SUPPLEMENTAL BRIEF OF AMICI CURIAE

• Document Type: FOIA
• Collection: FOIA Collection
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): 06844113
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 38
• Document Creation Date: March 9, 2023
• Document Release Date: September 28, 2020
• Case Number: F-2016-02028

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IN THE
0�.. 02_lL�
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK
JOSE PADILLA (Real Party in Interest),
DONNA R. NEVVMAN,
as Next Friend of Jose Padilla,
Petitioners,
- versus
GEORGE W. BUSH, ex officio as
Commander in Chief, et al.,
Respondents.
Civil Action No.
02-Civ-4445 (MBM)
SUPPLEMENTAL BRIEF
of
AMICI CURIAE
by
THE NEW YORK STATE ASSOCIATION OF CRIMINAL DEFENSE LAWYERS
and
THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CRIMINAL DEFENSE LAWYERS
DONALD G. REHKOPF, JR,
Law Offices of BRENNA & BRENNA
31 East Main Street, Suite 2000
Liberty Plaza
Rochester, New York 14614
[phone]
[e-mail]
For Amid Curiae
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Authorities ii
PREAMBLE 1
I. THIS CASE IS ABOUT THE CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS OF MR. PADILLA. 1
A. An Analysis of Ex Parte Milligan - The Controlling Precedent Herein. 3
B. The Respondents' Actions Illegally Establish "Martial Law." 6
C. Other Basic Constitutional Provisions Applicable Herein. 12
D. The Law "Authorized By" The Constitution That Is Dispositive Herein. 13
IL RELEVANT AND CONTROLLING DEFINITIONS. 14
A. The Term "Enemy Combatant" is Meaningless to This Litigation. 15
B. Congress, Not the President, Defines Who Is An "Enemy." 19
C. The United States Is NOT At "War." 20
III. THE DE FACTO SUSPENSION OF THE WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS. 22
IV. THE RESPONDENTS' ARGUMENTS ARE BASED UPON FOUR FALLACIES.25
A. Factual Reasons Why No Deference Is Due. 26
B. The Legal and Constitutional Basis for Declining Deference Herein. 29
1. General Considerations. 29
2. Specific Reasons Deference is Inappropriate Herein.30
V. THE APPROPRIATE CONSTITUTIONAL BALANCE. 33
CONCLUSIONS 37
APPENDIX "A" 38
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TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
CASES
Bas v. Tingv, 4 U.S. 37 (1800) 20
Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616 (1886) 31
Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444 (1969) 36
Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1 (1958) 30
Dennis v. United States, 341 U.S. 494 (1951) 35,36
Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304 (1946) 11, 22, 24, 29
Ex Parte Merryman, 17 Fed.Cas. 144 (C.C. D.Md. 1861) 6, 12, 24
Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2(1866) 3-6, 8-10, 12, 24,29
Ex Porte Quinn, 317 U.S. 1 (1942) 15, 30, 31
Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 296 F.3d 278 (4th Cir. 2002) 8, 16
Hammond v. Lenfest, 398 F.24 705 (2'd Cir. 1968). 32
In re Territo, 156 F.2d 142 (9th Cir. 1946) 17-19
In re Yamashita, 327 U.S. 1 (1946). 16
Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez, 372 U.S. 144 (1962)31
Kinsella v. Singleton, 361 U.S. 234 (1960) 16, 17, 29, 30
Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944). 8
Korematsu v. United States, 584 F.Supp 1406 (N.D. Cal. 1984) 8
Latney v. Ignatius, 416 F.2d 821 (DC Cir. 1969) 21
Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803) 1,2, 12, 14,33
Marsh v. Oregon Natural Resources Council, 490 U.S. 360(1989) 30
Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654 (1988). 24
Moyer v. Peabody, 212 U.S. 78 (1908). 9
NAACP v. Button, 371 U.S. 415 (1963) 19,20
Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928) 26,34
Powell v. McCormack, 395 U.S. 486 (1969) 30
Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1(1957) 16
Robb v. United States, 456 F.2d 768 (Ct. Cl. 1972) 21
Smith v. Resor, 406 F.2d 141 (rd Cir. 1969) 32
Solorio v. United States, 483 U.S. 435 (1987) 16
Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1868) 1-3
Thomas Jefferson Univ. v. Shalala, 512 U.S. 504 (1994). 30
Tyler v. Ciccone, 299 F.Supp 684, at 688 (W.D. Mo. 1969).14
US. v. Garwood, 16 M.J. 863 (N-MC CMR, 1983). 18
US. v. Garwood, 20 M.J. 148 (CMA 1985). 18
United States ex rel. Zdunic v. Uhl, 137 F.2d 858 (2nd Cir. 1943) 20, 29
United States v. Averette, 41 CMR 363 (CMA 1970) 21
United States v. Cohen Grocery Co., 255 U.S. 81(1921) 21,22
United States v. Noriega, 808 F.Supp 791 (S.D. Fl. 1992) 27,29
United States v. United States District Court, 407 U.S. 297 (1972). 10
Walker v. Johnson, 312 U.S. 275 (1941) 23
Webster v. Luther, 163 U.S. 331 (1896) 14
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Whaling Ass 'n v. American Cetacean Soc., 478 U.S. 221 (1986) 31, 32
Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357 (1927) 36
Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1952) 8
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
Article I, � 8, Cl. 10, U.S. Constitution 15, 19, 20
Article I, � 8, cl. 11-14, U.S. Const. 1, 15
Article I, � 9, cl. 2, U.S. Constitution 22
Article I, � 9, U.S. Constitution 12
Article II, � 3, U.S. Constitution 12
Article III, � 2, cl. 11, U.S. Constitution 12
Article IV, � 4, U.S. Constitution 2
U.S. Constitution, Amendment I 33
REGULATIONS
Army Regulation [AR] 190-8, Enemy Prisoners of War, Retained Personnel, Civilian Internees
and Other Detainees (1997). 32
Department of Defense Directive [DODD] 2310.1 (1994), DoD Program for Enemy Prisoners of
War (EPOPO and other Detainees 28, 29, 32
STATUTES
10 U.S.C. � 941. 21
18 U.S.C. � 4001(a) 4, 13-16, 26, 28, 31,35
38 U.S.C. � 101(11) 21
50 U.S.C. App. � 1989 14, 15
50 U.S.C. � 2119
Act of Congress on March 3, 1863, [12 Stat. 755] 24
Administrative Procedures Act, 5 U.S.C. � 706 29
Alien Enemy Act, 50 U.S.C. �21. 20
The Federal Tort Claims Act, 28 U.S.C. � 2671 et seq. 26, 27
The War Powers Resolution, 50 U.S.C. � 1541 et seq. 21
TEXTS AND OTHER AUTHORITIES
1971 U.S. Code Cong. & Admin. News 1435 13, 14,26
Andrew Mitchell, Does One Illegality Merit Another? The Law of Belligerent Reprisals in
International Lcrw, 170 Mil. L. Rev. 155 (2001) 21
Colonel William Winthrop, U.S. Army, Military Law and Precedents, rd ed. (Washington, DC:
Gov't Printing Office, 1920)[Legal Classics Reprint]. 11, 12, 24, 25
Declaration of Independence, 3
Department of Defense Dictionary of Military Terms 16
Executive Order 13268, July 2, 2002,20, 21
Frederick B. Wiener, A Practical Manual of Martial Law (Harrisburg, PA: The Military Service
Pub. Co., 1940) 6, 7, 9, 11, 22
G. Solis, Marines and Military Law in Vietnam: Trial By Fire, (Washington, DC: Superintendent
of Documents, 1989) 17, 18
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Gregory Bresiger, The Wounds of War 4
Jennifer Elsea, Terrorism and the Law of War: Trying Terrorists as War Criminals before
Military Commissions,(Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress, December 11,
2001) 29
Justice Stephen Breyer, Our Democratic Constitution, 77 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 245 (2002) 25
Magna Carta 25
Manual for Courts-Martial, 2002 Ed., Rule 916(c), Rules for Courts-Martial 16
Manual for Courts-Martial, United States (2000 ed.) 9
Politics, Aristotle 1
Rochester (NY) Democrat and Chronicle, Saturday, September 21,2002, page 8A. 23
William Whiting, War Powers Under the Constitution of the United States (Union, NJ: The
Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2002) 7, 10
TREATIES
Convention III, Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva, 1949 17,28
Convention IV, Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Geneva, 1949 17, 28C
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PREAMBLE
"The basis of a democratic state is liberty."
Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC), Politics
Amici Curiae respectfully submits this Supplemental Brief as both clarification of the
positions in our initial Brief, and in response to the Respondents' Brief on the merits. We
address the following concerns and issues for the Court.
I. THIS CASE IS ABOUT THE CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS OF MR. PADILLA.1
This is a habeas corpus action where Mr. Padilla, a civilian United States citizen,
contends that he is illegally imprisoned by the Respondents in violation of the Constitution and
laws of the United States. As Antic! Curiae read his Amended Petition seeking habeas relief, it
is nothing more than that. The legality of Mr. Padilla's continued incommunicado detention in a
United States military brig as a civilian, is the sole and fundamental issue before the Court. Or,
as Chief Justice Marshall has eloquently postulated:
If he has a right, and that right has been violated, do the laws of his
country afford him a remedy? The very essence of civil liberty certainly
consists in the right of every individual to claim the protection of the laws,
whenever he receives an injury. One of the first duties of government is to
afford that protection. Marbuty v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137, at 163 (1803)
* * * * *
The province of the court is, solely, to decide on the rights of individuals,
not to inquire how the executive, or executive officers, perform duties in
which they have a discretion. Id., at 170.
* * * * *
This [judicial] power is expressly extended to all cases arising under the
laws of the United States; and consequently, in some form, may be
exercised over the present case; because the right claimed is given by a
law of the United States. Id, at 174.
* * * * *
As the Supreme Court noted in Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700, at 720(1868):
We are very sensible of the magnitude and importance of this question, of the interest it
excites, and of the difficulty, not to say impossibility, of so disposing of it as to satisfy the
conflicting judgments of men equally enlightened, equally upright, and equally patriotic.
But we meet it in the case, and we must determine it in the exercise of our best judgment,
under the guidance of the Constitution alone. [Emphasis added].
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It is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say
what the law is. . . . This is of the very essence of judicial duty. Id, at
177-78.
The seminal holding of Marbwy v. Madison, supra, must be the lodestar in evaluating
Mr. Padilla's Writ of Habeas Corpus and its attendant claims. But, the rationale for Marbury
begins with Article IV, � 4, U.S. Const., which guarantees a "Republican" form of government
with its separate but co-equal branches. There are no exceptions to this principle for "enemy
combatants," for "national security" concerns, or even for an actual war. In Texas v. White,
supra, the Court observed with respect to Texas as a Confederate "state" during the Civil War:
It certainly follows that the State did not cease to be a State, nor her
citizens to be citizens of the Union. If this were otherwise, the State must
have become foreign, and her citizens foreigners. The war must have
ceased to be a war for the suppression of rebellion, and must have become
a war for conquest and subjugation. Id., at 726 [emphasis added].2
A reading of the Declaration of Independence,3 juxtaposed with the very language of the
Constitution provides conclusive constitutional proof that a "national emergency," or even a
formal declaration of war, cannot and does not provide the Commander-in-Chief with the
monarchial or autocratic powers that the Respondents claim herein. The Constitution applies as
written, both in times of peace and in war, to Presidents and to peasants and all citizens in
between.
A. An Analysis of a Porte Milligan - The Controlling Precedent Herein.
The Supreme Court concluded in Ex Parte Milligan:
2 Amid would suggest that it is important to keep in mind two key facts in evaluating this case: first, Texas
had formally via its Legislature voted to secede from the Union, i.e., the United States proper; and second, armed
conflict was in fact taking place and on-going within the territorial limits of the United States, viz., there was no
dispute that the "United States" was at war. Thus, the Court's observation that "during this condition of civil war,
the rights of the State [of Texas] as a member, and of her people as citizens of the Union, were suspended," [74 U.S.
at 727], cannot absent Congressional action in either formally declaring War (which they have not done) or
suspending habeas corpus (which they have not done either), be applied to summarily deny Mr. Padilla his
constitutional rights as a citizen, regardless of any individual crimes the Respondents suspect him of committing.
3 See, http://www.archives.gov/exhibit_haWcharters_of freedom/declaration/declaration_transcription.html
[last accessed, June 20, 2002], for the complete text.
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The Constitution of the United States is a law for rulers and people,
equally in war and in peace, and covers with the shield of its protection
all classes of men, at all times, and under all circumstances. No doctrine,
involving more pernicious consequences, was ever invented by the wit of
man than that any of its provisions can be suspended during any of the
great exigencies of government. Such a doctrine leads directly to anarchy
or despotism, but the theory of necessity on which it is based is false. .
71 U.S. 2, at 120-21 (1866)[Emphasis added].
Thus, the Respondents' arguments of "military necessity" have been expressly rejected
by the Supreme Court when applied to United States citizens. To understand both the Court's
opinion in Milligan and its binding effect on the case sub judice, one must turn to the specific
facts of that case:
If he was detained in custody by the order of the President, otherwise
than as a prisoner of war; if he was a citizen of Indiana and had never
been in the military or naval service, and the grand jury of the district had
met, after he had been arrested, for a period of twenty days, and adjourned
without taking any proceedings against him, then the court had the right
to entertain his petition and determine the lawfulness of his
imprisonment. 71 U.S. at 116 [emphasis added].
There simply is no factual distinction between Milligan's status and that of Mr. Padilla -
something that the Respondents have incredibly failed to address.4 Nor have they addressed the
Supreme Court's instruction on how this issue is to be evaluated, viz.:
The decision of this question does not depend on argument or judicial
precedents, numerous and highly illustrative as they are. These precedents
inform us of the extent of the struggle to preserve liberty and to relieve
those in civil life from military trials. The founders of our government
were familiar with the history of that struggle; and secured in a written
constitution every right which the people had wrested from power during a
contest of ages. By that Constitution and the laws authorized by it this
question must be determined. 71 U.S. at 119 [emphasis added].
4 For an analysis of Milligan's activities, see Gregory Bresiger, The Wounds of War, available on line at:
http://www.mises.orgtfullstory.asp?control=8136 [last accessed, September 10, 2002]. Milligan was charged with the
following offenses: (1) "Conspiracy against the Government of the United States;" (2) "Affording aid and comfort
to rebels against the authority of the United States;" (3) "Inciting insurrection;" (4) "Disloyal practices;" and (5)
"Violation of the laws of war." 71 U.S. at 6.
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Notably, the Court did not hold that it was the Commander-in-Chiefs decision. Rather it
was a judicial matter and resolution must come from both the Constitution itself (to include the
Bill of Rights) and "the laws authorized" by the Constitution, i.e., proper legislative enactments
from Congress.5 The Government in Milligan - as herein - based its argument for the legality of
the military detention on "the 'laws and usages of war." 71 U.S. at 121. The Court summarily
rejected any suggestion that somehow the "law of war" could triumph over the liberty of a
citizen, yes even a citizen accused of being disloyal, absent a declaration of martial law:
It can serve no useful purpose to inquire what those laws and usages are,
whence they originated, where found, and on whom they operate; they can
never be applied to citizens in states which have upheld the authority of
the government, and where the courts are open and their process
unobstrudeS 71 U.S. at 121 [Emphasis added].
Indeed, the very argument espoused by the Respondents herein, i.e., Mr. Padilla is too
"dangerous" to be allowed to be at liberty, was argued in Milligan and likewise summarily
rejected as unconstitutional:
If it was dangerous, in the distracted condition of affairs, to leave
Milligan unrestrained of his liberty, because he "conspired against the
government, afforded aid and comfort to rebels, and incited the people to
insurrection," the law said arrest him, confine him closely, render him
powerless to do further mischief; and then present his case to the grand
jury[6] of the district, with proofs of his guilt, and, if indicted, try him
according to the course of the common law. If this had been done, the
Constitution would have been vindicated, the law of 1863 enforced, and
the securities for personal liberty preserved and defended. 71 U.S. at 122
[Emphasis added].
5 See, e.g., 18 U.S.C. � 4001(a), to include its specific legislative history. The statute - controlling herein,
but undiscussed by Respondents, reads in applicable part:
(a) No citizen shall be imprisoned or otherwise detained by the United States except
pursuant to an Act of Congress. [Emphasis added].
6 The Court can judicially note and Amici respectfully suggests such, that Mr. Padilla was initially detained
for roughly one month by a Material Witness order issued by this Court pertaining to a pending Grand Jury. As in
Milligan, supra, for whatever unexplained reason, the Government apparently chose not to submit a case to the
Grand Jury. Rather, they reverted to a practice condemned by the Court in Milligan.
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Likewise, the Court eschewed the suggestion that the Commander-in-Chief could, by the
unilateral suggestion of there being a "war," detain a citizen and deprive him/her of their basic
constitutional rights:
0 The proposition is this: that in a time of war the
commander of an armed force (if in his opinion the exigencies of the
country demand it, and of which he is to judge), has the power, within the
lines of his military district, to suspend all civil rights and their remedies,
and subject citizens as well as soldiers to the rule of his will; and in the
exercise of his lawful authority cannot be restrained, except by his
superior officer or the President of the United States.
If this position is sound to the extent claimed, then when war
exists, foreign or domestic. . . the commander. . . can, if he chooses,
within his limits, on the plea of necessity, with the approval of the
Executive, substitute military force for and to the exclusion of the laws,
and punish all persons, as he thinks right and proper, without fixed or
certain rules.
The statement of this proposition shows its importance;
for, if true, republican government is a failure, and there is an end of
liberty regulated by law. Martial law, established on such a basis, destroys
every guarantee of the Constitution, and effectually renders the 'military
independent of and superior to the civil power'-the attempt to do which by
the King of Great Britain was deemed by our fathers such an offence, that
they assigned it to the world as one of the causes which impelled them to
declare their independence. Civil liberty and this kind of martial law
cannot endure together; the antagonism is irreconcilable; and, in the
conflict, one or the other must perish. 71 U.S. at 124-25 [Emphasis
added].
B. The Respondents' Actions Illegally Establish "Martial Law."
In the early days of the Civil War, President Lincoln unilaterally suspended the privilege
of habeas corpus - until he could reconvene the Congress and obtain their constitutional
authorization. Cf.. Merryman, supra. He also declared martial law.7 As might be expected,
litigation ensued to include civil suits for wrongful imprisonment and habeas corpus actions.
7 See generally, Frederick B. Wiener, (a noted military scholar) A Practical Manual of Martial Law
(Harrisburg, PA: The Military Service Pub. Co., 1940) [hereinafter "Wiener"], at 58.
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The Solicitor of Lincoln's War Department,8 one William Whiting, Esq., coordinated the
Executive Branch's defenses to these cases, and he issued instructions to the various trial
attorneys on how to defend them. Those "litigation instructions" were published by Whiting in
1864, in a pamphlet entitled, Military Arrests in Time of War. This, along with Whiting's other
thoughts has just been republished in, William Whiting, War Powers Under the Constitution of
the United States (Union, NJ: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2002) [hereinafter "Whiting"].
Without citing Whiting, Amid respectfully submits that the Respondents herein make the exact
same arguments first advanced by Whiting, to wit:
"The aegis of law should not cover a traitor."9
"Necessity arbitrates the rights and methods of war. Whatever hostile military act
is essential to public safety in civil war is lawful."10
"[The Commander-in-Chiefs] right to seize, capture, detain, and imprison such
persons is as unquestionable as his right to carry on the war."11
"The military order is the warrant authorizing arrest. . . in like manner as the
judicial order is the warrant authorizing arrest, issuing from a court."12
"[T]he provision that unreasonable seizures or arrests are prohibited has no
application to military arrests in time of war." [emphasis added]13
"It is, however, enough to justify arrests in any locality, however far removed
from the battlefields of contending armies, that it is a time of war, and the arrest is
required. .to prevent an act of hostility. . . ." [emphasis in original]14
"While this ample authority is given to the commander-in-chief to arrest
the persons of aliens. . . afar greater power over the persons of our own citizens
is. . . given to the President in case ofpublic danger." [emphasis added]15
8
9
10
11
12
' 13
14
15
Today, this position is the Department of Defense, General Counsel.
Whiting, at 167.
Id
Id, at 168.
Id, at 174.
Id, at 176.
Id, at 192.
Id, at 195.
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Unfortunately for Mr. Whiting - but, fortunately for America - the Supreme Court firmly
rejected these bizarre and unconstitutional arguments in Milligan, supra. With the exception of
the now discredited Japanese-American internment cases during World War 11,16 - which
involved imposition of martial law - Whiting's concept of an absolute and unreviewable Chief
Executive is both untenable constitutionally and has been rejected for 140 years;17 or at least
until Mr. Padilla decided to contest his detention on the material witness warrant herein.
Amici Curiae respectfully suggests that a close examination of the Respondents'
arguments herein, shows that they have in reality, subtly established "martial law" by the
stratagem of using the meaningless label, "enemy combatant."18 Indeed, Respondent Bush via
Executive Order has defined "martial law" as follows:
A government temporarily governing the civil population within its
territory or a portion of its territory through its military forces as necessity
may require.19
Regardless of the label that the Respondents place on Mr. Padilla20, he is not and nor is there any
suggestion that he was a member of any "military," or engaged in any "combat" [compare the
16 See, e.g., Korematsu v. United States, 584 F.Supp 1406 (N.D. Cal. 1984), which set aside Mr. Korematsu's
conviction that the Supreme Court had upheld in, Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944).
17 Compare, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1952).
18 Compare, the legal treatment of Mr. Padilla and Mr. Hamdi [ifamdi v. Rumsfeld, 296 F.3d 278 (4th Cir.
2002), with that of an actual "enemy combatant," viz., John W. Lindh [U.S. v. Lindh, Stipulation of Fact, available
online at: http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/terrorism/uslindh71502sof.pdf {last accessed, September 10, 2002}],
and the "enemy alien," cases: United States v. Richard Reid [the alleged "shoe" bomber]; see, Indictment at:
http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/terrorism/usreid011602ind.pdf [last accessed, September 10, 20021; and U.S. v.
Moussaoui, [superceding Indictment at: http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/terrorism/usmouss71602spind.pdf ].
Lindh, Reid and Moussaoui are all detained pursuant to a Court Order as a result of their respective Indictments
[Lindh, has entered a plea agreement], and receive the full panoply of Constitutional rights available to all
defendants. With respect to Mr. Padilla- especially after his Material Witness detention - the government's actions
speak louder than their feeble proteStations attempting to justify his continued illegal detention under martial law
conditions.
19 Manual for Courts-Martial, United States (2000 ed.) [hereinafter "MCM"], at 1-1, paragraph 2 (a)(2).
Compare, Wiener's definition at 10:
[M]artial law is the carrying on of government in domestic territory by military agencies,
in whole or in part, with the consequent supersession of some or all civil agencies.
[emphasis in original].
20 It is ironic that the Government in Milligan attempted to defeat the Court's jurisdiction by arguing that
Milligan was a "Prisoner of War." The Court's assessment of that argument and their response is equally as
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Lindh case, supra] and thus he remains a "civilian" who is by the Respondents own contentions
herein, somehow subject to exclusive military governance and detention. That too, the Milligan
Court condemned as illegal, for the same reasons that it is illegal herein: "Martial law cannot
arise from a threatened invasion. The necessity must be actual and present; the invasion real,
such as effectually closes the courts and deposes the civil administration." 71 U.S. at 127
[emphasis added]. The Respondents citation to and reliance upon Moyer v. Peabody,2I - a
martial law case - is irrelevant herein, unless they are sub silentio seeking the imprimatur of this
Court justifying their actions under martial law.
Here, the Respondents have de facto, illegally and selectively implemented "martial law"
as applied to Mr. Padilla and apparently also, Mr. Hamdi. In that context, they thus seek to avoid
Constitutional and judicial scrutiny, by beating the drum of a phantom Presidential "war power."
Again, the Respondents' arguments herein are directly linked to Whiting's:
[The President] must have the power to hold whatever persons he has a
right to capture without interference of courts during the war, and he has
the right to capture all persons who he has reasonable cause to believe are
hostile to the Union, and are engaged in hostile acts. [emphasis addedj.22
In rejecting Whiting's position, the Court in Milligan wisely went on to explain:
applicable to Respondent Bush's designation that Mr. Padilla is an "enemy combatant" (a term with no legal
meaning):
But it is insisted that Milligan was a prisoner of war, and, therefore, excluded from the
privileges of the statute. It is not easy to see how he can be treated as a prisoner of war,
when he lived in Indiana for the past twenty years, was arrested there, and had not been,
during the late troubles, a resident of any of the states in rebellion. If in Indiana he
conspired with bad men to assist the enemy, he is punishable for it in the courts of
Indiana; but, when tried for the offence, he cannot plead the rights of war; for he was
not engaged in legal acts of hostility against the government, and only such persons,
when captured, are prisoners of war. If he cannot enjoy the immunities attaching to
the character of 4 prisoner of war, how can he be subject to their pains and penalties?
71 U.S. at 131 [Emphasis added].
21 212 U.S. 78 (1908); Respondents Brief at 14 at seq. Its relevance is suspect in that Moyer was a civil
damage suit for an alleged illegal detention during a State imposed period of martial law, and specifically addressed
the narrow issue of whether an elected official, no longer in government, could be a proper party to the suit.
22 Whiting, op cit., at 203. In addition to Milligan's rejection of these arguments, more recently the Supreme
Court in another "terrorist" case, expressly rejected a unilateral judgment by the Executive under Fourth
Amendment principles; United States v. United States District Court, 407 U.S. 297 (1972).
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It follows, from what has been said on this subject, that there are
occasions when martial rule can be properly applied. If, in foreign
invasion or civil war, the courts are actually closed, and it is impossible
to administer criminal justice according to law, then, on the theatre of
active military operations, where war really prevails, there is a necessity
to furnish a substitute for the civil authority, thus overthrown, to preserve
the safety of the army and society; and as no power is left but the military,
it is allowed to govern by martial rule until the laws can have their free
course. As necessity creates the rule, so it limits its duration; for, if this
government is continued after the courts are reinstated, it is a gross
usurpation of power. Martial rule can never exist where the courts are
open, and in the proper and unobstructed exercise of their jurisdiction. 71
U.S. at 127 [Emphasis added].
This interpretation of martial law was not an aberration, nor are the federal courts barred
from reviewing this issue. But, as suggested above,23 it is imperative to keep in mind the fact
that "martial law"may be imposed on a selective basis,24 which is exactly what has been done
herein. As one noted scholar observes:
Where. . . measures of martial rule have been undertaken in a situation
which does not involve the existence of necessity, an aggrieved person is
entitled to a remedy then and there. . . . there is no doctrine which
renders the courts impotent until the alleged emergency has vanished.
This right to immediate redress has been upheld by the Supreme Court
[citing Constantin, 287 U.S. at 403] [emphasis added]."
Professor Wiener also concludes:
Persons detained in custody [by martial law] may seek, by writ of habeas
corpus, to be released therefrom, or, after release, to sue those ordering or
executing their arrest for damages, alleging an unlawful imprisonment.26
Indeed, Colonel Winthrop, the leading and most authoritative military legal scholar of the
late 19th and 20th Centuries, came to the following conclusion regarding martial law:
The most considerable and important part of the exercise of martial law is
the making of arrests of civilians charged with offenses against the laws
23 See text accompanying footnotes 19-20, above.
24 See, e.g., Wiener, op cit., as quoted in footnote 19, supra. Compare, Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304
(1946), and its discussion of the variations and gradations of martial law in Hawaii after the Pearl Harbor attack.
25 Wiener, op cit., at 25-26.
26 Id, at 62.
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of war. But to arrest and hold at will . . . is practically to suspend the
citizen's privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. . . . [Thus] it becomes
material to inquire whether, under the provisions of the Constitution
relating to the suspension of the privilege of the writ, the President, or a
military commander representing him, is authorized to order or effect such
suspension.27 [emphasis added].
Milligan, additionally is instructive in that all nine Justices concurred in holding that the
federal courts had "jurisdiction of the petition of Milligan for the writ of habeas corpus."28
C. Other Basic Constitutional Provisions Applicable Herein.
The mandate of Article II, � 3, U.S. Const, that the President "shall take Care that the
Laws be faithfully executed," raises the issue of whether the Commander-in-Chief can
constitutionally ignore clear, unambiguous and applicable federal statutes. And, if he in fact
does so in a manner that deprives a citizen of his/her Constitutional rights, does the
Constitution's "judicial power" stand as a bulwark for Due Process? That is the core issue
herein. Marbury v. Madison, supra, as quoted on page 1, herein, of course recognizes this
fundamental juridical concept.
Article III, � 2, cl. 11, U.S. Const., conferring judicial power "to all Cases in Law and
Equity, arising under this Constitution," does not contain an exception clause for "enemy
combatants," or even a "war time" exclusion. The sole Constitutional exception is that given to
Congress in Article I, � 9, U.S. Const., authorizing the suspension of the "Privilege of the Writ
of Habeas Corpus," something that Respondents herein claim has not happened. That remains to
be seen as Merryman unquestionably points out
Finally, Citizen Padilla - and Amid Curiae respectfully note that no Respondent has
challenged his citizenship status - cannot be deemed to have forfeited his fundamental "Rights of
Man," as Thomas Paine characterized them. Indeed, there is no asterisk, limiting footnote or
27 Colonel William Winthrop, U.S. Army, Military Law and Precedents, rd ed. (Washington, DC: Gov't
Printing Office, 1920) [Legal Classics Library reprint], at 828.
28 71 U.S. at 132Xconcurring opinion of the Chief Justice). Four Justices concurred in the decision of the
majority, but disagreed with the rationale.
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other exception applicable to Mr. Padilla as a civilian citizen, regarding the prerogatives of his
citizenship simply because the Commander-in-Chief applies the label of "enemy combatant" to
him - a label that has no legal significance in any event.29
D. The Law "Authorized By" The Constitution That Is Dispositive Herein.
Amid i Curiae are concerned that the Respondents collective failure to address what
should be a dispositive statute herein, is indeed corroboration of our fear that they have decided
to selectively impose martial law. Congress in enacting 18 U.S.C. � 4001(a), could not have
been any clearer in either its language or its intent:
No citizen shall be imprisoned or otherwise detained by the United States
except pursuant to an Act of Congress. [Emphasis added].
The legislative history, found at 1971 U.S. Code Cong. & Admin. News 1435, leaves no doubt as
to Congressional intent, especially in the context of the WW II Japanese-American internments,
viz.: the House Report [92-116] makes "clear the intent of the measure to prohibit the
imprisonment or detention of a citizen except pursuant to an Act of Congress." [emphasis
added], Id. Furthermore, in repealing the Emergency Detention Act, the Report notes:
[The Emergency Detention Act] would seem to violate the Fifth
Amendment by providing imprisonment not as a penalty for the
commission of an offense but on mere suspicion that an offense may occur
in the future. . . . In a number of ways, also, the provisions of the Act
for judicial review are inadequate in that they permit the government to
refuse to divulge information essential to a defense. Id, at 1438.30
The Committee Report concludes with this pertinent observation:
Repeal [of the Emergency Detention Act] alone might leave citizens
subject to arbitrary executive action, with no clear demarcation of the
limits of executive authority. Id., at 1438.31
29 This false claim, i.e., that the term "enemy combatant" somehow has some significance other than being
synonymous with that of "enemy soldier," is discussed below in greater detail.
30 Indeed, the Respondents have submitted materials to this Court ex parte and under seal herein.
31 Congress ultimately agreed to pay reparations to the Japanese-American "detainees." See, 50 U.S.C. App.
� 1989 et seq., and as noted above, enacted 18 U.S.C. � 4001.
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Mr. Padilla has been and continues to be "subject to arbitrary executive action" in clear,
unadulterated violation of � 4001(a), a fact that this Court respectfully can neither ignore nor
sanction as Respondents demand. Indeed, as one Court has observed in considering this statute,
"the courts remain under a duty to guard against the violation of federally protected
constitutional and federal statutory rights. . . ." Tyler v. Ciccone, 299 F.Supp 684, at 688 (W.D.
Mo. 1969).
Congress has spoken in unambiguous terms in its enactment of 18 U.S.C. � 4001(a).
While Respondents may chose to ignore or violate that statute, with due respect this Court via
Mr. Padilla's petition for a writ of habeas corpus cannot. As Marbury v. Madison, supra,
teaches, this Court's judicial power exists "because the right claimed is given by a law of the
United States" [5 U.S. at 174]. And as the Court concluded in Webster v. Luther, 163 U.S. 331,
at 342 (1896), "[T]his court has often said that it will not permit the practice of an executive
department to defeat the obvious purpose of a statute." The writ respectfully should lie on Mr.
Padilla' s behalf.
II. RELEVANT AND CONTROLLING DEFINITIONS.
While every sandlot ball team has their own rules and definitions (e.g., "third base is that
rock"), Constitutional principles are not so fluid as to allow Respondents to unilaterally define
crucial terms, relevant to any proper resolution of the issues herein. In analyzing this issue,
Amid i respectfully suggests that the first or underlying reference must be those textually
enumerated grants in the Constitution. Thus, there are the express Constitutional grants to
Congress, to wit: Art. I, � 8, Cl. 10, U.S. Const., which gives Congress the power "To define
and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of
Nations." This express Constitutional grant for definitional purposes to Congress � not the
President � along with the other Article I powers granted to Congress, viz., the power to
"provide for the common Defence . . . of the United States;"32 the power to declare war; the
32
Art. I, � 8, cl. 1, U.S. Const.
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power to make "Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;"33 "to raise and support
Armies;" "To provide and maintain a Navy;" and "To make Rules for the government and
Regulation of the land and naval Forces;"34 makes it clear that with respect to any so-called "war
powers" issues, that Congressional definitions are what this Court must both utilize and enforce.
Prior to discussing Congressional definitions, Amid i will first address Respondents
mischaracteriz,ation and misuse of the phrase, "enemy combatant."
A. The Term "Enemy Combatant" is Meaningless to This Litigation.
Ex Parte Quinn, 317 U.S. 1, at 31 (1942), used the term "enemy combatant"
synonymously with that of "enemy soldier,"35 in the context of discussing "belligerents" in a
formal, declared war. The Court gave no indication that it was creating a new jurisprudential
concept in either international law or the Law of War [now generally referred to as "The Law of
Armed Conflict" {LOAC)]. Nor did the phrase find its way into any of the 1949 Geneva
Conventions or subsequent usage within international law. That the term "enemy combatant"
has no other accepted meaning or legal definition than being synonymous with that of "enemy
soldier," is easily ascertained by the Supreme Court's next usage of the phrase in, In re
Yamashita, 327 U.S. 1, at 7 (1946). But, as the Yamashita Court clearly recognized, General
Yamashita was a bona fide "Prisoner of War," [327 U.S. at 5] - who had been an enemy soldier
engaged in combat, viz., an "enemy combatant," with no special military, legal or other
significance.36
Indeed, even the United States military, to include Respondent Bush, does not elsewhere
- other than herein and in the Hamdi case - use the term "enemy combatant" to mean anything
33 Cf:, 18 U.S.C. � 4001.
34 Art. I, � 8, cl. 11-14, U.S. Const.
35 In the context of military "political correctness," Amid respectfidly suggests that the term "combatant"
generically refers inclusively to soldiers, sailors, airmen and Marines, i.e., our "combatant" Armed Forces.
36 A LexisNexis search of the Second Circuit, including District Court cases, shows as of September 20, 2002,
no "hits" when using "enemy combatant" as the search term/phrase.
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other than a reference to an enemy soldier.37 Nor did Congress in enacting the Uniform Code of
Military Justice, 10 U.S.C. � 801 et seq., use the phrase "enemy combatant"38 Perhaps most
damning to the Respondents' assertion in this regard is that the Department of Defense
Dictionary of Military Terms,39 nowhere lists or defines the term "enemy combatant." Finally,
the phrase "enemy combatant" is not used in either Convention III, Treatment of Prisoners of
War, or Convention IV, Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, of the 1949 Geneva
Accords.
Thus, Respondents' claims in this regard, to wit:
The legality of Padilla's military detention as an enemy combatant is
confirmed by historical tradition, by the established practice of the United
States in times of war, and by longstanding decisions of the Supreme
Court and other courts. Respondents, Brief, page 2 (August 27, 2002)
[emphasis added].
are either blatantly false or intentionally misleading to this Court in the context that Mr. Padilla's
status as an "enemy combatant" 48 has some relevance to his being illegally detained,
incommunicado. There simply are no "historical tradition(s)," no "established practice(s),"41
and no "decisions of the Supreme Court and other courts" (nor have Respondents cited any) that
could rationally allow this Court to conclude that (a) such a status even exists or is recognized in
37 See, Manual for Courts-Martial, 2002 Ed, Rule 916(c), Rules for Courts-Martial, and the "Discussion"
which notes as to the defense of "justification," "killing an enemy combatant in battle is justified." [Emphasis
added]. It should be noted that the Manual for Courts-Martial is promulgated as an Executive Order.
38 In military jurisprudence, it is beyond cavil that for the military to exercise "jurisdiction" over an
individual, one must first possess military "status." See, Solorio v. United States, 483 U.S. 435 (1987). But, as the
Court noted in Solorio, that is a function textually committed to Congress, not the Commander-in-Chief pursuant to
Article I, � 8, 483 U.S. at 440-41. But, even Congress cannot "militarize" the status of civilians for purposes of
exercising military jurisdiction over them. Cf. Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1 (1957), and Kinsella v. Singleton, 361 U.S.
234 (1960). Thus, Respondent Bush can hardly claim such power herein.
" Available on-line at: http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddicti [last accessed, September 20, 2002].
41) This deliberately repeated mantra thus belies any suggestion that the Respondents are mistakenly using the
term "enemy combatant" interchangeably with the concept of an "unlawful belligerent." Considering the legions of
lawyers in the Doi and Department of Defense, such usage can hardly be characterized as an innocent "mistake"
herein.
41 Amid limits this to United States citizens; not aliens or members of foreign armed forces, e.g., General
Yamashita. Territo is inapposite as noted infra, as he was held simply and solely as a "Prisoner of War [POW]" not
as an unlawful belligerent or "enemy combatant."
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the law; or (b) legally justifies the imprisonment of a U.S. citizen under the circumstances
applicable to Mr. Padilla.
Amici Curiae submits that, in addition to the governments failure to label Mr. Lindh an
"enemy combatant," an analysis of the U.S. military's treatment of PFC Robert Garwood,
USMC, and his 14 year odyssey in Vietnam is insiructive.42 In 1965, Garwood, a U.S. Marine,
was either captured by the Viet Cong, or defected - the record is not clear. However, as
subsequent events unfolded over the years, primarily from other American servicemen who had
been POW's, Garwood had "gone over" to the side of the enemy, to include allegedly helping
the North Vietnamese forces "target" American combat troops, as well as assisting them with
other American POW's. In 1979, 14 years after his disappearance from his unit, Garwood
returned to the United States and was court-martialed for his offenses after leaving U.S. military
control in 1965. Assuming that Respondents' claim herein that the term "enemy combatant" has
some legal meaning or status, anyone with a rudimentary familiarity with U.S. military law
would conclude that Garwood had likewise earned the title of "enemy combatant." It was not
used. Garwood was convicted of numerous offenses and a review of the appellate proceedings,
first at the U.S. Navy-Marine Corps Court of Military Review,43 and then at the U.S. Court of
Military Appeals, 44 both of which affirmed his convictions, shows that the phrase "enemy
combatant" was never used - presumably as Amici suggests to the Court because it is a
meaningless concept in military law, and thus is just as meaningless herein..
Equally as mystifying to Amici in this regard, is Respondents continued citation to and
reliance on In re Territo, 156 F.2d 142 (9th Cir. 1946)45, as somehow constituting legal authority
that Mr. Padilla is an "enemy combatant," and that he can be detained incommunicado. A
42 See generally, G. Solis, Marines and Military Law in Vietnam: Trial By Fire, (Washington, DC:
Superintendent of Documents, 1989), for a comprehensive look at the Garwood case.
43 U.S. v. Garwoo4 16 M.J. 863 (N-MC CMR, 1983).
44 U.S. v. Garwood 20 M.J. 148 (CMA 1985).
45 Also of relevance herein, is the fact that in Territo, one "Frances Territo Maria" acted as "next friend" for
Mr. Territo; "Through the interposition of Frances Territo Maria, Territo petitioned the District Court to issue the
writ of habeas corpus...." 156 F.2d at 142.
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simple reading of the Territo opinion shows that he was a bona fide Prisoner of War under any
accepted definition of that term (captured in uniform on the battlefield during a declared war),
and was not characterized as some mythical "enemy combatant." Territo simply has no
applicability to any issues sub fudice.
Respondents repeated use of the labe146 "enemy combatant" as if it has some pertinent
impact on Mr. Padilla's detention, is respectfully nothing more than verbal camouflage - an
attempt to shift the Court's focus away from the serious issues of martial law and habeas corpus.
B. Congress, Not the President, Defines Who Is An "Enemy."
In this regard, there is a clear textual commitment in Article I, � 8, giving Congress the
power "To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences
against the Law of Nations." That express grant, along with the other Article I, � 8, powers
given to Congress, coupled with the absence of any similar powers in Article II, for the
President, simply defeats any claim by Respondents herein that this Court must somehow grant
"deference" to the Commander-in-Chiefs defining and declaring Mr. Padilla to be an "enemy."
Congress has indeed spoken in this regard, and in view of the express textual commitment to
Congress, it is respectfully submitted that both the Respondents and this Court are obligated to
utilize the Congressional definition. In 50 U.S.C. � 21, Congress provides such a definition -
limitedfirst to "a declared war;" and second, to "all natives, citizens, denizens, or subjects of the
hostile nation or government. . . ." That statute, under those circumstances does allow an
"enemy" to be confined by the Executive Branch, but it is clearly and expressly limited to aliens
- not citizens such as Mr. Padilla. Thus, if Mr. Padilla is not and cannot be an "enemy," logically
he cannot be an "enemy combatant," even if such a term had any specific legal meaning.
Finally, United States ex rel. Zdunic v. Uhl, 137 F.2d 858 (2nd Cir. 1943), is instructive.
Zdunic was arrested and detained pursuant to the Alien Enemy Act, 50 U.S.C. � 21. He
46 Compare, NAACP v. Burton, 371 U.S. 415, at 429 (1963); the government "cannot foreclose the exercise of
constitutional rights by mere labels."
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challenged the Executive Branch's factual determination that he was an "enemy alien." The
District Court [S.D. NY], denied his petition for a writ of habeas corpus, but on appeal, the
Second Circuit noted that he was entitled to a hearing on the "disputed facts" before the Court
made a determination as to his legal status and remanded the matter for a hearing. Amici would
point out that conceptually, Zdunic 's challenge to the Executive's determination that he was an
"enemy alien" is no different than Mr. Padilla's challenge to Respondents' claim that he is an
"enemy combatant." But to say, as the Respondents do, that Mr. Padilla cannot challenge his
labeling by the Executive Branch (but an alien can), is the height or arbitrariness and a gross
denial of due process.
C. The United States Is NOT At "War."
The Respondents' rhetoric claiming justification for their actions as occurring "during
wartime,"47 is just that - rhetoric. Under both international and domestic law (to include military
law), "war" is a term of art. Indeed, it is elementary constitutional law that Congress is given the
power to "declare war,"something it has not done. Art. I, � 8, U.S. Const. See generally, Bas v.
Tingy, 4 U.S. 37 (1800). While Amici recognize that "wars" do not have to be formally declared,
e.g., Korea, Vietnam, the distinguishing feature is that it constitutes armed hostilities between
nations.48 That is not presently the case, and even if it was so, it is clear that by Executive Order
13268, July 2, 2002, any purported state of war with the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, was
terminated on that date "given the success of the military campaign. . . ." The reality is however,
that the United States was not "at war" with Afghanistan - we were engaged in a lawful act of
belligerent reprisal under interhational law.49
47 Cf., Respondents' Brief, at 8, passim.
48 Thus, the creation of the "Confederate States of America" met this test for purposes of the Civil War.
49 See, Andrew Mitchell, Does One Illegality Merit Another? The Law of Belligerent Reprisals in
International Law, 170 Mil. L. Rev. 155 (2001).
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When it comes to exercising military jurisdiction over civilians, three separate federal
appellate courts have concluded that it is simply unconstitutional absent a formal declaration of
war.
See, Robb v. United States, 456 F.2d 768, at 771 (Ct Cl. 1972)["time of war" refers to "war
formally declared by Congress"]; United States v. Averette, 41 CMR 363 (CMA 1970)[same];50
and Latney v. Ignatius, 416 F.2d 821 (DC Cir. 1969) [habeas corpus granted to civilian confined
by military].
Congress has defined the term "period of war" as inter alia "the period beginning on the
date of any future declaration of war by the Congress. . . ." [38 U.S.C. � 101(11); emphasis
added]51 Thus, Amid Curiae respectfully submit that with respect to American citizens who are
civilians, viz., Mr. Padilla, it is simply and plainly unconstitutional for the military to exercise
any jurisdiction under the facts and circumstances pertaining to him absent a formal declaration
of war by Congress.
Finally, even assuming arguendo that we are in a state of war, that does not turn off the
application of the Bill of Rights like a light switch, contrary to the assertions of both Whiting and
Respondents herein. As the Supreme Court specifically held in United States v. Cohen Grocery
Co., 255 U.S. 81, at 66 (1921):
We are of opinion that the court below was clearly right in ruling
that the decisions of this court indisputably establish that the mere
existence of a state of war could not suspend or change the operation
upon the power of Congress of the guaranties and limitations of the Fifth
and Sixth Amendments as to questions such as we are here passing upon.
[citing inter alia, Milligan, supra] [emphasis added].
War, absent martial law, is irrelevant for constitutional considerations.
50 Congress has renamed the Court of Military Appeals, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces.
See, 10 1.1 � 941.
51 See generally, The War Powers Resolution, 50 U.S.C. � 1541 et seq.
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Wiener, op cit., at 70.
III. THE DE FACTO SUSPENSION OF THE WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS.
The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless
when in Cases or Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.
Art. I, � 9, cl. 2, U.S. Const
Respondents' position at page 26 of their Brief, to wit: "The President's determination
that Padilla is an enemy combatant did not effect a Suspension of the Writ." comes close to
sophistry - especially considering the Respondents' Motion to Dismiss herein and their
arguments as to non-reviewable Presidential actions. However, as one noted scholar cogently
puts it:
The important point is that where there is no suspension of the privilege of
the writ the prisoner is able at all times to secure judicial inquiry as to the
reasons for his being in custody. [emphasis added]52
The process involving a Writ of Habeas Corpus is three-fold: the first is having a court entertain
a Petition for such;53 the second, involves the Court actually issuing the Writ54; and third,
assuming arguendo that the Court grants the Great Writ, being able to enforce the Petitioner's
release. It is at this third prong, that not only the precise constitutional tension exists, but is
respectfully in the opinion of Amid herein, the crux of this litigation.
One question and one question only, brings this litigation to its head: Will the
Respondents comply with an Order of this Court, granting a Writ of Habeas Corpus to Mr.
Padilla?55 That was the dilemma that Chief Justice Taney faced in Ex Parte Merryman, 17
52
53 Amid Curiae would agree that at least until now, the Courthouse doors have not been closed to the physical
filing of Habeas Corpus petitions, as indeed this case demonstrates - but, this is only part of the equation. But,
Respondents' arguments to the effect that a federal court lacks "jurisdiction," [compare, Respondents' Motion to
Dismiss herein], sure appears to be leaning heavily on the door to prevent its being opened. Compare, the
prohibition on even filing such a writ in Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304, at 309(1946):
"The military undoubtedly assumed that its rule was not subject to any judicial control
whatever, for by orders issued on August 25, 1943, it prohibited even accepting of a
petition for writ a habeas corpus by a judge or judicial employee or the filing of such a
petition by a prisoner or his attorney."
54 Or alternatively, issuing a "Show Cause" order. See, e.g., Walker v. Johnson 312 U.S. 275 (1941).
55 This - if press reports are accurate - is not speculative. In the recent Buffalo, NY cases [U.S. v. Goba, et
al, see: http://news.find1aw.corn/hdocs/docsiterrorismiusgoba091302cmp.pdf (last accessed, September 22, 2002),
agents of the Respondents herein are reported to have commented on the "detention hearing" conducted September
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Fed.Cas. 144 (C.C.D. Md. 1861). He issued the Writ but the federal Marshall was unable to serve
it, as Merryman was confined within the bowels of a secure, military installation (as is Mr.
Padilla, and presumably Mr. Hamdi), and President Lincoln simply chose to ignore it.56
If, as Respondents claim herein, "The capture and detention of enemy combatants during
wartime falls within the President's core constitutional powers as Commander in Chief,"
[Respondents' Brief at 8; emphasis added], it is not unreasonable to assume that the Respondents
will continue their argument that "The president's determination that Padilla is an enemy
combatant is proper and is entitled to be given effect," [Respondents' Brief, at 9], and as the case
of President Lincoln in Merryman, simply refuse to enforce any ensuing Court Order.57 Thus,
while the actual "privilege" seeking the Great Writ might itself not be suspended, that becomes a
meaningless concept absent a practical means to enforce a Writ subsequently granted. Cf.,
Merryman, supra.
Amici respectfully submits, that with one notable constitutional exception, the actions of
the Respondents herein track exactly the actions of Lincoln's suspension of the Writ during the
Civil War. Lincoln had the benefit of an Act of Congress on March 3, 1863, [12 Stat. 755]58
Respondents herein do not. As can be seen from Lincoln's actual suspension of habeas
corpus,59 this was not done in a geographic sense such as would follow territorial martial law,
but rather was done on an ad hoc basis. As Milligan, supra, and Kahanamoku, supra, hold, if the
18-20th, noting that Respondent BuSh is apparently prepared to defy a U.S. District Court if the Court's decision is
not in favor of the government, by declaring those defendants "enemy combatants," and ordering them taken "into
indefinite military custody." Rochester (NY) Democrat and Chronicle, Saturday, September 21, 2002, page 8A.
56 Merryman was decided before Congress acted to suspend the Writ in 1863. Amid Curiae would also
respectfully suggest that the governments continued insistence - in spite of considerable precedent to the contrary -
that "only" Commander Marr is a proper respondent herein, is a prelude to the Merryman dilemma.
57 Merryman, supra, did not address the Court's contempt power. See generally, Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S.
654 (1988).
58 Prior to this statutory authorization however, pursuant to Article I, U.S. Const., Amid would submit that
Merryman, supra, is the correct construct for this power with one exception. That is if there was a bona fide
territorial declaration and imposition of martial law. Ex Parte Milligan, supra
59 The complete Executive Order is attached hereto as Appendix "A."
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civilian courts are open and functioning, at least with respect to civilians, it is unconstitutional to
deny the Great Writ.
Yet, a distillation of Respondents' arguments herein continues to advance the so-called
"Whiting" arguments, i.e., that it is the Commander-in-Chief, not the Judiciary, who determines
what the federal courts can do when there is no impediment to their functioning in relation to a
United States citizen. Milligan and its progeny show the continued error of that legal position,
and if there is any doubt, Winthrop resolves it:
Thus, as a general principle of law, it may be deemed to be settled
by the rulings of the courts and the weight of legal authority, as well as by
the action of Congress and practice of the Executive, that the President is
not empowered of his own authority to suspend the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus. . . .60
The Commander-in-Chief - if Respondents' arguments are followed - will have
effectively suspended the privilege of habeas corpus on an ad hoc basis against Mr. Padilla
today, Mr. Hrundi tomorrow, and thereafter, unknown and unchecked other citizens who do not
meet Respondents criteria for "good" citizens. Such then is the end of liberty6I and a
repudiation of the Magna Carta:
"No Freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or be disseised of his
Freehold, or Liberties, or free Customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or any
otherwise destroyed; nor will we pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by
lawful Judgment of his Peers, or by the Law of the Land." Magna Carta
(1297)62
IV. THE RESPONDENTS' ARGUMENTS ARE BASED UPON FOUR FALLACIES.
The totality of Respondents' positions, are based upon four fundamental fallacies, to wit:
60
61 See, e.g., Justice Stephen Breyer, Our Democratic Constitution, 77 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 245 (2002); "The
United States is a nation built on principles of human liberty - a liberty that embraces concepts of democracy."
62 The Magna Carta of 1215 went through many re-affirmations and slight revisions. This edition is used as
it is part of the National Archives and Records Administration, available on the Internet through NARA's website by
linking to: http://www.archives.goviexhibit_hall/featured_documents/magna_carta/magna_carta history.html [last
accessed, September 8, 2002].
Winthrop, op cit., at 830.
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1. The label "enemy combatant" imposes some extra-constitutional status on a
citizen;
2. The United States is legally at "war;"
3. American constitutional history supports the military detention of citizens even in
the absence of Martial law; and
4. Complete judicial deference is mandated to the Commander-in-Chief.63
As demonstrated above, numbers one through three are both factually and legally false.
Amid will likewise demonstrate why no deference is due the Commander-in-Chief in this limited
habeas corpus action.
A. Factual Reasons Why No Deference Is Due.
"The greatest dangers to liberty lurk in insidious encroachment by men of
zeal, well-meaning but without understanding.""
The Respondents ignore as they violate 18 U.S.C. � 400I(a), the rule of law and
inferentially urge this Court to also ignore the plain provisions and legislative history of � 4001.
No deference is due to what amounts to at a minimum, a tortfeasor.65
The United States never recognized the Taliban government of Afghanistan and everyone
appears to agree on the fact that al Qaeda has no international "legitimacy" such as the
International Committee of the Red Cross. Thus, it defies credibility to suggest that Mr. Padilla
as a United States citizen has had or could have any impact on our "foreign relations," nor have
the Respondents any evidence consistent with Federal Rules of Civil Procedure standards that
would remotely suggest such was possible. Thus, no deference is warranted in this aspect.
The allegations contained in Respondent Bush's June 9, 2002, "Declaration," - even if
true, are clearly matters which on their face only apply to the United States, not her "foreign
relations." Conversely, the so-called Mobb's Declaration on its face disputes any clear and
63 Amid i Curiae would incorporate by reference, Point IV, of our original Brief herein.
64 Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438, at 479(1928) [Brandeis, J., dissenting].
65 See, e.g., The Federal Tort Claims Act, 28 U.S.C. � 2671 et seq.
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present danger to U.S. "National security." Again, the Court is not provided "evidence"
justifying any deference, much less "due deference" herein.
It defies credibility for the Respondents to claim herein that the "military" has
"designated" Mr. Padilla an "enemy combatant," since it is not a cognizable status under U.S.
military jurisprudence of the United States' interpretation of the Laws of Armed Conflict, to
include the Laws of War. Nor have Respondents cited this Court to anything that could remotely
suggest this, thus minimally justifying some level of deference. It simply does not exist and no
deference is warranted.
The Respondents appear to be misrepresenting facts to this Court when they first claim at
page 11, of their Brief that it was a "specific military judgment in this case" to label Mr. Padilla
an "enemy combatant," when a simple reading of the Mobb's Declaration shows this to be
untrue. There is no hint or suggestion that the U.S. military had anything to do with either Mr.
Padilla physically or legally prior to the President's June 9th decision to transfer Mr. Padilla from
Justice Department custody, to that of the Defense Department. Indeed, the Respondents
continued reference to Mr. Padilla as an "enemy combatant" - a term that is not even in the
Department of Defense's on-line dictionary - belies this entire assertion, and rejects any
suggestion of deference.
No evidence has been provided in an admissible format or otherwise, nor has any even
been alluded to, that Mr. Padilla was a "combatant," i.e., he participated in combat against
anyone, much less the United States, such as Mr. Lindh. No deference is due to rank
speculation.
Respondents refuse to acknowledge that there is a bona fide dispute as to Mr. Padilla's
actual status, and that treaties which are the supreme "law of the land," provide for a judicial
determination of that status in this Court. See, United States v. Noriega, 808 F.Supp 791 (S.D.
Fl. 1992). No deference is due to an implied suggestion that this Court abdicate its
responsibilities under Article V, Geneva III [the POW Convention] (assuming of course that 18
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U.S.C. � 4001 does not resolve the issue herein), especially when Respondents continue to
ignore their own regulations, viz., Department of Defense Directive [DODD] 2310.1 (1994),
entitled, DoD Program for Enemy Prisoners of War (EPOW) and other Detainees,65 which at
paragraph 3.3, clearly states:
3.3. Captured or detained personnel shall be accorded an appropriate legal
status under international law.[0] Persons captured or detained may be
transferred to or from the care, custody, and control of the U.S. Military
Services only on approval of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for
International Security Affairs (ASD(ISA)) and as authorized by the
Geneva Conventions Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War and
for the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (references (d) and
(e)). [emphasis added].
No deference is due an entity that fails to acknowledge, much less follow its own regulations.
The Respondents continue to supply fiction to this Court - in spite of their own Mobb's
Declaration to the contrary - that the military "captured" Mr. Padilla. He, according to their
"evidence" if it is to be believed, got off of an international flight in Chicago, voluntarily went
with federal agents - not soldiers - and was arrested by virtue of a warrant from this Court. He
was then detained in a federal detention facility, not a military brig, for roughly one [1] month on
that Grand Jury, material witness warrant. No credence is warranted for such fiction.
If one takes the Respondents' arguments about capturing and detaining "enemy
combatants" [Respondents' Brief, at 18-20], and actually apply it to known facts, one quickly
sees the incongruity of their position here. Specifically the capture last year in Kala Jangi,
66 Available at: http://www.thic.mil/whedirectives/corres/pdf/d23101_081894/d23101p.pdf [Adobe ".pdf"
format] [last accessed, September 24, 2002].
67 There is no evidence that this has been done. "International law" states that once captured, that POW status
where disputed, must be decided by an "appropriate tribunal," such as this Court. See, The 1949 Geneva Convention
Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, http://www.imhchr.ch/htmlimenu3/b/91.htin. See also, Convention
Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, http://www.unhchr.ch/htmlimenu3/b/92.htm [last
accessed, September 24, 2002].
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Afghanistan, of American John Walker Lindh, the alleged "American Taliban."68 Mr. Lindh's
subsequent plea agreement left little doubt that using Respondents' term, "enemy combatant,"
Mr. Lindh qualified as the prime example. Yet, Mr. Lindh was promptly indicted and his case
processed through the criminal court system, to include the attendant Constitutional protections
for such defendants. Thus, the complete failure of the Respondents herein to rationally and
consistently apply their label, "enemy combatant," (or to even claim that he was an unlawful
belligerent)69 to Mr. Lindh under their own definition, forfeits any claim to "deference" in
evaluating their conduct herein. Respondents position is illogical in the extreme and does not
merit any deference.
B. The Legal and Constitutional Basis for Declining Deference Herein.
1. General Considerations.
This is not a case governed by the Administrative Procedures Act, 5 U.S.C. � 706,
involving a "high degree of technical expertise." But, even if it were, courts must "ensure that
agency decisions are founded on a reasoned evaluation 'of the relevant factors.' Marsh v.
Oregon Natural Resources Council, 490 U.S. 360, at 378 (1989). Nor is any deference due in
the context that the Respondents' decisions affecting Mr. Padilla herein, result from their
interpreting and applying their own regulations - indeed, as noted above, their failure to comply
with their own regulations is a fundamental factual issue herein. C I, Thomas Jefferson Univ. v.
Shalala, 512 U.S. 504, 512 (1994).
68 This episode and resulting tragedy was widely reported in the international and United States media, and
can be found at: http://wwwmsnbc.cciminews/668388.asp?Ocb=-41745341 [last accessed, September 24,2002].
69 See generally the testimony of Timothy Lynch of the CATO Institute before the Senate Judiciary
Committee, on December 4, 2001; available at: http://www.cato.orgitestimony/ct-t1120401.html [last accessed,
September 24, 2002]. For a comprehensive analysis of this concept, see Jennifer Elsea, Terrorism and the Law of
War: Trying Terrorists
as War Criminals before Military Commissions,(Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress,
December 11, 2001); available at: http://fpc.state.govidocuments/organization/7951.pdf [last accessed, September
24, 2002]. Amid would submit two caveats to the Elsea article:first, it does not adequately address the issue where
as here, an individual challenges his "status," see, e.g., Zchmic, supra, and Noriega, supra. Second, it fails to
address domestic "due process" rights guaranteed to citizens who are civilians and who have committed no overt act
of belligerency, under Constitutional Concepts, cf. Milligan, supra, Kahanamoku, supra, and Kinsella, supra
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Furthermore, there is no law or judicial principle requiring an Article III Court to give
any deference to the Commander-in-Chief or his subordinates in interpreting the Constitution or
the precedents of the Supreme Court - that is a quintessential judicial function. See, e.g., Cooper
v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1, 18 (1958) ("the federal judiciary is supreme in the exposition of the law of
the Constitution"); and Powell v. McCormack, 395 U.S. 486, 505-06 (1969) ("The federal
Judiciary does not . . . owe deference to the Executive Branch's interpretation of the
Constitution.").
2. Specific Reasons Deference is Inappropriate Herein.
While Respondents rely almost exclusively on Quinn, supra, for their arguments herein,
it is important to keep in mind just what that case was about. It was a death-penalty case, where
the defendants were more than just "detained." They were criminally charged and tried via a
military tribunal, and it was in that context that they sought habeas relief. 317 U.S. at 25. They
had counsel, access to counsel, and obviously had access to the federal courts. And, with respect
to a suggestion of deference, Quinn held: "And neither the Proclamation nor the fact that they
are enemy aliens forecloses consideration by the courts of petitioners' contentions that the
Constitution and laws of the United States constitutionally enacted forbid their trial by military
commission." Id.
Contrary to the Respondents' positions herein, and thus defeating their claim of
deference, it is Congress that possesses the primary "war powers" and powers over foreign
affairs, not the Chief Executive or the Commander-in-Chief.
It is fundamental that the great powers of Congress to conduct war
and to regulate the Nation's foreign relations are subject to the
constitutional requirements of due process. The imperative necessity for
safeguarding these rights to procedural due process, under the gravest of
emergencies has existed throughout our constitutional history, for it is
then, under the pressing exigencies of crisis, that there is the greatest
temptation to dispense with fundamental constitutional guarantees which,
it is feared, will inhibit governmental action. (Citing inter alia, Milligan,
supra). Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez, 372 U.S. 144, at 164-65 (1962)
[emphasis added].
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But, as Kennedy shows, the Respondents' argument is simply irrelevant - there is no "national
security" exception to the Constitution and neither the Commander-in-Chief nor the Congress
can "dispense with fundamental constitutional guarantees."
The inherent evil of the Respondents' arguments are their effect: the consummate
deprivation of liberty and the concomitant exclusion of judicial review. Justice Bradley once
observed:
It may be that it is the obnoxious thing in its mildest and least repulsive
form; but illegitimate and unconstitutional practices get their first footing
in that way, namely, by silent approaches and slight deviations from legal
modes of procedure. This can only be obviated by adhering to the rule
that constitutional provisions for the security of person and property
should be liberally construed . . . It is the duty of courts to be watchful
for the constitutional rights of the citizen, and against any stealthy
encroachments thereon. Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616, at 635
(1886) [emphasis added].
Deference is additionally inappropriate herein in the context of applying 18 U.S.C. �
4001(a), even where such may "affect" the other branches of government. As the Court noted in
Japan Whaling Ass 'n v. American Cetacean Soc., 478 U.S. 221, at 230 (1986), "one of the
Judiciary's characteristic roles is to interpret statutes, and we cannot shirk this responsibility
merely because our decision may have significant political overtones." Clearly the rights and
liberty of Mr. Padilla are more compelling than the rights of whales, negating any inference of
deference herein.
Amid i would finally 'live this Court to adopt the analysis and rationale of the Court in
Hammond v. Lenfest, 398 F.2d 705 (rd Cir. 1968). Hammond was a military habeas corpus
action, although in a slightly differing context - Hammond sought to be discharged from the
Navy. There as in the matter sub judice, the military had established a comprehensive system of
regulations. There as herein, the parties argued that the government failed to follow and comply
with its own regulations,70 while the government similarly responds that their decisions are "not
" See, DOD Directive 2310.1 (1994); and Army Regulation [AR] 190-8, Enemy Prisoners of War, Retained
Personnel, Civilian Internees and Other Detainees (1997).
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subject to judicial review." 398 F.2d at 715. Or, as the Hammond Court cogently phrased it,
"As we understand the government's position, it contends that no matter how arbitrary and
capricious the denial, we are without power to afford a remedy. . . ." Id. The Court rejected
that contention, as respectfiilly, so should this Court herein.
The Second Circuit again dealt with a military habeas case in Smith v. Resor, 406 F.2d
141 (2nd Cir. 1969). Again the Court held:
Our reluctance, however, to review discretionary military orders
does not imply that any action by the Army, even one violative of its own
regulations, is beyond the reach of the Courts. [citing Hammond, supra]..
. . [T]he courts have . . . insisted that where the agencies have laid down
their own procedures and regulations, those procedures and regulations
cannot be ignored by the agencies themselves even where discretionary
decisions are involved 406 F.2d at 145 [emphasis added].
It is respectfully beyond cavil herein that Respondents are not due any deference in
depriving Mr. Padilla of his liberty, his Constitutional rights71 and access to counsel. As
Marbury and its progeny command, it is the duty of the judiciary to "say what the law is."
V. THE APPROPRIATE CONSTITUTIONAL BALANCE.
Amici Curiae recognize that this case arises and appears before this Court in an
"adversarial" perspective. But that posture is virtually unique in our constitutional system. It is
not simply, plaintiff versus defendant; petitioner versus respondent. It is unique in that it is a
lone citizen who claims that his government has abandoned and imprisoned him, and via the
Great Writ, he seeks access to, judicial review of the harsh consequences such entails. It is the
duty of any legitimate government to not only protect the society it governs in general, but to
also specifically protect the fundamental human rights of its individual citizens. The one
constitutional exception, the one legal excuse for a government to abandon the rights of a
citizen, is when that citizen is charged with violating the norms of society, i.e., charged with
committing a crime.
71 In addition to depriving Mr, Padilla of his liberty, holding him incommunicado herein obviously deprives
him of his right "to petition the Govenrunent for a redress of grievances." U.S. Const., Amend. I.
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But, even then the citizen is cloaked with the presumption of innocence and the
government is constitutionally obligated to respect those rights our Constitution, Bill of Rights,
and laws graciously bestow on one accused. Absent the imposition of martial law - and the
concomitant de facto admission of such that the government has failed or is incapable of
protecting society and our Republic, thus requiring the military to perform the ordinary duties of
our government - the lone citizen is constitutionally entitled to invoke habeas corpus
proceedings. That, absent martial law and the suspension of the privilege of seeking the Great
Writ, requires judicial intervention as in any other lawsuit. While the government may make
moral judgments regarding its citizens, the role of the judiciary, while constitutionally sacred, is
the rule of law - not politics or morality.
The lone citizen here is of course Mr. Padilla, and his government has done more than
abandon him. For three and a half months, it has subjected him to the debilitating effects of
martial law - military imprisonment, without charges, denial of liberty without judicial or grand
jury "probable cause," and in a totally incommunicado status. The government has not only
abandoned him, it has presumed him to be guilty of uncharged crimes. And, unlike an ordinary
litigant before this Court, the government is using its military power to preclude him from
continuing his attorney-client relationship. But, that is not all. The government even in this
posture challenges both the IVA of his attorney to advocate on his behalf, but also objects to this
Court's judicial intervention to adjudicate this citizen's constitutional claims, arguing instead that
"military" judgment, i.e., martial considerations have superceded the Constitution. In other
words, Mr. Padilla is, in the eyes of the Respondents herein, guilty of "constructive treason" as
they, and they alone have defined, charged and sentenced. The time-honored words of Justice
Brandeis bear repeating:
The door of a Court is not barred because the plaintiff has committed a
crime. The confirmed criminal is as much entitled to redress as his most
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virtuous fellow citizen; no record of crime, however long, makes one an
outlaw.72
This case pits � not the actions of Mr. Padilla, for he has been charged with no crime �
but the actions of the Respondents, against the Constitution that governs our society, our
government and our citizens, to include Mr. Padilla. That is the sole constitutional "balance"
required herein. Petitioner's application does not seek judicial involvement with or interference
with the Commander-in-Chief's roles in either directing combat activities or foreign relations.
Mr. Padilla merely seeks judicial intervention over his being subjected to imprisonment under
martial law. He seeks judicial review of his situation via the Great Writ, in conjunction with the
commands of 18 U.S.C. � 4001(a). In the four and a half months that he has been incarcerated, if
Respondents do not yet have sufficient evidence to establish "probable cause" that Mr. Padilla
has committed any crime, then the writ must lie. There, respectfully, is no other option for this
Court to consider.
Terrorism may have struck a hard and foul blow on September 11, 2001, but it did not
prevail and destroy our government. While we can and rightfully should mourn the casualties of
that disaster, if we abandon the Constitution in seeking revenge, we then by definition admit the
failure and inability of our government to protect us. That fortunately has not happened - our
government is functioning, Cc:Ogress is in session and the courts are open and operating.
History shows that this is not a unique scenario. Anarchism and terrorism have plagued
our Country in the past, and the Judiciary honorably met its constitutional obligations. Dennis v.
United States, 341 U.S. 494 (1951), dealt with an indictment designed to protect our Government
"from change by violence, revolution and terrorism." 341 U.S. at 501. Yet, as Justice
Frankfurter noted in his concurring opinion, "Our Constitution has no provision lifting
restrictions upon governmental authority during periods of emergency. . ." 341 U.S. at 520. He
also warned:
72 Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438, at 484 (1928XBrandeis, J., dissenting).
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We have enjoyed so much freedom for so long that we are perhaps in
danger of forgetting how much blood it cost to establish the Bill of Rights.
Id, at 549.
The communist "revolutionaries" in Dennis - in the midst of the Korean conflict - were
dealt with according to law and in a constitutional manner. Yet, affirming the convictions in
Dennis provoked spirited dissents amongst the Justices. Justice Douglas, examining history,
noted:
There was a time in England when the concept of constructive
treason flourished. Men were punished not for raising a hand against the
king but for thinking murderous thoughts about him. The Framers of the
Constitution were alive to that abuse and took steps to see that the practice
would not flourish here.73 [emphasis added]
Dennis and his co-defendants were not tagged "enemy combatants," nor held incommunicado
under martial law conditions, they were charged, indicted and tried within constitutional
parameters. Nor was the defendant in Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444 (1969), a KKK leader,
convicted inter alia during Vietnam of advocating "unlawful methods of terrorism," labeled such
or held under martial law conditions.
Dennis, Brandenburg and the cases they relied upon show that the Constitution does not
deny the Respondents the tools to fight terrorism or to prosecute terrorists. That battle may
indeed be difficult, but expediency � the real argument of the Respondents herein � is not an
option in our democracy. The Constitution injects the Judiciary as the fortress of freedom, to
protect the rights of the citizen consistent with those rights the blood of patriots past,
incorporated into our collective Constitution and its attendant Bill of Rights. And, as Justice
Brandeis observed:
Those who won our independence by revolution were not cowards. . . .
They did not exalt order at the cost of liberty. Whitney v. California, 274
U.S. 357, at 377 (1927) (Brandeis, J. concurring)
73
341 U.S. at 583 (Douglas, J., dissenting).
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"Produce the body" commands habeas corpus; justice, not the military must decide Mr.
Padilla's fate herein.
CONCLUSIONS
Jose Padilla's place in the history of the United States is as yet uncertain. But, the case of
Padilla v. Bush, stands to define as Chief Justice Marshall observed, "The very essence of civil
liberty" in our jurisprudence. If the arguments of the Respondents are correct, viz., that the
liberties of our citizenry are or can be determined solely by the Commander-in-Chief, then Amidi
Curiae respectfully submit that 215 years of constitutional law have been in error, and the
concept of an independent judiciary a false premise of our Founding Fathers.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., in his immortal "I Have a Dream" speech,74 also quoted the
words of a familiar song, relevant herein:
"My country, of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. Land where
my fathers died, land of the pilgrim's pride, from every mountainside, let
freedom ring.' [475] And ifAmerica is to be a great nation, this must
become true."
That prophetically is the ultimate question here - are we a "great nation" of liberty and freedom?
Respectfully submitted,
Dated: September , 2002.
DONALD G. REHKOPF, JR.
Law Offices of BREWNA & BRENNA
31 East Main Street, Suite 2000
Liberty Plaza
Rochester, New York 14614
[phone]
On behalf of Amici Curiae, the New York State Association of Criminal Defense
Lawyers; and The National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers
74 Delivered at the Lincoln Memorial on August 28, 1963, Washington, DC. The compete text is available at:
http://www.stanford.edutgroup/King/publications/speeches/address_at march_on washington.pdf
75 Words: Samuel Francis Smith, 1832.
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APPENDIX "A"
By the President of the United States of America: A Proclamation.
Whereas the Constitution of the United States has ordained that the privilege of the Writ
of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public
safety may require it, And whereas a rebellion was existing on the third day of March, 1863,
which rebellion is still existing; and
Whereas by a statute which was approved on that day, it was enacted by the Senate and
House of Representatives of the United States in Congress assembled, that, during the present
insurrection, the President of the United States, whenever, in his judgment, the Public safety may
require, is authorized to suspend the privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus in any case
throughout the United States or any part thereof; and
Whereas in the judgment of the President the public safety does require that the privilege
of the said writ shall now be siaspended throughout the United States in the cases where, by the
authority of the President of the United States, military, naval and civil officers of the United
States or any of them hold perSons under their command or in their custody either as prisoners of
war, spies, or aiders or abettor' of the enemy; or officers, soldiers or seamen enrolled or drafted
or mustered or enlisted in or belonging to the land or naval forces of the United States or as
deserters therefrom or otherwise amenable to military law, or the Rules and Articles of War or
the rules or regulations prescribed for the military or naval services by authority of the President
of the United States or for resilsting a draft or for any other offence against the military or naval
service.
Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, do hereby proclaim
and make known to all whom It may concern, that the privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus is
suspended throughout the United States in the several cases before mentioned, and that this
suspension will continue throughout the duration of the said rebellion, or until this proclamation
shall, by a subsequent one to be issued by the President of the United States, be modified or
revoked.
And I do hereby require all magistrates, attorneys and other civil officers within the
United States, and all officers and others in the military and naval services of the United States,
to take distinct notice of this simpension, and to give it full effect, and all citizens of the United
States to conduct and govern themselves accordingly and conformity with the Constitution of the
United States and the laws of Congress in such case made and provided.
In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, and caused the Seal of the United
States to be affixed, the Fifteenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight
hundred and sixty three and a the Independence of the United States of America the Eighty-
eighth.
By the President: ABRAHAM LINCOLN WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of State.
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