an indepen(lent 111elye� ',u�nt devoid of gmernmeilt;d
support or influen(v. to(ay mhosl seen) willithg to
criticize Ille governine;,t on ucc�asiom au( to c�halletlge
its actions. During the 1970's, this trend ffuey well
result in an upturn of labor- mutiuegenu nt disputes
concerning wages and suppIvmentars benefits
traditionall_s the leading cause of friction in industrial
n
relatios. :1nd, in view of the high rates of
time ',lplo)',neet ,till underempimnu�nl. efforts to
nncelli mite industry can be expectrdl to meet the�
opposition of' orga11izcd labor.
E. Living conditions and social problems
(U /OU)
The Garyamese people e11jov levels of living that are
equal to or surpass those of most of their neighbors,
although these levels are far below those of" lh" United
States. Since Itulepende11c�e. the goyermnu�t1l :es
sought to raise living Ieyels by assigning High prioril
to the dcyelopnu'ret of social services. While c�erfain
riwasuremenls of living (�o',clitioms ((..g., edac�ation.
health. and social sec�urits) have been encouraging.
residual problems ol' housing� sanitation. une',plo-
lmemt -ill(] u' and low per capita
imc hay( fused with the restlessness of a society in
transition to exacerbate the nations socioec�0110111ic
problems and to retard advances in living levels.
vloreoyer, diffic�ullies attributable in part to it world
oversupply of bauxit(' and alumina and in part to the
nationalization of the Citn:J(I It1l ovyne(I Demerara
Bauxite Co.. now known as the Guyana Bauxite Co.
(GUYBAU). have been followed by production a',(I
marketing problems au(I a notable (lecline in
government revenue's. Prime Minister Burnham has
referred to his country's "poverty. backwardness, high
unemployment, and primitive Social services, and he
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has a (k anc�ed progcuns designed to alley iale these ills.
Declining rexenues ;aid a shortage of iucestnu nt
capital. hoxteer, do not :IUgur e II for the� success of
such programs. add to the g sernment's dilenlnsl.
the gro%%ing population is exp(-e�te(I to 11aiIltain
1) re�ssun� oil the goxrrnnu�tt for v%er- mcn
expenditures or1 social sen ;c�es.
Besidenh of urban areas geiierillc enjo higher
1 (-eeIs Of living and greater access to social services
than their rural counterparts, but extremes 0f xcealth,
such as elist in nrnc South :\merit�: �I countries. are
large) absent on the Guxana scene, and there is ne
%ide or unbridgeable trap bet%%vell the hags and
the "have hots Most Gil an(-se, even those of the
luxe (-r social order, are oc�casi() naII% able to sac(-
enough name% to prirc�hasc� a ��luxun item" such its it
bicy cle (Figure 12 I, or to pro%ide for a firl it 11cial
co nting(-nc. Nonetheless, the itcenIge fallliI%
although neither starring nor really %erx pour. lilts it
inc�onx�. Wages, h0cecc r. hacc been rising. In
1965. the ac(-rag(- \ce(-kl\ \gage of sugar field corkers
seas G825.42, in 1970. it %city GS i I. -l.S. I'he
c�orrespnnding figures for bauxite miners \%ere GSA .6
and GSA S.26. resp(-ctixek for c�onstnic�tion \corkers.
thee %wre G843. 78 and G350.92. Because average
earnings rose more rapidly daring the 1960's lh ;(ri the
cost of living (Figure I :i), there has !teen it definite
upward trend in real incmile. gains line( been
reflected in per capita income Much rose Im allimst
0 in the \ears 1965 -69.
\cectg(- fiIIIIiIY expenditures s!r()\c 100(l to br the
largest single item of expense, ac�couuting for about
Of total expenditure.. \pproxiniatelc Ili is spent
un clothing and 12('(' on housing. including utilities.
Health care absorbs about 6'('. and an e(1(ial amount
is spent mi be\e�rages and tuba(-((-,. Contributions to
religious or welfare organizations nulke up :i`r of total
expenditures, educational costs account for 2"', and
the� remainder (1 1 is d(-cote�cl to a variety of personal
or miscellaneous it (.,,1s.
Large -scale 11 Ile lob llcr t has long been a
standard feature of national life and is a Illmor
0hstacl(- in attempts to r aise levels of living. \cc0rdiug
N) preliminary data from the 1970 census, some 19,0(1(1
persons, representing 19.6 0f the total labor force,
were un(-tnplc,)'e'd I'lu un(-nlplo\ IiIcIIt rate has
fluctuated armind ?Oo sill(-(- at least tile mid- 1950�s,
and increased 111(-c�11anizatioI in th(- bauxite, sugar,
rice, and construction industries, together \yith an
annual rise in the number 0f entrants it'-(() the labor
market. does not presage and i Ill ncdiate d(-c�lin(- in th(-
rate of tn (-mplo\mett. In fact, most observers feel
that imemployme�nt will increase. farther eng(-udering
a potential for serious soc�i0(-c�on()n1ic instability.
I'he young and the inexperienced are� must apt to I,e�
fuble�ss. 1965 sune\ rexe:deel that alrrr()sl 1O`( 0f the�
Ituentplosed \core under age ?O and that >5` \sere
seel:iug
if jof, for the first time. Over T r of all the
uneniplo >e�d in 1965 had been xcithout %cork for at
least (i mouths. Even persons (\itlt nonnalk
nuuketable� skills fre(picia k find it diffie alt to obtain a
i0b. I'm example, there is an ucersuppl\ of 1%pists it,,(]
steno p
grahers in the greater Co
ergetoA a area. anal
so c�li persons often ;Ire %\it ;u,Iit enIpIt)\ neat.
\IthOUgh unenipim nu� it is a serious problem,
undere�mph,\ nle�til is v% nore gni\c. Oulc about
one-half of the e111PIme�d ill 1965 %cnrke(1 at leant 10
months a %ear. \bmit Due -fifth 0f the ernplo\e(I at
that time \cere engaged in taco jobs c�ouc�urreutic, and
appre 1 -1`( of these \c0rked less than 1 mouths
a year ill their main oc�cupati()ii. "fhr se statistic 1,.
11MI emer, (l) not reflect the entire un(Icrenlplo\ nu�nl
picture. Ili addition to the nr:un \chu hold part -time
or mvasional iol,s. there are more chose nc�cupati0ns
require nnl\ a niininlunl anlonut of time or \%hose full
potential is Liot utilized. Sizable numbers of rural nien
%cc,rk a sinAl mirnber 0f hours each \ceek during it fe%c
11101 of the year and bite(- nothing to do the rest of
the tinic.
"I'he idleness that is the b; product of uneniplo nu nt
and undereniple,\ na�ut. it i, gencrallc agreed. is a
major factor contributing to one of the e0untn 's major
social ills crime. The alarming rise in the incidence
of robber(, burglar\, :aid biccci(- and auto theft has
reached such pre espe(-iali iii greater
Ge(agetomi, that residents are ()p(�nl\ expressing their
fears to the authorities and to the press. Burglary i1, so
\cidespread that (m ners of binifle-cs aiid residences
containing possessions 0f Valrrc no\c norrnalk employ
night \catc�hmen. Street crimes also are increasing,
cununitted b "trong ann robbers, kno\cu lucallc as
choke -and -rob bandits. echo victimize the pourer
('lass as \cell as the more affluent. dust criminal acts
are c�0nimitted b1, iuxeniles or young adrtlts. Young
male Guyanese. their aspirations betted b\ the
promises of pulitici :uls :In(l by a(1verti see an(1
\\ant material possessions that are not available to
thorn lhr(,ngh gainful enlplo nu ut. and 111ey seek
Ill(-se item stealing.
:\ItIlmigh crime is largely an urban manifestatie :n.
the problem of idleness is also striking in rural areas.
\Pith fe\\ recreational facilities an(I fe\% nation
pic�lure theaters nr other places 0f entertainment,
youI g rural :uyanes(� mill about their villages,
engaging in cmivvr.ati0n 0r amusing t11en1s(-lyes \yith
9 "chich is (-n(I(-nlic� throughout G uyana.
Blind youth, in particular. are restive bec�arts(- then
find their existence enpt\. unpromising, and dr (-arils
m0n04011011s.
3
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=3x
t J J
-,k-
FIGURE 12. A status symbol among Guyanese, bicycles
are used extensively for transportation, few persons
beina able to afford an automobile (C)
Index (1956 =100)
140
Food
130
120
110
100 L
1960
1965 1970
FIGURE 13. Consumer price index (U /OU)
21
ALL ITEMS
Miscellaneous
Housing
Clothing
c( lik;I! illuidelic�!� (d
I! h:!Ic IIlulirn. I \c c nli! 1i111
tto %(.rr!rnr�nl report in 19 65, almost ,till', 0f III!� :I(11I1t
1 >lllaticnl clr:ulk alc(h01ic hc\crialvs, chiellc 111111.
\ho11l 15.000 pers011,. (r alin0st .i of Ills� :1(11111
p(11)111:1tiun. cre cun,i(lere(1 alcohulic�s. ,cilh all
(�stirn:ll(�(1 ii\c� addiliun:ll pruhlcin drinkers fur each
knot\ n alcub0lic.
Drug ab0,' is no( it inific;tnt pruldvin ill (:u\:1n
hill it c\isl,. \pp:lrenll. lhon. has been it recent
increa,c in the 11,e ul' 111:1rii1u1n:1. knocu a,
wulj(t. illid 0l h:lrhiluralc,. O1(1 1lnc,c link s(rti;s
nu noon the u,( (tl uttjn k sla\cs. :111(1 persons
inclined lu\c:lr(I the use of anja Ir:1(Iitionaik h:!\('
r:lise(I ,nI :111 (Iclanlities (;4 it lu their ()\c a nceds.
TOdilr, it sinal1, un0r,l:ulizc(I Irallic h:ts ari,eri.
allh"1101 the g0%rrnnu�nt actkck di it 1111(1
has imposed steep lines un(1 jail senrcnces ou tho,(�
()I' n:1rc�olic�. \iulati(is. There is n(� c,i(ience
01' the ise of hard (Truk, h\ ;it\ ane hill th(� l)olic�(�
orkanizc(I it narcotics nnil in I) I to precut the
inilmrtitlion of such dr11ks it![( the c�ou11tr.\ :1nd to
crack(loccrt on lr,tl4iAers in 11larijuaua anti I)ar-
hituratc,.
IlurrsiIli' is it speci are in \%11ich 0ffic�i:11 effurl Io
raise lew�I, 114 lining h:1c been litrkcl rlelle(�tt1u11.
Inadv(I11ai, 1( )1 has IOnk 1 )cc11 it riou prohle11l
in (:1nuI1 :1. \IIIllmi i lucre arc charinink \c Ili te
clapboard ri:0t resi(lenc�cs in (:curkctu%c n, in;jc h
ul the ((atom, h0usink stock con,i,l, ul \c to (IcII
hack Ihat arc (wercru\c(Ied an(l lacking in itnlenitic,
(Divan� 1 -1). In Iwit), the lcpi(� 1,on,cho1(1 aw�ratkvd
2 r(0111s and c�onlpri,( 1.9 pci-mms. or al11losl l\cu
pers(ms per room. I lo\o,c\cr. �i (4oll househol(ls h:I(l
no more than t\%() ro()n1 and it \(:t, gcncrtlk these
11111:111cr Unit, that c�0nlailwd the Iarke,t number (f
pers011s. Ina,nlnch as the c(n,truction 04 (kellink
unit, diet not keep pace \%it11 pop11lalion kr(xclll
(luring the IwiO the 1 )11,,i problem ill the
hekin Ili nk (4 the 197, O's \%:t, c\ (-it 11ntrc acute than it
had hccn earlier.
The l\l>ic:ll hou,c is it WO -room \\uocicn trtic�turc
almijt 20 feel h\ I I feet. %%ith it roof (4 shecl metal or
N%u()(len sllinglcs. In rural area,. (kcllink, are
(Ictache(1, each uc�(�up\iIlg an illdki(Iua1 plot. In
urban ,111111, (Fignre 15). Ihe\ Ina\ abut other units.
forming roc% h0rlsink. s(mw house,. kn0an as niticl-
trash� d\%elliiigs. arc of,calllc ancl- (1:1uhc�onstrucli0n.
invariahl\ %%ilh lhalc�h ro(fs: these honk,, most
(�0111111011 in the c�ountr'side. are the residences (f the
10,%rst income groups. llarmcks I I)e units, called
ranges, are 1 '(1111 (1 011 so111e sugar plantations. along
s%ilh other kinds of housing often furnished to %%()rkcrs
as part of their renluner:lli0n: ranges ciistonlarik are
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7 Z JL 1 ,Fm l l
1
1
t
r
,M
et m
o
Z t
fa
__.�+.rt �atF1f.. y 'ri
FIGURE 14. Typical Guyanese dwellings (U OU)
l
i
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cii% ided into it nunibcr rrl' ;tpartntents.' each housing
alt indi%idual fatnil. 'throughout Guana. home�.
briil near riverbanks or sca%%all, nonualk .in�
ccrnstnicted un stilts. B% I: cacb (kelliug unit is
requimd to haze a pit latrine, but enlorc�cntc�nt crf the
la%% is lax. In son e areas, c�rrntnimi it labile., arl-
standard; in others, residents ivw the bush it the edge
of the %ihagc�.
For it varict\ of rviismis, the Bunihatn dininistra-
tion has been in\ious to intpro\c the housing
situation. number crf progr:uns ha%e been initialed
since the end cif World War 11, hilt all ha\c fallen far
short (IF meeting goals. let alone need.,. \t one title.
the governioent \cas constructing housing cicvrlop-
iwc tits for l()\%-inc�oncc group,,, ))lit present policy is to
enc�ouritge private initiative b guanuilccing morlgagc
loans utuule to indi ic)rtals, tit\ itc�enti\cs. housing
cooperalives. and other entities .ponsoring the
c�omtniction of honu s. The gow�ruuent still builds
houses to rent to civil servants ;uu) i)dwr public
officials. ho\\cvcr, and it is encouraging the use of
more durable materials in home constr ;ic�tion. Sono�
assistalic�e in the housing field ha, been mc�cked front
abroad. The Conunon\%cmlth IA�srlopnic�nl Corpor7t-
tio; has a program of housing cim tntc�tion througlimil
G liana, and tits \11'1.1). with assistanc�c front \II)
and others. has sponsored the construction of
dwellings; 62 houses trere built under the latter
progrttnt between 1962 and 1972.
Traditionally, the lived., of the unentplored, tic
aged, the infirm, tilt- incapacitated. and the dest�ilrtte
26
A
T
li.cc deol.,cd it) tlir� iniuicclia! f;tniik. hilt
(.u,oic sc in large numbers Ita\c ills) :tinged to
liions .uid benc%olcut s(ic�ivtic that prcr\ idc sonic
Itnut, -d rornis of mutual assistance. 'I'!ic bene\ I v nt
souil-t'.t-s. \\itli their rturt, ill the 19l(i c�cttlitrt. \%ere
dc\ clnpcd originally to prcr\ ide nu�nibets cc ith it
diguilied funeral. (:radiiAl\ ri\c�r the \car i. uunw r
crf public :ig: nc ies and \(dini :,r\ bodie, toulertc rk
\celfatc ac�ti\ities mud connnimit sc�rkic�c�s, but the
NC( pc crf such prounini gcner.tlI ..as to Iiniiled io
Iwij11 !o meet needs. \s one of its ,tarsi popular and
mikcrsmll; sup ported mcasrtres to efec�t iniprcr\enu�nt
in the yualit of life and \vin the ,upport of :ell
clelliclits of the population. tic Burnham adntiiiistrt-
tion enacted it social insrir;oicc scheme in Jule 1969
granting cosrrc�c! persmis benefits in cash or kind for
the cnnliageuc�ies of old :tge, insalidits. sickness, s%ork
injury. or death. The program. knc:\cn as till- \rational
Inslinince and Social 'Scheme at!d xl-
ntinistered bs the \atimial Insimim.� Boa rd, provides
for compulsory c�o\crat.;c of :ill sc;tgc earners aged 16
through 61 io are crtipl1 1 trot less Ih:ui 20 hours
per \%eck and cant not l,�ss lhmn (:S per \Neck.
1 Ili nmtcic. it is en\isagcd Ibal co\crige ill also be
e \tended to lbc self- cniplo\vd.
Benefits consist of old -age pensions at age 65. as
cc ell as trm\ inetls to help carer costs relating to
sickness, disiIII r. lit :tleniiI ftniermis, and iob-
cnnriecicd injure. disease, rrr dcalh. I'crisions range
bciccrc�ri iO'( and 60('( (4 ii \%orker gages, depending
on lenglb of c�orcnigc. Pensions to surrirors of c�orcred
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FIGURE 15. Slum area in Georgetown. The artesian well water tap
at right is used by a number of families. (U OU)

enlplo%ees are also authorized. I�'or instinct! workers
%%IM have paid at least 50 weekly contributions and
have� been in iusurahle cnrploy na�nl for at least 8 of
the 1.3 weeks inunecliatel, preceding the onset of an
illness nut clue to an c�nlAminc�ut hijury. a sickness
henefit is granted tip to a maxinrunr of 21i weeks, al if
daily rate of IO''i of the weekly wage. naleruih
benefit for 6 weeks prior to and 6 weeks foll(ming
confinement is pa;rble to cowered mmit -n ho have
paid not less than 50 weekly contributions, including
al least 0 in the 36 weeks ending (i weeks before� the
expected date of confincnrent. The weekly benefit is
60'(' of wages. A funeral grant totaling C8I00 is
paYablc on the death of an insured person or his
spouse it at such tine the insured person had paid at
least 50 weekly contributions. Workmen's compensa-
tion, origin;rlly set up in 1916, was absorbed into the
National Insurance and Social Securils I'rogranr ill
1969. It provides injure� disablement, and death
benefits and free medical care for vic�tiIns 1(,f
employment injuries.
TllV cost of the National Insurance and Social
Security Scheme is covered by a National Insurance
Fund, to which both l,rrplo\'ecs and ernpImers
contribute amounts determined by if wage -based
formula. Contributions to the fund anwrnt to T.5c(' of
the workers wage. including 1.5('(' paid by the
employer and i`'i by the ernploee. 'I'll( goyenrnu�nt
mikes no contribution.
F. Health (U /OU)
As if result of it fairly good public health program,
levels of health in Cuy;uta are Imtter than those
prevailing in much of the Caribbean area. By the
standards of dl,yl,loped countries. however. conditions
are poor. Contaminated \\Aer supplies, rudin1(�ritary
or nonexistent sanitation services, and crowded
dwellings all contribute to i t high incidl,ncl, of disease.
'I'll( tropicll climate ;urd the topograpli also have a
bearing on th he ;clth of the population. "I'hl, Io\\.
coastal lanel periodic�all inundated he helve
rainf,rll. and ti c xlcnsiye swamps irr nu11n of the
forest and sasanna region, ,ire breeding grc, als for
disease vectors and parasites, while me h nalur;,l
barriers as mountains find jungles make it diffic�crll to
provide adequate� rnedic�al care for the people of the
interior. Some conun in 'hl, hinterland can he
reached only by river launch or airplane.
In its various disease eradic�atiorr programs and
health scryic�es, Cuyina has benefited from the
assistance of tic United Kingdom, the United States,
and other countries, as will as from international
agencies. primarily the World Health Org;mization
("'IIO). "I'hi, :rssisLurcl, Iris included mcasnrc�s fur
cc,ntrc,l c,f malari ;r, yellow feycr, filaria"is, and cl,rl;lin
other diseases, and the introduction of programs fur
improving nursing, I;clmralur\, and huspit ;d
adminktration services. \lal;rril, c,nc�e widespread
clung the coastal plains, Iris brl,n clinrinalecl iherc it', :1
result of a yigorom eradic�alion program. but the
disease remains i problem ill purls of the interior.
Similarly, ycllo\y feycr Intl Iila have been
brought sul,sIanlially under c�outr( d :dt If( crgII
sporadic ortbrl,nks still occur ill rural urea,. Ffforts t1()
prevent the spread of these cliscasc�s h..ye focused
priIwi )if llv m the elimination c,f n;usyuitnes ;111(1 caber
vec�lors.
:1llhough the overall IIca ItII sit uafioti is steadily
inrpmying. (:u\:11uc continues to suffer fro nr a Iriglr
incidence of infectious cli' :lscs. including gastrointes
tinal ;cilnu�nls, typhoid and paratyphoid fc\ crs.
tuberculosis and ntber respirator\ ills, helmitilhic
infections, and venereal diseases. Diarrbe;d disorders
and infec�licoils of the upper respiratory tract ire the
principal c�acrses of death anuurg inf;11rls in the first
year c,f life, anti typhoid ;111(1 paratyphoid fevers Ire
not uncommon among c�IriIdwn in general. Although
there has been i t decline in the tit( irtality rate fur
tuberculosis because� 1(,f it cm, ti if Ili if g progrun of
(lelec�lion, treatment. and hospitilizatinn, it is still a
wrious health pro blem. particularly it the more
remote rural areas. F ri )tit tiro� to time. influcrrza
reaches epidemic. proportions: I x�yere outbreak
nrcurcd in 1969, \yith a total of -1.692 cases reported.
This figure did not represent the frill inrpic�t of the
disease. howeycr. Officials of the Ministry of Ilcalth
acknowledge that for III illnesses tie unreported caws
probably' far exceed the nrrnrber of those reported.
Beeausc of a substantial rcdtiction in nu,rtaIity
resulting fro )if infcc�tious diseases and it c�onconri tit nt
incmasv in life expcclanc�y. chronic iwd degencratM.
Iilnrcnts hive hcc�urc important causes of death.
(cart disease, nephritis, diabetcs. Intl vascular lesions
of the c�entril nervous system have been among the
leading causes in rec�cnt years.
Levels of nutrition among the (:tiy;url,u� people as it
whole arc only fair, and in many rural areas the
population is Hourly nourished. In 1965. the latest year
I \hitch information is uyailahlc, the l,slinurtccl cl;rily
per capita intake ;unomited to 2.215 c�alorics. slightly
more than the recommended daily nrininrum of 2.200
1lowvver, "wilt, fish, and diir4 products are rot
consumed in sufficient cluanli;ics to provide I1(
adecpate intake of protein a nd calcium. ;urd the
average diet is deficit nl ill vitamins A and B. In !965.
50.W(- of the caloric int ake was matte oil) of cereals.
While meat. fish. milk. and eggs together ac�c�ounled
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FIGURE 16. Estimated per capita daily caloric intake,
1965 (U; OU)
I onli, I0.9', Fiuurc 16). Tlic (lict of the Fil I11di;ul
is lik to he nu)re nutritious :uul better kiLi lcc(I
lll :ln that of the \Irican hccauc :I lik4her percenLlt,'c
I f Fzist In(liam r,Iis( co,. dice{). an(I l)oultr :ul(1
culti krcen \'clrctnhles for In r�onal con�un11)tioll:
A fricans :Ire more apt to raise n(I to Lm .larcll\
rout I,cl(elahlc". (aiIIical rc vaI'dI :Inlunll; the ;II iInca�
h;Is a >.ociatc(I certain ph I, ,icul ill, \%ill, (Iiet :In(I
(Iictar habit I)articularlI, anIonl; (-hiIdren. I I)I
t e>c (I is( r(ler,� iIIclu(lin ;In(�,Iiia. conjunctiI, ilis.:(n(I
k\kashi -)rkor are 1(Ital. hnt all :Ire (Iehili t iIli! an(I
rl clue(, the I, ictinl ahilit\ to I I ill a nornI;II
le\cl. 'I'll rnu0hout (;u\ana there I it 1, lack u1
kno\% conccrnini.; nutritional re( IIIircnlcnts.
I)elicie11 ciI- ill step lI an(I (Iistrillutilln d
contrihnte to inlh ;Ilan(,(-, in the (list. lit ciIIIs( the
cultiI, Ition o1 hI( I cr( Is h)r 111(' :II (-orl Ii;1>
been rc,iIr(lc(I I ccon(I :Ire to the inaiit task I11
ro(in> I)nulul t� ru:Ii:ll Nuh:u an(l rile -lor clulrl.
uluch of till' 1111111 cousunu�(l n1u.t hr inilml tc(I. little
;Illcntion h,Is been i;iccn (o the 111 more
and h(1 [(-I \ariclics of 1111111 crops. and lack o1
ildvq[Ill(- lra l "I)nr o
l lacililics i" :I Ilia in11u�,Iinu�ul I,
efficient rnarketi11 Ii( )III I ,III(I ;I llll %iI traIIsI)11rI;1-
Iion :Ire slo\\. and ;I. t ncks it( I h( 1; ll lack pro 1)cr
II /rage \I)ac(� ,111(1 rclrit;cr;It I111L .111111:1 tit� I resillk
I oo(I Ilalullilll ut the Selling; I)11iIIt :IImI 1(�u\(- much to
he (II�sir(�(I. \ItII11111;h thl�r(� ;1 ;I 1c\% l .S. >t\If.
"Ilpernulrkets iI: Ih(� url) ;Ili ;Irv:o. null Iresh pro (Iucc.
In(;Its. ;unl other 1, 1( itenn :In dd I1\ 1, (�11(1or in
Iml(loor market, mider uu Ire con(liliou, IFi);urc
I
In the lilt(, I Wit fs. the \liIIi tri( -s of alion;Il
I)(�w el( I)nwiII ;rrul \i4ricull it re, I IcaItIt. ;In(I EdIwiltioll
he to c(I( )rd lnaty I� IT( rts to IaiNe the I;cncraI
nutriliu IiII 1(�\vI of the I Il)ul :thou. Igwr.11iu>; in it
ilunnccr of I)ilOt :Ireas ceutere(1 an )mid .chnol". Be"i(Ics
cl :I,.c, in nutrition. the prol;rinl leature(I i list ructitII
in �toukr :Iisink. gar(leniII. it ,(I the nluinlcn If
lull 1unul. :I rtlrrrclll ohj(-eli in the II,11
inIol\c(I all ex1 )it iii( )it u1 the 1)roi;ra it I to inclu(le
it 1)l)ro\i Ina tel\ 11O�(IN) I)cr.nu in it uu Ili her of sclecle(I
co Ill nllnlitic.. \%it11 tochrlic nc(- pro i(led h\
\\'l l( the F'( o(I ;In( Orhanir.ati(m I \O I.
:unl the 1, Ilited \nlion :hil(Ircll', FIIncl 1( \I( I.
FIIII)II ;Isi, i on the I)rc\cnlion o1 (Iicl;Ir\ deficicncic.
;mull" child) cn itiid (-\I)cctant it nursi1114 mother".
In a(I(liliorl to school pro jeo the c\paii ed cllort
center, on pronultini; the cult i\;Itiou of lanlil\ tarllcn
:r11(1 i list ructinL ho se es in the list of horn( u(
Iruits itIld \chetandc" to prepilre hit lit [wed 111(:/1'. tiunlc
1111ppIcnlcnlan 1ecd;,nl; pro )Luanl arc also (wire, cit ric(/
FIGURE 17. Vendor selling wares
at outdoor market. Meats and other
food items are usually sold at
these markets, where they are
exposed to dirt and insects and are
commonly handled by prospective
customers. (UiOU)
2,5
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070007 -1
I�I I:I P: \'I'
1 �.u.4 1( I Ks
M 'I', T %I.
I'!'KNI
1 I�:H 1. %I
I ALIIIII VS
rrva
1.111
;11.11
TIIgal
31115
/.i .li
li III 11.S curl SI:H'Vll. %rRrl:ibII...........
,5
i.S
OIh(�r %VgVI:LbIV..1:uul Ilul,1'.............
7 1 1
Fruit
19
\I(�:II
S.
Fish
13
lilk
II,
Eggs
II
OIL alld la(..
rill
,i.:;
01:11.
_._'1.1
/(111 .1/
I onli, I0.9', Fiuurc 16). Tlic (lict of the Fil I11di;ul
is lik to he nu)re nutritious :uul better kiLi lcc(I
lll :ln that of the \Irican hccauc :I lik4her percenLlt,'c
I f Fzist In(liam r,Iis( co,. dice{). an(I l)oultr :ul(1
culti krcen \'clrctnhles for In r�onal con�un11)tioll:
A fricans :Ire more apt to raise n(I to Lm .larcll\
rout I,cl(elahlc". (aiIIical rc vaI'dI :Inlunll; the ;II iInca�
h;Is a >.ociatc(I certain ph I, ,icul ill, \%ill, (Iiet :In(I
(Iictar habit I)articularlI, anIonl; (-hiIdren. I I)I
t e>c (I is( r(ler,� iIIclu(lin ;In(�,Iiia. conjunctiI, ilis.:(n(I
k\kashi -)rkor are 1(Ital. hnt all :Ire (Iehili t iIli! an(I
rl clue(, the I, ictinl ahilit\ to I I ill a nornI;II
le\cl. 'I'll rnu0hout (;u\ana there I it 1, lack u1
kno\% conccrnini.; nutritional re( IIIircnlcnts.
I)elicie11 ciI- ill step lI an(I (Iistrillutilln d
contrihnte to inlh ;Ilan(,(-, in the (list. lit ciIIIs( the
cultiI, Ition o1 hI( I cr( Is h)r 111(' :II (-orl Ii;1>
been rc,iIr(lc(I I ccon(I :Ire to the inaiit task I11
ro(in> I)nulul t� ru:Ii:ll Nuh:u an(l rile -lor clulrl.
uluch of till' 1111111 cousunu�(l n1u.t hr inilml tc(I. little
;Illcntion h,Is been i;iccn (o the 111 more
and h(1 [(-I \ariclics of 1111111 crops. and lack o1
ildvq[Ill(- lra l "I)nr o
l lacililics i" :I Ilia in11u�,Iinu�ul I,
efficient rnarketi11 Ii( )III I ,III(I ;I llll %iI traIIsI)11rI;1-
Iion :Ire slo\\. and ;I. t ncks it( I h( 1; ll lack pro 1)cr
II /rage \I)ac(� ,111(1 rclrit;cr;It I111L .111111:1 tit� I resillk
I oo(I Ilalullilll ut the Selling; I)11iIIt :IImI 1(�u\(- much to
he (II�sir(�(I. \ItII11111;h thl�r(� ;1 ;I 1c\% l .S. >t\If.
"Ilpernulrkets iI: Ih(� url) ;Ili ;Irv:o. null Iresh pro (Iucc.
In(;Its. ;unl other 1, 1( itenn :In dd I1\ 1, (�11(1or in
Iml(loor market, mider uu Ire con(liliou, IFi);urc
I
In the lilt(, I Wit fs. the \liIIi tri( -s of alion;Il
I)(�w el( I)nwiII ;rrul \i4ricull it re, I IcaItIt. ;In(I EdIwiltioll
he to c(I( )rd lnaty I� IT( rts to IaiNe the I;cncraI
nutriliu IiII 1(�\vI of the I Il)ul :thou. Igwr.11iu>; in it
ilunnccr of I)ilOt :Ireas ceutere(1 an )mid .chnol". Be"i(Ics
cl :I,.c, in nutrition. the prol;rinl leature(I i list ructitII
in �toukr :Iisink. gar(leniII. it ,(I the nluinlcn If
lull 1unul. :I rtlrrrclll ohj(-eli in the II,11
inIol\c(I all ex1 )it iii( )it u1 the 1)roi;ra it I to inclu(le
it 1)l)ro\i Ina tel\ 11O�(IN) I)cr.nu in it uu Ili her of sclecle(I
co Ill nllnlitic.. \%it11 tochrlic nc(- pro i(led h\
\\'l l( the F'( o(I ;In( Orhanir.ati(m I \O I.
:unl the 1, Ilited \nlion :hil(Ircll', FIIncl 1( \I( I.
FIIII)II ;Isi, i on the I)rc\cnlion o1 (Iicl;Ir\ deficicncic.
;mull" child) cn itiid (-\I)cctant it nursi1114 mother".
In a(I(liliorl to school pro jeo the c\paii ed cllort
center, on pronultini; the cult i\;Itiou of lanlil\ tarllcn
:r11(1 i list ructinL ho se es in the list of horn( u(
Iruits itIld \chetandc" to prepilre hit lit [wed 111(:/1'. tiunlc
1111ppIcnlcnlan 1ecd;,nl; pro )Luanl arc also (wire, cit ric(/
FIGURE 17. Vendor selling wares
at outdoor market. Meats and other
food items are usually sold at
these markets, where they are
exposed to dirt and insects and are
commonly handled by prospective
customers. (UiOU)
2,5
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I
A nuuj,or faclor bearing on Ievcls of health i(
Guiana is the problem of environniental simitation,
and the scarcity of readily available ,afe %%atc�r is one
of the most pressing difficulties. The main supple of
\\ater on the coastal plain derives from artesian wells
and is i list ributed by pipelines extending aloe :g the
Coastal 'highWaV and some local roads. Outside the
(rb ;m areas, eater is rarely potable. The nu,re shallow
wells are polluted b\ seepage from drainage ditches,
:u 11 the pressure in water pipes is often lo\\,
particularly ill villages at the end of a line. In 19(15,
5Wi of the population in the coastal region had piped
seater in their dwellings, another :30 "1 were using
public taps or fomitains and the remaining 155; \%ere
lm- stirred to he drawing their supple from the closest
stream, which is invariably contaminated: there is no
piped \\ater system in the interior of the c�ounlrc. A
long range plan for supplxing potable \\:ter to the
rural coastal population \%as detailed in it 1969 stucl\
joint',v financed by the Guyunese Governnu�nl and
AID. Th e studs cuvisaged it three phase construction
program to provide wells, treatn ent and storage
facilities, and pumps and transmission lines over a ill
yvar period. :1s of 1969, work was already in progress
on it project to improve the water supply of an area
extending 10 miles southeastward from Georgetown
along the coast. and 20 miles southward along the east
bank of the I)enerara River.
Sewzige disposa4 facilities are limited. In 1968,
according to it Guyanese government report, oil\
I�). Vi of the population were served bs it se\ ser it, e
system. 'I'll(- main section of Georgetown has the
benefit of it system operated mud maintained b the
nunicipalil\. Newly developed housing on the
outskirts of the capital is served chiefly by individual
septic tanks. In New Xmstvrdam, septic tanks,
cesspools, and pit latrines are in use. latrines arc� the
mininum fuc�ilit\ for human \\-list(- disposal permitted
by law, and most of the smaller towns and rural
villages attenpt to corriplx. To c:., the difficulty
arising from the high eater table in the coastal region,
na,unds nest be built to accommodate tire� pits. Sonu�
arelus, however, are unsuitable for this of privy: its
it result, drainage ditches or the closest body of water
are used for disposal purposes, leading to serious water
pollution.
Facilities for the disposal of garbage and trash are
poor or nonexistent except in Georgetown proper,
where refuse is collected in trucks and burned in a
municipal incincralor. In \ew Amsterdam it is
collected in carts and deposited on low -lying land
along the Berbice River, where it attracts flies,
mosquitocs, and rats. \lost people in the� c�ounlnside
b(rn or bury list(- ncterials. Only it fc\% rural
c�onnunities have garbage� (himps.
The fact that Co ana maintains it fair stan(lard of
fucalth despite log\ levels of sanitation and other
problems must he attributed to the dilige nee� of its
Imblic� health service. \%bich is dironicall\ bim(lic�ap-
ped b\ shortages of staff and limited, outm#ded
facilities. flesponsibilit\ for super ision of medical
care is vested in the Miuistr% of IIvaltIt. \corking
through the (ventral Bo ard of Ilealtb healed hx an
official who hears the title of (thief Me�dicid Officer.
In 1969, Guiana had 31 hospitals, 22 of schich were
operated b\ the Ministr\ of Ileallh and 12 by prkate
interests, including sugar estates and religious groups.
Private medical facilities are e\pec�ted to adhere to
standards and regulations of the \linistn of' Ilealth.
'three of the government -run hospitals are specialized
institutions it tuberculosis sanatoriun al Best. it
leprosarium at \lahiuc�:u, and it nent:d hospital al
(::uje. The total number of hospital beds in 1969 %%as
�),255, resulting in it ratio of' -1.6 beds per 1.000
population. and
understaffed. Georgehm n Hospital is b far the largest
(about 1,000 beds in 1969) and most important:
although it is au old institution. built in 1900. \kith
deteriorating equipment and inadequate personnel, it
is still the focal point of medical care in Gn\mi:,. :111
but one of the hospitals an� located ill the coastal area.
Manx arc� "cottage-type" hospitals. each consisting of
it group of small. usuall\ wooden. structures (Figure
IS), the number of beds ranging from half it dozen to
-10 or 50. Out- patient care is provided ill it ariet\ of'
other facilities. In 19(-S, these comprised .35 health
centers, I S dispensaries, I I nu�clic�al aid posts, 102 first
aid st:tions, and it nubile dispensary sen ice hic�h
included sv\eral riper lamiches. 'There are also special
r,
FIGURE 18. "Cottage- type" general hospital o: Bartica,
Mazuruni Potaro District (C)
29
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facilities devoted to maternal and child health. The
health centers are the principal nu�ans of caring for the
nedic�al needs of the rural population. Supers iced h
district medical officers %%ho tra%cl twer %%ide areas,
each center has at least one resident nurse- midwife
and additional personnel according to its size. The
smaller facilities� dispensaries, nu�dic�al aid posts,
first -aid stations� as adjuncts of the health
centers, offering treatment outs for niuor ailments
and injuries. :1 special !medical officer !nukes periodic
tours to proxide prvvenJve inoculations and other
health services to the :kmerindians in renuste regions.
He is assisied in his \%ork bx nurse- mi(kives stationed
at ranger outposts of the inferior.
Guiana has no facilities for training ph\sicians.
\ledical students clsuallx go to the United kingdmn or
to the Universitx of the West Indies in janai-a for
training. and mill\ fail to retIIn! to (:u.:uua after
conpleting their studies.:ks a result. there is it serious
shortage of doctors in the c�oclntrx. Nvvertheless. some
progress is signified bx the fact that the number of
practicing phVsic�iaus rose from 160 in 1966 to 191 at
the end of 1969, providing if national ratio of 2.6 per
10,1100 population. The actual ax:ailabililx of doctors
I'm the hulk of the population is esrn less than thi
Mild indicate since if disprc,portionatcix large
munber are concentrated in the urban ccuters.
:luxiIiarx health pe rsonne l are also in short supple. :1t
the end of 1969 there %cre?,16:3 rc�gistercd nuncs,:i(i -I
nursing ;auxiliaries, 1.42.1 mi(kkes, 29 dentists (all
trained abroad), and 91 pharmua�ists. Nurses' training
is provided within the c�ounlrx in four schools \\hiCII
offer it 3 -sear course; mid\\iferx is taught in one
SL-110(11, the course extending m er an 18-month period.
The output of these schools in 1968 \s as 121 nurses and
-17 midwives. Although nursing has attracted an
increasing number of students in recent sears, the
shortage ill this field remains acute as noun of the
graduates leave (:a!s;an;e to \cork in the United
Kingdou, the l'uited Stales, or elscsshere. Olhcrs
remain in the c�ountrx hnt fail to p rac�lice the
profession. In its rc�pc,rt for 1969� the \linktrx of
Ilealth noted the high rate of x\astagC among
graduate nurses and proposed that persons accepted
for training he required to sign if contract to serve in
public health activities for a stipulated period after
becoming qualified to practice.
A Goyernmenl Laboratory Service, linked to the
major government hospitals, carries on some wwk in
bacteriology, scrology, parasitology, and virology.
If ri Ina riI\ in relation to public health pro bIvIfIs.
Specimens for virus study are sent to the Trinidad
Regional Virus Laboratory, an inporlant research
center for viral diseases. Three of the private hospitals
31 l
have clinical I:doratories of their m% if. I'har-
nl:,,�eulic�als if most other medical supplies are
im1mi-ted. "There are uo hwal drug manufacturing
c�onpanies except the Bookers Manufacturing DrlIg
:ouapan\, hick specializes ill the produc�tiou of
\itamin capsules and elixirs.
olk remedies are still popular it Gu\aua, espec�iall\
an!ong persons s% ho do not have access to regular
medical care. It has been estimated that about ouc�-
third of all Gu\anesc� families make their (mit busfl
nrc�dic�inv� for colds and fevers. 'The help of' healers
is alu, sos!glit oc�c�usionall is :a substitute for. or
reiIIforcen!cIIt of. !core orthodox health services.
hno\%n as 0bcal -men to Africans and Past Indians.
and as Pia( -men to Amerindians. the healers use if
xarietx of rituals and potions to "cure' disease.
\Ithough these practices have been declared illegal bx
the gmrrnnu�nl and haze been suppressed s\heueser
possible bx Christian missionaries, )hex still surface
from time to time in rural areas, and belief in their
effec�tkeness reportedl\ remains \%idespread.
G. Religion (U /OU)
Religion has played an important part in the dailx
life of Gclxanese of all faiths, and the ratio of ac�tive to
nominal cl,!rc�h members reportedl\ is much higher in
Guyana than in mans other countries. :1lthougli
public involvenu�nl with political. co. and
micial dc\rlopIIIents since the 1950's has tended to
reduce the influence of religion and to diminish its
significance as it force in sc,c�ielx, for most Gm anese
religious affiliation continues to he if prink xehicie for
reinforcing cultural identilx and expressing con
munik prick. The taco major ethnic groups arc
gencraII y divided along religious lines: the m-vm helm
ing najorit\ of :\fricans are Christians, and most Fast
Indians arc IIindus or \tusIinis. :ks of 1972.
:If rist iii iIiI\ renailed the tImnivafit religion. I)!t the
more rapid growth of the Fast Indian populalioaa is
expected to bring about a prepondernnce of non
Christiams b\ about 1980. Because it \\;as the religion
c,f British colonial adniIIislralors and of those
iIIdix idmals ss II cloninated the life of the countrx for
ImaII\ \ears, :If rist iii uiI\ IradiIionaII\ carried
considerable pre stige. if factor \%hich has induced sc me
Past Imli:an I lindus to accept conversion. occasionally
xyithout abandoning participation ill Ilindu rilm:als.
Today, Ilo\yever. the Guyanese people as i t hole
regard Ilinduism and Islam as generally comparable
\yith Christianity in prestige yalcle.
The Guyanese Government is tolerant of all faiths,
exercising no control over religion or the religions
beliefs of the people. i tic�le I I of the Constituti
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I)nt\ides for frl�e�dl,III of couscietce. and \\c
subject only to the� w(Itdicint-nts of inhlic order and
safet\ :Intl to protec�lion (I the rights of all.
(:eI\e niIIwit t to)Icr.Ine�e� of all religi�is e\tcuds to
tlru\ iding fiIIIII al sutlilorl for ediwational aml
Illvdical facilities (yeraled b\ au\ religious :;rout.
Official infortnation concvrnint; the� sire c1; religious
gnluIts in GuNana derives fron3 the 190 census:
Ilrelininur\ resII!is ol' the !9711 ceusIIs released III1 to
nlid -197 c(mlain no relevant data. In 1960l 56.7 01
the total Impitlation \\ere enunu�raled as Christians
:lld 12.:3'( as adherents r4 :Ion- (:hristian religions
(Figure 19).:Xt the Iine of the IIre\iocs ceIIslrs 1916)1
the Christian co nu 3luuity had rein -se nted 59.0'I of
the total Iwllltlatiot and nu�rllflcrs of non Christian
religions :38.6 The Christian sector ill 1960 inc haled
231,1)1)9 Trott tams of %arious denominations :cul
5 :3.7 -11 Roman Catl:oli:�,. \lendwrshitl figures
reiwrleel for the 1'n,testanl gr,eltliugs arc sho\\u in the
full.,\\ iwg tabulation:
Anglicans
109,561
?Methodists
25,356
Seventh -day Adventists
8,927
Presbyterians
7,600
Jehovah's Witnesses
1,218
Baptists
415
Pentacostals
276
Other
80,656
Total 234,009
Irlc�luded in the "Other" c�ategon \\ere Christian
Scientists. Congregationalists. Lutherans. \lava% i:uls.
TOTAL POPULATION
560,330
Not stated ar no
religion
1.0%
Muslim
6. 9%\ y
Anglican
19.6%
Methodist
4.5%
Hindu
33.4% pesbytei
Roman Catholic
14.9%
Christian venth Adventist
1.6%
Non�Christion Other
14.7%
�Indudin0 a negligible number or other nen ion sects.
FIGURE 19. Religious composition of the population,
1960 (U/OU)
:lull tu�nihcrs of If!(. 1rnn. :Is \\ell :is ;Ill
unc!clernlined uunwhcr lit, sinit,l\ designated
t1winseI\cs ;is "(:Ilrislians \\ithoul specificalliliatiorw.
As of the late 1960's. the� church groups :t(�ti\(- ill the
countr\ iia-hided sv\vral ,twill flulll: im-ntalist sects.
In addition to llte .lfric�au cotuuuuil\, those� Ill
itiiwd racial stock are it l Ili( st ewIiisi\el\ It :hristians.
The suall I�:w0 pen :uid :hinesc grinds are also
o\t (:hristian.:oul ntow than hill( of the
1nu�rilidians ha\e heeu c�ou\ertt-d. mainl\ to linvwlan
(:a0mlic�isnw. In the 1960 cellsus. I0.6 of the I�:ast
Indian ,i
Ixrldalinn c r idvntihed as (1iristiaits:
IIhidts accounted for 70.1)',: \lusliIli Is'.r3'(: and
those \\itIt no religion or an unspecified religion. I. I
Althou!dh (:hristiaus tlre(l)ninate in the clrfl :ul ccuters.
reflecting the prepmidlerwnc�t- of AIric�:ois it their
lu)wilatic,ns. adherents of each of the 1rinc�ipal faiIlls
can flc f ill 1 d in the to This is part icul;trl\ true ill
the capital. here the religious di\ersiI is reflected iit
nunu�rous places of \\wshitl (Figure 20). A ucgligiflle
nunwher of (;manes adherc to other fi)nnal religions.
irwcludiug Ruehlhisnl arid Jueliisnl. Sono� of the Inure
remote Anlcrin(hans c�nntituc Ili toll()\% animistic
heliefs :;led practices. and certain trifles near the
hwders oI' Kr:eiil and enciuela prac�tic�c hat is
knes\\it :IS the Ilalleluja religio:l, a corruption e11
1'rotcstant u lcl :it t It( lic� te;ldIiugs. I inall\. \cstigial
rviIIImllls of A1'ricaII cults arc still e.\taul anl,uwg snnwc
iIIitcrale AI'ricans, v\ vi tlu,ugh I e\ claim ad wreuc�e
to it :11 ristialI dcunn ii nation.
1ll Ill ugh both I'r )test anl and :al It( lic der* 1 \ere
;ic�ti\e during t!IC first t\\o centuries of colonial rule.
their efforts \\c�re de\ole(1 almost enlirel\ to the
religious needs of the Furoticarw settlers. The \(%ro
slaves, It( c�orlstitutecl the largest sc�gnlent of the
11ot1ulalion, \\ere spvcif'icaII\ harred front recei\iug
religious nwi list ra ti( ns and Frain attending ser\ic�es all
the assuniption that a kno\\ledge of Christian ideals
\\()111(1 tend to induce dissatisfaction \\ith their status
as sla\es. The first successful inission to the slaves was
pro\idc(I h\ the I.otdou \lissiorlar\ Soc�iet\, it flod\
(urinal in 1795 for the purlwsc of c�c,udItoitg
evangelical \\ark ��a tit( ng the heat hell. Originally a
nelndelmillinatitmal ba o
d\. the sviet\ Iwcanle in effee�t
.I I!wr'gaIional grollil: Its III rst IIIIssiUtl arri co: I 111
Gll\illia it 1808. Within the ue \t fe\\ \ears, nlissiouar\
cn:lea\or aniong the slaves gracluall\ increased.
Additional clergy \\ere scna b\ the Lun(lou Missiouar\
Societ\: these \\ere follo\\ed b\ missionaries from the
British Wesle\ans (Methodist), the Church of
Sc�otlawl Wresb\terian). and the lionan Catholic
Church. Somv of the colon\'s ,knglic�an churches
subsectucntl\ began to conduct religious ser\iecs for
slaves. The period between the abolition of the sla\e
track in 1507 111(1 the final abolition of sla\er\ in 1838
:3 I
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jk
Hindu temple
71 1
Muslim mosque
FIGURE 20. Representative religious structures (houses
of wofship) in the Georgetown area (C)
saw thc� emergence of a social system in which things
British acid "white'* were highl\ valued and things
\fric�an and ��Itlac�k** were ofenigr.ite(1. and the
Christian churches (firing this period hecanu� tine of
the chief instruments through which "white values
were disseminated. \s the newly cm.uic�ipated slaves
gradually moved off the land and into urban centers.
or united to form tlicir own villages. their live s becanu
increasingly influenced by Christian churches and
schools. with the resift that they adopted most of the
nc�w Values and accepted Christianity, with some
modifications of their own.
Until World War II, most Christian groups were
mipportcd and maintained by their parent dcm inina-
32
If
owes
al161l8d 1 TV g
Protestant (Anglican) church
tions in the I'nite(I Kingdom. I firing the war and in
the inuue(Ii ite Ix)sl\\ar Ix ri ocl. however. the British
denominations were unable to ,ulil>I\ the funds or the
staff to sultlxtrl tic� (:uv.uuse c�hiirchcs.:\(�(�cir(Iiiig1\.
the\ sought assistance from ('.S. church grctul)s..uid
by the late I960's ahnost every Christian do nomina-
tion in the country was being helped ill some c�apacil\
by its counterpart in the United States.
With an estimated nu�inbership of 1 70.000 at the
Iwginiiing of 1970, the \ngIic.ui (:hurc�li is the largest
(:IirisIt iun (lenoiuinatioii in Guyana and the single
mist im1wriaot religious iii hence. The \ngliean
Diocese of (:(i\iina, covering (:u\ana. Surinam. an(f
Ca\enne, forms Irwin of the ecc�lesiastic�al I of
1' :Va
1r� n, t
Roman Catholic church
7,
Illl llt
1
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the West Indies. :%s of 19 the Bishop of (:t :yard was
also Bening as ;krchbishop of the Vest Indies and
metropolitan of the province, which consists of the
dioceses of :\ntigua, Barbados, British Il )if (I if rIs,
Guyana, Jamaica, Nassau and the Bahamas,
Trimi(Lid, and the Windward Islands. \ffairs of the
church arc regulated h the archbishop an(I a
convocation consisting of .,n upper house (composed
of bishops) and a lower house (tuade tip of lower
ranking clergy). Although :ciniing A sell' the
Diocese of Guyana rcc�eives substantial aid front
abroad. mainly front the Clitirch of England. Special
efforts are being made to build tip an indigenous
cIcrgy, hilt the (lioeese nirisl still clepee(I upon the
ser-icc of foreign ministers for aboul half of its
staffing reyuirc:.u�nts. Nlost of the clergy (totaling 53
ill 1970) lean toW High Church :knglicanisin, an
orientation which i reflected in the c�htirch's liturgy
acid senic�c, Of IL, :\nglicans recorded ill 11-, 1960
census. I1).9 lied in the Gcorgelo\yri or New
�ucas. 19.51; in East Denierara, 6. 7 `'r in
West Demerara, 1- 1.9`'; ill the enumeration district of
Berbice (encompassing the administrative districts of
East and \Vest Berbice). au(I 18.0`; in the
enumeration district of 1 kencunipassing
North West, Essequibo, Essequibo Islands, \l:i /anmi-
Potaro, and Rupui!rini).
Other Protestant groups of' muueric�al signif'leallev i
the country arc the N1 et 11 o(lists. Lutherins.
Presbyterians, and Seventh -day ;k(lyentists. Little
information is available on the Xlethodist Church in
Guyana exc�cpt that it is an outgrowth of the
missionary endeavor begun b the British Wesle-ans
earl- in the 19th century. In 1970, Xlelhodists were
estimated to number about '30,000, about half of
whom were believed to reside in Georgetown or New
:\nisterdam. Although the� Iiftberaus were not
specifically enumerated in the 1966 census, the- claim
a incnibership of more than 10,000, organized into the
Evangelical Lutheran (:lurch in Guyana, \yhich w:is
established ill 19 -1:3 under Gci-anese leadership; it
comprises IO parishes, served b- some 20 European
Mid U.S. missionaries. synod, consisting of
representatives from cac�h congregation, is the
Icgislative bo(1- for the denomination an(1 an
administrative council performs executive functions.
Most of the approximately 8.000 1'resb-terian in
Gilyana are ine fit bers of church conununitics
sponsored by the Church of Scotland. others belong to
congregations fostered i>y the Presbyterian Clitirch in
Canada. The majority are found in I ?ast and West
Berbice and 1�:ast Dcrnerara, districts which lave
larger proportions of I?asl Indians than an- others ill
the country. In addition to sonic converts among the
Fist Indians, the 1'resbyteri:uis have a ntiridwr ol'
small congregations in rural \I'ro :uyanese villages.
Only alx)ul 800 nivinbers of' the denomiination were
resident in the two principal urban cv�ntcrs in 1960.
Presbyterians in 0 1yuna are organized into two
presb\ terics which are part of th(� Ceueral Assembly ol'
Eliglish- speaking I'resbvteriam (Amt relies in the
Caribbean. 'I'll(- first Seventh day \dvenlist church
seas cslablished in Georgetown in 1892. Since 1915,
the denomination in Guyana has I'll let ioucd as it
mission field under the Scvvnth -clay A(lveutist
Caribbean t`nion Conference. \s of 1971 the c�hurc�li
claina�d about -,000 adherents, served by nine
ordained niiuisters and I I licensed ministers, as well as
a mimberof missionaries, evangelists, and layworkcrs.
Most of the traditional Protestant dc�noriiivations in
Guyana have engaged in cducatioual and welfare
services. TI e Anglicans .aid 1' resI-lcriuns, in
particular, have been active in education, sponsoring
numerous schools it both tic primar% and secondary
levels. lu 1966 the \nglic�ans operated 86 governnu�nl-
aicled educational institutions and the Presbyterians
(Clmrc�h of Scotland).
The Boman Catholic Church ill Guyana ela:nu�cl a
membership of 107,000 in 191 I, mucking it second to
the \nglic�an Clitirch ill size among Christian groups
ill the counts. Its mendwrs are under the jurisdiction
of the Diocese of Georgetown, which is suffragan to
the :\rc�hdiocese of fort -of- Spain, Trinidad. The first
ecclesiastical jurisdiction was established in Guyana in
1837 and was raised to the level of a (lioc�esc in 1956.
Of the 8:3.T-11 Catholics enumerated in the 196()
c�cnscis, more than half resided either in Georgetown or
New \nisterdam. But the fact that the church has
been aCtiVv in missionary endeavor among the
lnicrindians since the earl 19th c�entifry was reflected
in the relatively large proportion of Catholics (2 i.OS(
reported in the I�:ssc(lriibo enumeration di'k"bt where
most of the \riu�rindians live. \s of 190- tilt f)iot,,
of Georgetown included 2-1 parishc, %lid 65 cltIoNi
parishes. Ministering to tbe Of O'k\ faithful \w.,
i I priests -65 of whono \vrt� IIII'1111wl's of relio �.s
orders �and 75 ifmv, t'jIIIIIIti t'Ulldncovd UI
Catholic auspices urinilicrc,(f. till ;)1)(J eight
institutions were� being operated 1 eAjurch per c%WVl.
Vlore than Half of the C Itholic� deli;, ;ire rep -'ri'd to
be foreign -horn. The bishop who heads tdi tllti -csc is a
Scottish Jesuit.
Relations between Protestants and Catholics are
good, and cooperation between the two principal
groups Anglicans and Catholics has resulted in a
high degree of ecumenism. The two (lenoniimations
have tacit "spheres of influenve in their missionary
efforts, and the\ work together in a variety of
programs.
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01' the 2 10.000 ur so bast Indians brought to
Guyana as indentured farnmorkers between 15 :38artd
1911. apprtxinuttely 8-1"i were Hindus and 16 vv(.re
\I uslinfs. While� plantation life� eliminated or m odified
nurnv elements of their native culture, religious
expression Was one of the c�ulturel aspects which if,(.v
11fana9vd to preserve, ou the ++hole the\ resisted
attempts to couverl them to Christiauily. ;III Iliuclu
and Muslim religious groups in the counts are
organized along similar lines, with their o\vm local
co nfutiutaining and operating it temple ur
nu,s(Iue, hiring it priest or infant, (miring certain
property used for commun c�\ and userally
emfPlc,\ ing a teacher to run a c�on ill ill tal school, vvhicil
the government ufav subsidize. Both Ifindu :crul
-Muslim groups are becoming increasingly involved in
m fare activities which parallel those conducted by
Christian deuoruivatious.
The earl\' Ilinder immigrants were divided into
diverse small sects and cults, but as tint(. \vent on the
conditions of life in Guyana grulually cre a
broader definition of Ilinduisnf vvhic�h effectively
united them. A1 important factor ill this development
%vas th(. disintegration of the caste syst(.rft arrfong
ill"" it systenf \\Miele has been one of the major
distinguishing charac�teristic�s of traditional I linduisnt.
The eventual redefinition of the religion led to the
abamdonnu�ml of most of the separate cults and to cite
acevptanc�e of the Sanalun /)/turns som elinfes call :d
Brahmanical Ilinduisrn bv nfost Guvanes(. Ilin(lus.
lit its form of worship, the Sunalan Marn recognizes
the traditional gods of tit(. tinder pantheon, vvit!f
particular devotion to \'isbnu in his incarnations as
Banta and Krishna. It prescribes the performancev of
many Brahnfanic�al rituals ill which hereclitan
Brahmans conlimu(. to enjoy son traditional
privileges. It also approves certain Braluuanical ideals,
including it vegetarian diet and abstention fromf
alcoholic beverages. (The fact that most Guv:umse
Ilindus theomtically subscribe to such ideals has not
resulted in scrupulous observance of them; 111(�at is
often comsuued, although beef is generall\ avoided,
and ill(' c�onsumPtion of alcoholic beverages is at least
as high 11111011 I limcius as among other sectors of tit(.
population.) 'I'll(. Sanalan /)hams has been organized
lit the national levvI since 1927 as the Sanulan /)/term
;1 aha Sabha (Great Organization for the Mainte-
nance of tit(. Orthodox Ijeligior). \1Iith its srrbsidian
Pundits Council, which determines the Correct form of
doctrine and ritual, it nuty be said t0 represent
orthodox IIin(lnisrn (or the closest ll(ese
(cllrivalemt) in the cucrntry, operating lhrcelgh Four
regional divisions an(1 local branches.
;3.r
Sums� :(tv :uu�se Ilir!dus have heed receptive to
a4mmist mmem ents Mlic�h have appeared fern tim v
to tirru�. The must significant of these leas been the
Inle Samaj :1nau League). founded in India in
1875. Although the rmuvenfc�nt has existed in Guvurta
I'm more than tit) +ears. it remains small. Ne%crtheless,
it has exerted an influence Dirt of' proportion to its
mur11bers, nurimly because it has particular appeal fur
the active. educated. and pr,gressive members of the
Iliuclu c�omtutuuity. The main theological differeuc�es
bek%ven the Arya Samaj and the Semler Marm are
threefold. 'I'll(- Arya Samaj refuses lc, accept the basic
Sunulun Miami tenet that Gu(1 took buman lone ill
the persons c,C limner and Krishna. busing its ubjcc�tiuu
on the Vedas. the nu,st ancient sacred literature 0f
liu(luisnr; it favor, a c�omsciously rnuuntheistic� fc,rm o1'
Iliu(lui mf, denigrating the worship of the Dvity i,t
pluralistic m ani(estaticrus; and it (lisntiss(.s Sunalun
1)hunt rites as "mtrn mvr\. substituting simpler
Vedic rituals. I'll(- Ar11a Samaj also stresses a
comgregatic,nal 4 ocial appruac�h to religion. urging
that individr` �etic�isnt and detac�hnu�nl be
replaced t l,\ t ird community betterment.
reformist group is tit(-
l3 /n }ff +tw`A ti (Indian Self -Ilelp Soci(-l
+III)
Ott" 1 -ce %+ithiu the fold of the
Sat,) /I/ oid(.(1 all open breach with
it. Its 1 11 themselves to be urthodux
Iindus. ,t recognize the exclusive ritual
privileges Br�,f,utans amcl have develr,ped their overt
c�erenimnes vvhic�h, like those of' the :lrtlu Samaj, alloy\'
for more active partic�ipatiom by the congregation. The
Bharat Secashrum Satwh tolerates the worship 0f
inutges as it usc�fu1 aid ill devotions an(1 presents its
o\+n type of ritual only as an alternative to. rather
than it replacement for, the orthodox rites. This
compromise Imsition has \'von it more supporters than
the more "extrem ce Arya Samaj. Signific�anlly, ome of
the main trends uf" the reformers inmenu�nh has been
to transform the "other- vvorl(lly" asceticism of the
traditional religion into it concern with temporal
affairs. The inspiratim !;!�hind reformist ethics from
the I�eginning has been social rather than theological.
According to informed observers, the pattern of
religious beliefs of nu,st Guv:uu se Ilindus is it
s%�nthesis of some orthodox and some ref mnist
teachings, vvitlf few making total c�omrmfittnents that
place themf irrevocably On oil(- side or the other.
Most c,f the� country's Muslims belong to the
orthodox Sunni sect, organized ill Guyana as the
!munaltcal Jamaal (Organization of Sunnis). Like
`AtAimts elsewlivre. Guyanese Muslims regard the
Koran as the literal Word of God, the principal source
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of Islamic doctrine. The Doran is stipplenlentecl as it
sonrc�e� of gi idaiwe for orthodox Muslims h% the
Hadith.s (Traditions). contemporary accounts of the
words ard deeds of the Prophet Xtulcatunlad.
Orthodox worship has cluingcd little since the early
\luslim era, lien the prescriptions for religu
ios
observaiwe were set. Foremost among these arc the
five acts of religious duty kuowti as the five pillars of
faith. The� first of these is the verbal profession of faith
in one God.:? llall, and belief it( the prophethood of
\luh:uuncad. 'I'll(- sec�oucl relates to prayer, five daily
periods of prayer are enjoined by the Doran, with
Friday, the Muslim holy clay, being set aside for
communal pra\ers in a mosctuc (normally restricted to
mines). \InlsgiVing, dad light fasting during the mouth
Of Ilanadate. and it pilgrimage to \lecca are the
remaining pillars. Little information is available� (,II
the degree of observance of the first four pillars by
Guyanese \Itlslints. It is k however, that fcwan
finauc�ially able to snake the pilgrimage to Mec�c�u.
The San nat teal .1atwat claims to represent most of
Guyana \luslints, but it( the last two decades it has
been challenged bya numberof small X1i1sliIll groups.
The only one of sigmific�arlcc is the Ahmadiyya
Anjuntam (Ahnrdiya Society). it reformist sect
founded it( I879 in the Indian by \lirza
Gltulam Minim]. who prodalu, M111 elk to he the
person in whom were uuital t6- Christian \lessiah
and the \luslin \1andi lit the late 0960's. the
Ahmadiyya :1njuynan lmd I'e\\er than -10Madliereuls
in ;Ilylttl:l, nustly ill Georgelo\yn and \e\\
:\nisterdam. They differ little from flit orthoclm
Stennis in belief and practice. Ifmw%er, they interpret
the rule of Jesus somewhat differently, alloy womlen to
cuter it special section of the mtosque for I' ric'.,y graver.
and permit the translation of the Doran into l.' sh.
The fe\\ hundmd Mricans ho have been converted to
(stun subscribe to the basic� tenets of the soc�icly; they
refer to themselves as Black \luslints.
IIindu- Muslifit relations have been generally
friendly, largely because of the shared inunigrnt
background of the blast Indians :rod the mutual effort
ter preserve aspects of F1.1st Indian culture in an
ethnically divided society. Minor frictions between the�
two faiths hays usually been subordinated to their
co Ill Indian interest. lit addition, stntctural
similarities in religious ceremonies l ilt organization
have enabled Guyanese Ifindcts and M uslims to
I some understanding of one another's
activities, even though they know little about the
content of the relevant beliefs. Differences between
'In \1udim tradition. :u, expected spirihu,l and temporal ruler
scho ilIIof establish an reign of righteousness throughout the wort d.
the t\\o groups an� incrcasingl\ being described as
"differcnces between brothers of the sant( fatlily.
:uul as suc�Il they tend to be seen as permissible and
alternative forms of religious practice. Iliudte- \luslint
cooperation was advillic�ed early in 19T2 when a
contnitlee \vas formed to "bring into one bo(ly all
religious, cultural, and social organizations of
01y:u!ese East Indiars.
General acceptance of the lion- Chrisliau religious
groups b\ Christian denoni lil ions slo\y to
develop, it reflection of the wide c�tIturallb istitig
between the ;'.list ludians and the African I mtur\
of Iitrge unsuccessful missionary effort� both
Protestant laud Catholic�, to convert the East Indians to
Christianity did little to improve the situation. With
goyernmenI eucouragenictit, cousidcrable progress has
now been made in wd!!c�i!!g religious minositil." by
emphasizing cicnt(�nts of agreement. based on the
premise that all of the religions are similar to the
extent that they affirm the existence of a Creator.
H. Education (U /OU)
Despite postindepcndence efforts to revise seboul
curriculums and to mode rnize teaching ncethods� the
Guyanese C(bicational system ret :phis many outmoded
concepts and practices and' reflecting its British
orientation. emphasizes traditional academic� studies
.it tlle� expel!� ,d .'Illlical am] \�r ,lllllllill 11,,l114111-.
Primary -level !t, tction is cxlctllye" 11111 IIIYI \Illt`s til
majority of the population /ill) it I'lllllllelll;er\
education. Secondary -level inkt'llelio;l, 11(mv\cr, is
limited both yuantilatively all) elnlllitali\el\_
only a sclec�t minority of student ill rrlau ccr rs
receive Iigh- duality instruction. All uutllcr
number of sludeuls have the opportrtnily to pursue
higher education. By U.S. measurcnu�uts, most schools
in Guyana are substandard and overcrowded (Figure
1 Must arc also ill- eetuipped and poorly staffed, and
few provide training in the skills most needed by
Guyana's developing cc�ononly.
Because of cosy access at least to primary training.
the Guyanese are among the most literate people of
South i\merica. Furthermore. the jiteracy rate has
been rising� having increased from 7 1ffi of the total
population age 13 and over in 19.6 to :shout 86!71 in
1967. Ptmc�tional literacy, however. is low and
probably does not cxc�ced field. Many children do not
c�omtplctc the 4 years of schooling considered necessary
for functional literacy, in rural areas where there is
little occasion to read after leaving school. m:uly
persons tend to lose their reading skills. Then' is more incentive in urban areas to remain literate, even
'5
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A1i sres nm
i 1
R.
FIGURE 21. Typical schools (C)
:36
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NW
m

among those� yVho have gaiu('ei only it partial prinntry
education, bee�a(tse literacy is it basic requirement fur
entployn,nt in the better paving jobs.
As is cuntnort elsewluve ill the World, literacy is
higher anong urban residents than arcr g those who
live in the c�o(ntrysidv. Beeanse they are a
predominantly urban coil,,,tunit'. the Africans in
Guyana are alnwst totally literate; the Just Incliaus
are it less literate group than the Africans, a ll the
Anierindians are the (cast literate people i tile
country. N'lost illiterate I?ast Indians, however, are
concentrated ill the older age groups; the younger East
Indians generally are able to read and write. Increased
educational opportunity' for Anerindians also is being
reflected in rising literacy among these people.
Altlough the 1960 census apparently did not
determine levels of literacy, it did ascertain the level of
educational attainment of the Guyanese population
age 15 and over. Of this segment of the population,
12.95r' had no fornal education, 12. had less than (i
years of primary tr aining. 2i.5`(' had 6 or i years of
schooling. and ')18.6(' had tenninate(I their education
after S or 9 years. 9 years of schooling covering the
compulsory sector of education. I.,XCIu(ling the 1.5 of
the population age 15 and over for whon the level of
e(ucational attainnent %Vas not recorded, only 10.9i';
of the population had received training b,you(1 the
primary level in 1960; these inc�lucle(1 i..1`'r Wilo hall
completed the secondary cycle and 0. -1 yVho held a
university degree. In 19(10, there were only 1,126
uniyersit graduates in Guyana, 925 nen and 198
Women. 1?xcept at the level of higher education an(I
among those Who had received no schooling. there %%its
little significant difference b,hve,n the sues in tit(-
level of educational attainnett (F igure 2). Alnost
twice as rttany Woru�rt tar; ncn. ilo%%eyer, had no formal
training. The proportion of the total populatitru age 15
and over without any education ranged frun it lo%% of
2.5 in the city of Georgetown to it high of 63.3S(' in
Rupununi District. More than two- thirds of the
universit gradiw:tes were in the Georgetown or New
Arnsterdanl areas.
Throughout tile 20th century, and particularly since
the end of World War Il, educ�alional opportunity has
been increasing in Guyana. During the early 19:30*s, it
\Vas estimated that approximately 62(1 of relevant age
group was enrolled in primary school; this proportion
had increased to about i5''i in the late 19-10*s all(.] to
approximately 85ii in the early 1970's. Although in
any given school year only about 85 of the relevant
age group is enrolled in primary school, the proportion
of children actually exposed to some priniary
schooling al one tint, or another is believed to
approach U)Wi. Largo- numbers of shul,nls attend
Educated In a I 0.9
FOreipn t�ft 0s
UNVERSRY
%V% Sdwat
o cerMhcate
o
No Sdwa
e:e.tr(imte
Standard 6
Standard 7
a Standard I
Stendard 5
Vreppr0101Y A
Standard 3
NO EDUCATION
n1OUSANM of vasowS
MALE
0.3
FEMALE
60
11.1
0.i
0A
f"
dk
50.7
IhLr 376
A"
FIGURE 22. Educational attainment of the population
age 15 and over, by sex, 1960 (U/OU)
primary sebool for less than the full c�Vele: sons(- attend
for it year or tx%o, drop out, and sn linies reenter.
there being no rigid age restrictions uu a(Intission �to
the schools. Poor duality teaching. irrelevant
curricult.nts. it lack of vocational guidance. and
financial probl,ns contribute to high attrition at all
levels of education. The dropout rate is most
pronounced aj the end of the fourth, sixth. and ninth
years.
Both lb(- strengIIis and the Weaknesses of the present
educational system derive larg,ly from policies
established by the British during the colonial era.
Although the colonial educational system fostered
British Values, ctItural forms. au(1 standards of
behavior in an alt,npl to unite the diverse racial
elements "ithiu Guyanes� soc�iet, its prinar%
function Was to train functionaries for the loyVer ranks
of Ibe civil service and clerical au(1 ntiuos
administrative personnel for the sugar plantations and
business and financial houses. Moreover, despite the
legal estahlisluncnt of conp(IsLrry sc�booliug in 1876.
provisions of the act Were not Vigorously enforced until
Well into the 20th century. "I'll(- compulsLrry segment of
education in public schools is free.
The Guyana Government has attempted since 1966
to nuul(-rnize the educational s%slen, ill, only partial
success. Tile stated aim of the Burnbam administra-
tion is "to produce in the shortest possible tints,
c�ilizens Will adequate skills to steel the counts 's
growing needs, and at the san(- lint(- to broaden the
scups and to change the content of the c�urriculutn to
provide for the total deVeltrpn e,it of each child.
Toward this goal, it ne%% c�urric�ulunt %%as introduc
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into st:nte schools beginning in September 19(i;. 'I'lle
ne" eurriculuht prt\ides for t-ourses ill S1,auisb and for
increased emphasis th bottle ec�omMiles. hatidicrafts,
soJv1lC4 tec�lutic�al training, and ph%sic�al education. In
addition. attentitu is hov\ being given to agri.ultun
and animal husbandr\, partictilarly in schools in the
rural areas. Observers believe, ho"e\er, that it \%ill
take ht;ut\ \ears to full\ intplehtt�nt these and other
reforhs because of hurt atierttic inertia and the lack of
trained instructors.
The Gtl%'wwse Guverninent has been allocating
increasing atuotints to education. tilt� total public
expenditure on education haying risen from
approxihtatel\ ;$S ntilliot in 19(il to CS2 million in
1970. As it proportion of total go\enunent spetiditig,
alloc.atious for education during 1961 ill ranged
fehyeeti a Iow of I11.:7`7 196 1 and a high of 15. i t;
('.9(75). Most spending on edileatioll is devoted to
recurrent expenses, of wbic�h approxihtatel\ 70`; is
absorbed by teachers and administrators' salaries.
Although prihutny education continues to r; ciye the
hulk (if the nt(me\ spent on ctlucation (70 in NMI.
increasing1% I;irgcr ;tnrounts have been allocated ill
recent years for sec�on(lar\ schooling, teacher training,
and higher education. Fund. allotted to education
represent the largest single item of expenditure in the
national budget, wit11 spending cn ctlucation
approximating Wi of gross donn�stie product. Ill yicv\
of it growing population, however, the goyernna�nl
vvM be c�ontpc�Iled to allocate even larger stints in the
future hu���I\ to maintain c�urreut levels of access to
scftooli ng.
TllV num' I of public prinmr\ and all -age schools
ruse from n 1939 to 152 in 1965, but schools
sponsor"'. 4v> CIkrkti in groups continue to ollImindwr
those ('pert?' d 1�a !be government. In 1968, for
example, more luxes halt c,I' all primary and all -age
schools vyete nt pit gained by denuminalional groups.
Other sc�hutris are� operated by sugar companies,
mining firths, and other pri\:.tte entities. About half of
the iWildentic� scco ndur\ schools are run b\ the
government, trite remainder by private interests.
Provided tlu�\ meet curricular re(Itiirvinents and other
prescribed standards, titnpublic� schools receive
government subsidies for teachers salaries, etluip-
uu�hl, ;utd plant nuaihtchanc�e.
Despite it considerable increase in enrollhchl at
both primary anti secondary levels (Figure 23),
enrollment is con.�entrated in the prinwr\ grades.
During the 1952/5:3 to 1967 /65 period. enrollhurnt in
secondary schools expandc(1 more nipidly I -Wr' than
that its prihutr} schools (1 155; so that the ratio of
primary stiulents to secondary students dropped front
35
FIGURE 23. Primary and secondary enrollme it (U /OU)
seru%u.ut\ t :%nt,t.t.%lvvi
;shout 3.:3: 1 to 2.5: I. 'Thus, educational opportuhit\ at
the sec�ondar\ level has been exp;cttde(I to ertc�orrtpass it
sotrtev \bat larger proportion of those completing the
prin lot ry c�\c�le. IIo%%ever, the bulk of all st�c�otidary
students have been enrolled in the all -age schools.
\v bich base been described b\ observers as the mwt
%%astef ll and inefficient sector of the educational
s\sleht.
'I'lle Gti\auese educational s\slertt consists of if 6
\ear prinmr cycle and a S 6 or \ear seconday
c�yc h- Figure ?-1). The printar\ c�\cic is divided into six
grades, kno%\n as Prepiimtor\ A, Preparaton B. and
Standards I through 1. ":\11 -age Schools. \%Itic�h are
ntunerous in Cu\;uta, offer 9 \e;ars of schooling ;ttt(I
cover the period of comptilsor\ attendance (ages (i
through 1.1). '1�hv�se schools include Ilie 6 -\ear prinutr\
program and it :3 \car secon(lar\ program (Forms
through 111) that is nornall\ terminal. I�:arl\ in 1972.
the goveruhertt began replacing the sec�oudar\
program iu the all ag" sc boots b\ "ntultilal"rtl junior
sec�ondar\ schools which give 2 or i \ears of general
sec�ondar\ education, and lead to entplo\ ovens. to
vocational training. or to advanced schooling in
various (Ii\ersifivd auras. Secondzir\ schools (as
distinguished front the sec�ondar\ program is the ;dl-
ag(- schools) are academic� institutions v\hic {t 1(�ad to
higher education. All sec�ondar\ schools in Cti\ana
provide at least a 5 \t�ar progrmn (Forms I through V).
vyhich is it preretlinsite for admission to the Uniyersil\
Of Guyana, but cntl\ if handful offer the a(lditional2
\ears (Forn VI� I.ovver and Upper), which (lualif\
students for entrance into iiniycrsilies in the United
kingdom.
During the 1960's, lie government attacked the
problems of oyererowding and insuffici(�l;t eyuiphu�nt
in the nations schools by sponsoring self -help school
construction projects and expending substantial stints
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Pit MAtt1
(At�adeflut�
st� If( of,
r:% ta)I.t.-
A11 -age
secottdsry
I1�1.vtt
N :V�P
school,
a�huul<
Total
1452 53......
61 ,fiLa
Ix, 661
1,151
14,x1:,
1456 :i4......
41 ,(ixa
26,675
5, 135
32, I l0
1461 65
1: 75s
31 700
12, 575
11 275
1465 66......
131,217
32,04;
15,1x6
1466 67......
135,017
:32,x71
16,552
14.12:3
1467 6x
I:ix, 67 1
:32, 795
16.372
19, 167
\OTE' Excludes
set�ondar
-h�vu) tt�t�6nival and tut:oioual
school enroUntt�n1.
Pupils ill
a11-39� st�11
hank� 1weli
:tl,l,or-
,ioned at�t�,trdirig 10
the It. col
:11 tthit�h t
hvY Avry t�nn,lh�d.
;shout 3.:3: 1 to 2.5: I. 'Thus, educational opportuhit\ at
the sec�ondar\ level has been exp;cttde(I to ertc�orrtpass it
sotrtev \bat larger proportion of those completing the
prin lot ry c�\c�le. IIo%%ever, the bulk of all st�c�otidary
students have been enrolled in the all -age schools.
\v bich base been described b\ observers as the mwt
%%astef ll and inefficient sector of the educational
s\sleht.
'I'lle Gti\auese educational s\slertt consists of if 6
\ear prinmr cycle and a S 6 or \ear seconday
c�yc h- Figure ?-1). The printar\ c�\cic is divided into six
grades, kno%\n as Prepiimtor\ A, Preparaton B. and
Standards I through 1. ":\11 -age Schools. \%Itic�h are
ntunerous in Cu\;uta, offer 9 \e;ars of schooling ;ttt(I
cover the period of comptilsor\ attendance (ages (i
through 1.1). '1�hv�se schools include Ilie 6 -\ear prinutr\
program and it :3 \car secon(lar\ program (Forms
through 111) that is nornall\ terminal. I�:arl\ in 1972.
the goveruhertt began replacing the sec�oudar\
program iu the all ag" sc boots b\ "ntultilal"rtl junior
sec�ondar\ schools which give 2 or i \ears of general
sec�ondar\ education, and lead to entplo\ ovens. to
vocational training. or to advanced schooling in
various (Ii\ersifivd auras. Secondzir\ schools (as
distinguished front the sec�ondar\ program is the ;dl-
ag(- schools) are academic� institutions v\hic {t 1(�ad to
higher education. All sec�ondar\ schools in Cti\ana
provide at least a 5 \t�ar progrmn (Forms I through V).
vyhich is it preretlinsite for admission to the Uniyersil\
Of Guyana, but cntl\ if handful offer the a(lditional2
\ears (Forn VI� I.ovver and Upper), which (lualif\
students for entrance into iiniycrsilies in the United
kingdom.
During the 1960's, lie government attacked the
problems of oyererowding and insuffici(�l;t eyuiphu�nt
in the nations schools by sponsoring self -help school
construction projects and expending substantial stints
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LJ I 7 8 9 f0 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 i0 21 Normal
Entering Age
Diploma Course
Preparatory Course
El Part-time Course
Advanced secondary preparation
(or higher studies abroad.
Courses of indefinite duration.
Home Economics
of Agricultural Training
Technical Institute: Technical Courses
Government Technical Institute: Crafts Courses
Special Teacher Training
Primary Scnool
I 2
Degree Courses UNIVERSITY
OF GUYANA
I 2 3 4
SECONDARY SCHOOL
II III IV V VI VI University abroad
Lowe UePcr y
Secondary Program
within All -age School
ALL -AGE SCHOOL
FIGURE 24. Structure of the educational system, 1970 (U /0U)
for ntaleri ;d aids. lict%trcn 1965 and 1965, Illaccs Inr
;ut addilumal 2-S.000 students %%ere Itro%ide(I and 6 1
sehnnl, iillchlditll. st�\rn sccun(larn in \terc
hnilt lllrout;h self help Ilrojccts, thcreb coulrihuting
sit;nificalItIN to the grncnlnfent go ;Il of prtrtiding
facilities fur I(1,(AA additional I)!IIIiIs III I) ,2.
Bot\cccn 1966 and Ill 1. ;SI.; million \%io, allocated
Inr school c(IIIiI) nIL�nt au(l f;I(�ihtics, iI1(�In(Iiut;
CSi(I(1,000 f(Ir Iihr;Iric,. (:511111.000 Inr audio\ isu Il
aids. (;55(10,0(1(1 Inr school desks, ;S 150,1100 Inr
lit oratories. ;SI(lMOO Iur I) h\sical c III (�atinn. ;Intl
(:861 _'.0() 11 Inr Montt� economics and han(Ii(�rafl
cyuiItnuvll. Kr 1972 th-se 1)ro14 ranls ha(I IIiiligale(I
o%vrcr )\%ding iIntl h: td inlltrrned eOIidiIiuns in s() nte nl'
the cnuntr\ s st hn( ls.
I)(�spite i if, I)ro\ (-II wi I t in ~)ine itslu�cls of the
edI Ica tiflim s..tclll. the shortage of Ir ;IiII(�(I Icacliers
remains ac ulc. III 168( ()if I\ :35`f of the 5,121 prilniir\
and all -age s(�hool iustruclors, and l (hail ?T of
Teachers Training
Nurses
Industrial Training
(6 months or I year)
lll(� 0) sccundiir\ s(Iuull irlstrrlc tws held i t (legrcc in
education or had succ�es.lidl\ conlltlelccl ;fit iipprutcd
coarse of llrolcssion ;tl Iraiuint; at a !e;ICher lr,titIin"r
cnllcge.:1 major I;rnlmi tion of teacher at the liri,ilar\
Iccl art� rec�rtlitvd idiom t;nidij ;ttittlt Intnl tht�
;ill-age sc�hou;s. 'I'liew rcc�ruils a ne ;IS Ittlltil-
(ea the rs tnldcr e\I wrier cr(I i is! ni(�lors for if 1wri Id of
I gars. al'tcr \thich lime (het arc cerliliecl a
"(illidilied." 11ccenl gotcrnnu tit to ultt;ra(le
tea(hcr (g lit lifi(�al if ns inc�lo(e pro tidiiu ��ltttltil-
le;ichcrs" ttith III) to 2 gars cal inscr\ ice Iraittint.
c:,imn(ling the teacher training facilitic.. and offering
if 2- \ciirdiphmla course fur second ;ir\ level tc;Ic�hers
the I'oi\ersilt of (;u\an ;I. Thesc and other Itrognitns
increased lol:il teacher tr ;lining cnrollrtu�nl front ;iii
estinlatc(I 215 in 1968 tc, 660 in I9; I. The gmernnienl
offers ntnncrous schol;trsllips. lit\ c\enIptiuns. ;Ind
nlher india-vi u�nls to allnic�t indit ideals to the
tea ching Itrnlession: nonetheless, the recruitment and
;9
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retention of concpetcolt instructors is diffic�ull f,ec�ause
of low salaries (mere than hull' of all leachers earn less
than G5150 per month) and poor working conditions.
General acade!nic studies pn dominate at all l(-\(]s
of the educational systenc. Since independence,
however, basic vocational subjects hatye been
introduced in primary schools, and tec�Itmic�al and
vocational courses have been expanded at the Icyc Is of"
secondary and higher education. Specialized training
ill vorttioual amd technical studies is offered in four
public and three private schools. Among these is the
guycncnccnt- operated Guyana Industrial Training
Center (GITC), establishccl in 1965 near Georgetown.
Founded with assistance franc AID and AIFLD, (ITC
offers 6 -month and 12- nonth courses in carpentry,
masonry. Plutmbimg, welding, and other specialities,
and graduates some 150 students annually. A few
private commercial schools in Georgetown provide
instruction in typing, shorthand, and bookkeeping.
Opportunities to pursue higher educ�aliool in
Guyana it re Iincited. The L'ni\e, sit\ of Guyauut,
established in 1963, offers -sear diplonut programs in
such fields as architecture, cdurtiun, engineering,
nu�dical tc(!hrcolog), public administration, and
tciccon IMMications, and -1 -year degree programs in
the arts and the natural and soc�iai sciences. The
Government Technical Institute an(! the :(I\ana
School of Agriculture also offer some postsecondary
courses. Both entities are scheduled to merge with the
University of Guyana, becoming the fac u:tics of
engineering and agriculture� respectively, bolt bec�ausc
of a shortage of funds, the merger has not vet taken
place.
The University ol' Guyana oc�c�(Ipies it plant opened
in February 1970 at 'I urkeyen. cast of Georgetown.
Since moving to the new quarters. the university has
initiattcd a fcv\ day Classes, but most offerings are given
earl\ in the evening. A majority of students, oI' v\hone
there were I, 168 in 1970%71, attend classes on it part
tint(' batsis. -lost fac!!Ity members �there were 70 in
1970 �also serve only part time� being forced by
economic necessity to nrtirctain at full -lints job o(Itsi(le�
the university comuunnit\. Because the graduates of
those secondary schools offering 7 -years of training
study abroad if they are financially able, the
University of Guyana enrolls nmink students with bolt
5 years of econdary schooling. As it result, standards
at the university arc low.
During the late 196O's, al last 1.000 Guyanese were
pursuing higher echtcation abroad annually. In 1968,
about one -third of these were thc� recipients of
govencnu�nt scholarships and were following courses of
study not offered in Guyana. Most Guyanese slu(I\ing
abroad attend universities or colleges in the united
Kingdom, Canada, or the United States.
I. Cultural expression (U /OU)
During most c,l' the lung colonial period, such
limited cultural expmssio n as existed in the area w,I
the cxdusi\c dountin of' the small group ol' ruling
Fim pears. The (,:uticc of slavery and the later
indenture system c�onslitolled it pov\crfoll barrier to
rcatiyc (Icyclopnu�nl an!o!g the subseryicut peoples
to v\honc c(lmc�ation was almost universally denied.
British missionary efforts anuntg the Al'ric�aI!s ill the
IM11 century. emphasizing the English language and
British yalucs. laid the basis for the subse(joenl
orientation of Guyanese cultural expression. With few
exceptions. writers, poets, and artists have temle(I to
imitate British models rather than to develop f
that are peculiarly their own. Tlw country's atulhors
have heen serious(\ han(licuppccl b\ the lincited local
audience fur their v\orks. There arc I'cv\ domestic
publishing facilities, and the newspapers and
nagazimes Kaye clone little to support Guyanese
literary cmdeayor. As it result, local writers have
generally tunwd to the United Kim, m am
have taken up residence there. 'I'll(- Burnhac
administration acknowledges the problem anal ha
pledged itself to lake measures which will create an
atmosphere that \\ill viwourage those v\itll creative
talent to remain in Guyana.
Only it handful of :u\ancsc have gained it
reputation in literature. Edgar A. \littelholzer. v\ho
conln!ittcd suic�i(le in I ?nglancl ill 1965. \y its the
foremost of' th A light skinned African, he was
ncuch tronl,led by problems stenuccing (roue mixcd
heredity. IIis first novel. Corenlllnc Thunder.
published in 1911 while he \\as still living in Guyana.
is considered the first !major v\ork of' "\Pest Indian!"
literature. IIis last. A Sicarlhl Boy, wits writte ;I in
196�'6. During the intervening years he published M
other books. -lost critics cite as his best v\ork 'I'Ih( Life
and Oca Ili of :illlvia. a penetrating solely oi'
(.et)rgelovyII soc�icty with its subllctics and color
snobbery, and what the author called "lhc tangled
mass of c�liyucs and clans and subdans." Also regarded
as outstanding is the Ka\v\anu trilogy: Children of
hayicana. The llarrou of lluherlu.s, and Kallacana
Blood. "These� novels follovy the fortunes of it single
fancily through more tham! 300 \cars of Cuya:.,�sc
history.
Olhcr recognized c�onlencporary writers are ;Nilson
larris. Jan Carew, E. R. Brailhwaitc. and (:fcrislopher
Nic�oly. all of whom ac�hicved prominence in the
I960's. In his writings. I larris fre(Itientl\ deals with the
efforts of the individual to nu�el the cfcallcnges of
nature :urd to establish nu�aningful c�onununicatlion
with his fellows. Among his better known works are
Palace of Ili( Peacocks, Then Secret Ladder, a Tht
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Fate of the Sc�arecroc. "1'110 tltc�nc of Jan Carew's
novels is the struggle of the N�oung to rise ahoy(' the
disadvantages of poverty and racial discrimination. I II
Peter ,11ida,s', (:crew's setting is the interior of Guyana,
and it, The Wild Coast the background is it coastal
Village. I lis more recent works treat the same theme in
foreign settings. E. R. Braithwaite is hest known for To
Sir with LON', all autobiographical study of race
relations based on the author's experiences as it teacher
in a London school. To Sir cith Loge received
international recognition and has Fecn muulc ito a
motion pic�tur0. 'I'll(- work of Christopher Nicole,
excmPlificd nruinly by it 1962 novel, Ratoon, is
regarded its of critical sigmificanc�c ill that it appears to
show some progress in tit(' dcyelopm('nt of it freer
"Guyanese" stvle. Ratoon centers on the \lahaica
slave revolt of 182.3.
The small, integrated literati of Georgetown are not
Yet a potent force in Guyam('se life, but semc members
of this group are exerting an increasing influence in
their efforts to create it greater sense of cultural self
srlfficiency. working to develop it pride in the folk
traditions and modes of artistic expression of the
various ethnic groups. Among their leaders is Arthur
James Seymour, it sometime professor at the University
of the West Indies in Jamaica. Poet, critic, and former
editor of the literary journal Kyk- over -al Look Over
All). Seymour advocates it (listinctiyc local literature,
although h(' feels that the culture of Europe must
continue to play 1 part in its growth. I lis writing deals
with c�oloniai history. Amerindian folklore. and the
1 )ell"tY of the GUyam'sc landscape; h�pical of his work
is a poem entitled There Runs a 17ream. Another poet
of not(' identified with the group is Nlartin Carter, it
onetime leader in tit(' PPP who served for a period ill
the Burnham Cabinet. Like most C:uyane'se poets, he
extols the merits of his natiy(' land, particularly
emphasizing its physical aspects. lie also attempts to
evoke it Setlse of national awakening. his collection,
Nett' Day, cnyisions better times for his countrymen.
Until the early 1900's. Guyanese art was doninated
by British, Dutch, and French artists living in the
colony. The first Guyanese to become known in the�
field �vas Samuel Brooditage n. it sculptor and
illustrator. 'Thereafter. it small circle led by the late E.
R. Burrows begitrl to produce native sc�('nes�
landscapes, markets, decaying slave (luarlers. and
mas(prerade dancers. A painter, sculptor, and art
teacher, Burrows worked throughout his life to
promote Guyanese art, encouraging young wot11(I -be
artists through the Working Peoples Art Society,
Which he founded. Prim -.rily (('cause of the efforts of
the soc�ietY, Painting has achieved considerable
popularity� anteing the urban pupulatiou, but the
eluality is not high. Like their literary counterparts,
Most of the promising contemporary artists have
chosct' to work outside Guyana. Promliucnt among the expatriates are Denis \1'illianls and Aubrey Williams
(unrelated), \yhu have been living abroad for noun
gars, mostly in F,nglun(l. Denis Williams was the first
Gilyam se artist to he awarded it British Council
scholarshil. Both rte,, have concerned themrselyes
with the use of abstract svmhols to depict dramatic
elemental forces. Amung the artists who have chosen
to remain in Guyana are Finerson Saruuels, Cyril
Kallhlti, David Singh, Alvin Bo\ynrau, Stanley
Greaves, and Ronald Savory. 'I'll(- most productive
painter in this group is Savory, ern impressionist.
Sometimes termed "the artist of tit(- hinterland. he
draws his inspiration from the savannas, forests, and
mountain ranges of the interior. In recent years, the
Guyanese Government has sought to encourage local
artistic expression by sponsoring an annual National
Arts Festival and by promoting participation in such
regional cultural activities as the Caribbean Festival of
Creative Arts.
A formal theater tradition has existed it, C :uyana
since the 1840's when i t public hall was built in
Georgetown fur the purpose oi presenting dramatic
entertainment. Sincr that time, local groups hays
performed plays, operettas, and musical comedies and
biwe sponsored appearances by companies from
Europe and the Americas. Because of the sc�arc�ih ol
dramatic writing in Guyana, the great ntuljorik. of
theatrical productions over tit( years have been of
foreign origin. The only Guyanese dramatist of
significunc�e has been Norman Cameron. A mathe-
matics teacher who wrote both prose and poetry, he
turned to writing plays in the I9ti0's and subseclucntly
authored several full length dramas, including
Balthaser. Adoniza. and jamaic�a Joe. Local interest in
the theater was renewed in 1957 when a Theater Guild
was establish('d in an effort to promote greater
participation ill the dramatic arts. The guild stages it
number of major plays each year. conducts an annual
playwriting competition, and sponsors countrywide
drama festivals. It also maintains it lil rary and
workshops.
'I'ite most popular form of cultnnrl expression is
music. particularly calypso. \lany Guyanese enjoy
singing, and virtually every village has one or more
groups arrlong the younger generation wilo meet
regularly to sing to the aceonlpa Ili nrent of banjos,
guitars, drums, and maracas. \zany villages have a
local calypso specialist who makes up topical songs,
generally of a bawdy nature. Because of the national
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te11denc�v to gossip, scandalous happenings it re
fre�(Itreut s111)jt.cts. Altftottgh still poorl% developed,
serious nusic�al expression anwng Guyanese has been
enhanc�el over the past 30 gars b% the fortuatio, of
several music organizations and orchestras, ;tut increase
in music� ;tl activities ill the schools, and the entcrgene e
of it rtltmber of composers. Nuleworth% anu,ug the
composers is Philip Pilgrim. whose- best known work is
it 19 1 1 musical interpretation of Arthur 1 .111les
Sevmuntr's the Ler;e,d of Kaiclenr. Others whe. have
gained recognition in tit(. field of ntusic�al composition
arc Ilugh Sant. Valerie 11odwav, florace L. Taitt.
Cecile Nol raga, and Walter f ranker. Miring the
I960's, the founding of a National Symphom
Orchestra and it Ceorgetowtt Philharmonic stimulated
interest in the classical concert tradition, but by 19
both were in decline.
"traditional folk music is still heard and, in fact� is
becoming incrcitsingly popular as a result of it gro\\ ing
sense of* pride in the Cuvanese heritage. One tvpe of
musical rendition utiyuc to Cuvuna is the yu(�h- (/,el(.
which adapts Western verse to African chants and is
sung in the local English patois. :ntottg the Fast
Indian population, the traditional music of India has
been kept alive. Mainly b\ Brahman priests. and is
frequently performed in the course of religions
ceremonies and festivals. Although its nu lactic
patterns have been considerably modified by Western
11tusic�al influences, its East Indian c�harac�teristies still
predominate. The orly information available with
respect to native ,1nerindian music concerns the
various instnunents in use. The most c�omuuon of these
is it drum made of skills stretched across a hollow
section (,f tree trunk and bound to it by rawhide
thongs or heavy vines. Another is it crude flute
constructed froth the long grasses abundant in the
savannas. Gourd rattles, c�onchshells, whistles, an(I
panpipes are also employed. Two special instruments
fashioned of c�lav are regarded as sacred objects among
certain tribes. These are the hol,to. a large, bulky
wind instrument. and the taruna. which resembles it
flute. Both are used in indigenous religious rites. Folk
dances among the Anwrindians often imitate the
flight of it bird, with the� participants, usually voeng
men. dressed in feathers.
Cuyanese folk arts are lintf!e(I. The ;lfric�an., appear
to have lost whatever capabilities they 11nty once have
had as artis,,ns. and while some 1�:ast ludians are
engaged in the traditional crafts of India, this sphere
of activity is fairly limited. In it few 1� :List In(lian
corrtntunities the art of altar painting is still practiced,
as is jad work, which consists of embroidering velvet
with gold and silver thmad. The most important East
Indian craft is the making of delicate filigree jewelry.
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