SOVIET CLOUD PHYSICS RESEARCH AND WEATHER MODIFICATION ACTIVITIES

• Document Type: FOIA
• Collection: FOIA Collection
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): 06541158
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 52
• Document Creation Date: December 28, 2022
• Document Release Date: May 14, 2018
• Case Number: F-2016-00405
• Publication Date: August 31, 1960

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N? 74
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
SOVIET CLOUD PHYSICS RESEARCH AND
WEATHER MODIFICATION ACTIVITIES
1-)C
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CT 1960
OSI�Z�SR/60-42
31 August 1960
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE
CONFIDENTIAL
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WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, �Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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Scientific Intelligence Report
SOVIET CLOUD PHYSICS RESEARCH AND
WEATHER MODIFICATION ACTIVITIES
NOTICE
The conclusions, judgments, and opinions
contained in this finished intelligence report
are based on extensive scientific intelligence
research and represent the final and consid-
ered views of the Office of Scientific Intelli-
gence.
OSI�Z�SR/60-42
31 August 1960
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE
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CLASSIFIED REFERENCES
The classified source references supporting this paper are
identified in a list published separately. Copies of the list are
available to authorized personnel and may be obtained from the
originating office through regular channels. Requests for the
classified list of references should include the publication num-
ber and date of this report.
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PREFACE.
The potential value of weather control or cloud modification
has been recognized for well over a decade. Military require-
ments exist for weather control techniques to support a variety
of missions. The capability to disperse supercooled stratiform
clouds and fog could be used, for example, to improve terminal
weather for aircraft landing and take off, to provide close sup-
port of ground operations, and to enable optical tracking of mis-
siles. "Rainmaking" over airfields and battle fields conceivably
could cause low visibility and be used as a method of warfare.
Successful weather modification promises tremendous eco-
nomic as well as military benefits. If clouds can be stimulated
to produce rain at times critical for crop growth and if damaging
hail storms can be suppressed, crops can benefit. Furthermore,
the propaganda value of well-supported claims that techniques
had been developed to control the weather are obvious.
The popular press has given much publicity to weather con-
trol experiments, usually indicating a degree of success not sup-
ported by fact. At the present time no nation can produce
evidence that they can control weather to any large degree, but
certain successes have been achieved on a small scale in limited
circumstances. Supercooled clouds and fog have been dissi-
pated and precipitation probably has been increased somewhat
from certain types of clouds. Considerable controversy still
exists among competent scientists concerning the future of
weather control. One group believes there is little likelihood
that man will be able to control weather effectively within the
foreseeable future. Another group believes that the advances
in the relevant sciences in the past two decades have been so
startling and rapid that it may be a mistake to assume success-
ful weather control will not take place or to assume that it could
occur only in the far distant future. Both groups agree that
until scientists understand more completely the physics of
clouds, precipitation mechanisms, and the larger scale energy
processes of the atmosphere and ocean, the feasibility of con-
trolling weather will remain in doubt.
The status of Soviet research in cloud physics and weather
control is stressed in this report, with most emphasis being
placed on radar meteorology, the latter field supports both cloud
physics research and the control or modification of weather.
Climate control * has not been covered. The intelligence pre-
sented herein is based primarily upon an external contract
* Climate control is the term applied to schemes for artificially alter-
ing or controlling the climate of a region. Weather control is the term
applied to controlling day-to-day weather in contrast to changing the
average weather over a long period of time.
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study by the Office of Scientific Intelligence, but earlier reports
have also been brought up to date and the intelligence incor-
porated in this report where essential. All pertinent informa-
tion available through 1 June 1960 has been considered in writ-
ing the report.
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CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE iii
PROBLEM 1
CONCLUSIONS 1
SUMMARY S 2
DISCUSSION 3
Organizations and Personnel Engaged in Cloud Physics
and Weather Modification Research 3
Cloud Physics Research Activities 3
Radar Meteorology 4
Radar Equipment 5
Theoretical Work in Radar Meteorology 5
Application of Radar to Meteorology 6
Status of Soviet Radar Meteorology 6
Cloud Seeding and Weather Modification Research. 7
Cloud and Fog Dispersal 7
Seeding Reagents 8
Increasing Rainfall by Cloud Seeding 9
Seeding of Convective Clouds 9
Status and Trends of Soviet Weather Modification 10
GLOSSARY 13
APPENDIX A � Organizations and Personnel Engaged in
Cloud Physics Research A-1
APPENDIX B � Leading Contributors to Soviet Cloud
Physics Progress B-1
APPENDIX C � Bibliography of Articles Reviewed March
1959 to February 1960 C-1
APPENDIX D � Bibliography of Articles Identified but not
Available for Complete Review D-1
REFERENCES R-1
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FIGURES
Following Page
I.' Photo Kobal't Radar with 20-meter Antenna . . . . 8
2. Photo Italian Anti-Hail Rockets Being Prepared for
Shipment to USSR ' 8
3. Photo Soviet Cloud Physics Research Instruments
Mounted on Aircraft 8
4. Map Areas of Soviet Cloud Seeding Activity. . . 10
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FIDE
SOVIET CLOUD PHYSICS RESEARCH AND WEATHER
MODIFICATION ACTIVITIES
PROBLEM
To assess Soviet cloud physics research and weather modi-
fication activities.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The USSR is engaged in a large and
comprehensive cloud physics and weather con-
trol program, surpassing in size the program
of the United States but slightly inferior in
quality. Soviet scientists recognize the lack
of basic knowledge in many important aspects
of cloud physics and weather control and are
aggressively working toward the solution of
these problems.
2. The Soviets have developed a routine op-
erational technology for dispersal of certain
types of low-level clouds and fogs by cloud
seeding at airports to facilitate flights by civil
and military aircraft. They are conducting
experiments to increase rainfall and suppress
hailstorms for the benefit of agriculture. It
is not likely that the Soviet Union has ad-
vanced beyond the West in this area of weath-
er control. On the other hand the Soviets
have classified much of the research in these
fields and probably have done more work than
they have reported.
3. In the supporting field of radar meteor-
ology, the Soviet Union is believed to lag be-
hind the West, but will probably overcome this
deficiency within the next few years.
4. The large size of the expanding Soviet
cloud physics and weather modification re-
search program and the large number of com-
petent Soviet scientists available presage ad-
vances such that the USSR will catch up with
the West in the capability to modify weather
within 5 years. Based on their plans and
their estimated capability to achieve them,
it is believed that Soviet scientists during the
next 5 years will conduct their first experi-
ments designed to control large-scale mete-
orological processes, but their advances will
be insufficient for them to control large-scale
weather processes in an operational sense dur-
ing this period.
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SUMMARY
More than 30 Soviet institutes and organi-
zations with more than 200 scientists are en-
gaged in cloud physics and weather modifica-
tion research. An analysis of Soviet man-
power in this field indicates that the magni-
tude of the program is Considerably larger
than that of any Western country. Research
in all areas of cloud physics is being pursued
actively in the Soviet Union and plans include:
(1) the strengthening of work in troposphere
synoptics, microphysics of clouds and fog and
their modification, cloud electrification and
instrumentation for experiments; (2) the ex-
pansion of studies of large-scale weather sys-
tems through the use of aircraft soundings
to high altitudes, (3) the broadening of at-
mospheric chemistry research; (4) the broad-
ening of theoretical generalization of experi-
mental work; (5) the developing of new in-
struments for atmospheric studies and the
perfecting of rockets for use in studying high
clouds; and (6) the establishing of a new
periodical "Clouds and Precipitation," as well
as semiannual seminars. Plans also are un-
der way for an "All-Union Cloud Year" in
1962 to obtain detailed observations that will
provide basic information to advance weather
modification techniques. These plans sug-
gest experiments to influence large-scale
weather processes.
Soviet cloud physics and weather modifica-
tion research has been along lines similar to
those pursued in other parts of the world
with only minor differences in the level of
achievement. Recently, the Soviets empha-
sized studies of atmospheric electricity and
the development of better instruments for
cloud physics measurements. Only a few So-
viet papers have shown an advanced approach
to the use of radar for meteorological prob-
lems, and this lack of positive evidence leads
to the conclusion that the Soviet Union trails
the West in applying the techniques of radar
meteorology to cloud physics and weather
modification research, even though the So-
viets are highly capable in the field of radar
and have air defense radar of excellent quality.
For cloud physics research, they still use the
ancient "Kobal't" radar that has character-
istics long surpassed by weather-radar devel-
opments in the West. The Soviets appar-
ently classify some of their weather-radar re-
search, for a number of papers have withheld
from publication for several years and there
are gaps in their literature that must be
known to the Soviets from studying foreign
journals. Any lag is likely to be eliminated
in the next few years with the expanding So-
viet research programs in cloud physics and
weather modification.
Cloud seeding research is also evidently clas-
sified, for details are withheld from the scien-
tific journals. Nevertheless, it is known that
experiments with dry ice to dissipate low
clouds and fog began in the USSR around
1950. Continued work in the area led to the
USSR becoming in 1958 the first country to
establish a routine procedure to clear airports
of fog and low clouds by seeding techniques.
The Soviets are continuing to use a variety of
reagents and seeding techniques. In addi-
tion to dry ice, other reagents, such as silver
iodide and lead iodide, have been used in
weather modification experiments. Aircraft,
rockets, balloons, and tracer bullets have been
used to carry the seeding reagent into the
clouds. Many of these techniques have been
used in the hail prevention program in south-
ern USSR and the Caucasus.
The Soviets have made a scientifically sound
proposal that large amounts of silver iodide
introduced in a cloud will prevent damaging
hail, but have not demonstrated that they can
accomplish this "overseeding" effectively.
The Soviets have concluded that rainfall
can be increased by seeding, but they have not
reported the efficacy of their seeding. It is
difficult to believe that they have not under-
taken the necessary statistical tests to deter-
mine the effectiveness of their seeding experi-
ments; or that, as the gaps in the literature
would indicate, they are not seeding winter
storms or stratified orographic clouds, which
provide promise of increasing rainfall. Prob-
ably such experiments have been conducted
but the results are classified and not available.
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DISCUSSION
ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL EN-
GAGED IN CLOUD PHYSICS AND WEATHER
MODIFICATION RESEARCH
The senior organization in the USSR
charged with coordinating Soviet cloud phys-
ics and weather modification research is the
Coordinating Council on the Problem of Phys-
ics of Clouds and Precipitation. This organi-
zation was established in 1955 by the Presid-
ium of the Academy of Sciences, USSR, and
is a part of the Department of Physico-Math-
ematical Sciences. Ye. K. Fedorov, Corre-
sponding Member of the Academy of Sciences
and director of the Institute of Applied Geo-
physics, is chairman of the Coordinating
Council. A number of research institutes and
organizations operate under the general co-
ordinating efforts of the council. The Coun-
cil organizes interdepartmental conferences
on cloud physics and weather control research
at irregular intervals six conferences having
been held to date. Besides sponsoring scien-
tific conferences, the Coordinating Council re-
ports to the appropriate Soviet research or-
ganizations on cloud physics and weather
modification work done in the Soviet Union
and abroad. Members of the June 1959 con-
ference resolved that the Council should in-
tensify the work of reporting on the research
done in the Soviet Union and abroad to im-
prove its coordinating work., More than 30
Soviet institutes and organizations engaged
in cloud physics and weather modification re-
search have been identified (appendix A) .
These include institutes of the Academy of
Sciences, USSR, and the Academies of Sci-
ences in certain of the Soviet republics, the
universities, the weather service, and the
armed forces.2 Three of the Soviet organi-
zations have very large cloud physics and
weather modification research programs,
namely, the Institute of Applied Geophysics,
the Main Geophysical Observatory, and the
Central Aerological Observatory. These 3 or-
ganizations are estimated to have 32, 69, and
30 scientists respectively (a total of 131) en-
gaged in research on cloud physics and weath-
er modification. A conservative estimate,
based on the authorship of publications, is
that 218 scientific research personnel are ac-
tive in the Soviet program; the actual num-
ber working at the present time probably is
larger. (The leading Soviet personnel are
listed in appendix B.) No country in the
West has so many scientists working in the
cloud physics and weather modification field.
For example, the United States has approxi-
mately 75 scientists engaged in similar re-
search.3
CLOUD PHYSICS RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
The Soviets have been making impressive
progress in their cloud physics research and
the program is active and expanding. (See
biblography, appendix C.) Most of the per-
tinent Soviet scientific literature that is avail-
able deals with basic cloud physics research,
although an increasing amount of informa-
tion is becoming available on weather control.
All areas of cloud physics research are be-
ing pursued actively in the Soviet Union. A
measure of the scope of the program is the
Sixth All-Union Cloud Conference, held at
the Institute of Applied Geophysics of the
Academy of Sciences, USSR, from 15 to 20
June 1959, which was attended by 44 Soviet
representatives of nearly as many different
types of scientific institutions of the USSR,
as well as representatives from Communist
China., The meeting was called by the Co-
ordinating Council of Problems of the Physics
of Clouds and Precipitation of the Depart-
ment of Physical Mathematical Sciences of
the Academy of Sciences, USSR. The overall
effort evidently has an interdisciplinary char-
acter. Articles pertinent to cloud physics
have been written by members of the Institute
of Physical Chemistry and other organiza-
tions, such as the Institute of Power Engineer-
ing and Hydraulics of the Academy of Sci-
ences, Armenian SSR.
The Sixth Cloud Conference was called to
review the progress made since the previous
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conference in 1956 and to encourage an ex-
pansion of research in cloud physics. Resolu-
tions were adopted: (1) to strengthen work
in troposphere synoptics, microphysics of
clouds and fog and their modification, cloud
electrification, and instrumentation for field
and laboratory experiments; (2) to expand
studies of large-scale weather systems through
the use of aircraft soundings to high altitudes,
with special attention to clouds extending to
very high altitudes; (3) to broaden work in
atmospheric chemistry; (4) to broaden theo-
retical generalizations of experimental work;
(5) �to develop new instruments for atmos-
pheric studies and perfect the use of rockets
for studying clouds in the upper layers of at-
mosphere; (6) to organize an All-Union Cloud
Year (VOG) in 1962; (7) to publish through
the Academy of Sciences, USSR, a new peri-
odical entitled "Clouds and Precipitation,"
and to hold seminars on given problems twice
a year; (8) to increase informative work by
the Coordinating Council on domestic and for-
eign investigations; and (9) to hold the next
conference in 1961 before the VOG begins.'
The establishment of a special physics jour-
nal, the decision to hold seminars at 6-month
intervals, and the plan to have an "All-Union
Cloud Year," as well as the other decisions,
all indicate a large expansion of an already
substantial program. The aims spelled out
in the series of resolutions have also been
recognized as being important by other coun-
tries, and many have instituted modest pro-
grams. The Soviets have apparently seen the
important implications of greater knowledge
of cloud and precipitation processes and con-
trol and have dictated that emphasis will be
placed on this type of research.
Of particular interest is the Soviets declara-
tion that a more daring approach must be
directed to studies influencing large-scale
weather processes and climate.' This indi-
cates that the Soviets recognize the potential
of this type of research but that relatively
little has been done to date in the area of
large-scale weather modification. Evidently,
increased efforts and experiments will be di-
rected toward this goal in the future and it
is believed that during the next 5 years the
Soviets will conduct their first experiments
designed to control large-scale meteorological
processes.
Soviet research has been along lines similar
to those pursued in other parts of the world,
with only minor differences in level of� achieve-
ment. Research in the USSR and the United
States appears to be on about the same level
in the study of ice crystals and snowflakes,
cloud formation and structure, atmospheric
electricity, and cloud physics instruments.
In the USSR, more progress has been made in
the study of the microstructure of clouds,
whereas in the United States more progress
has been made in the study of raindrop spec-
tra and precipitation processes. Research in
these areas of cloud physics is basic to an un-
derstanding of the natural mechanisms of
precipitation and such understanding is a pre-
requisite for effective control of the weather.
Recently, some emphasis has been placed
on studies of atmospheric electricity and on
the development of better instruments for
cloud physics measurements. One of the
most productive scientists in these areas has
been I. M. Imyanitov. He has written a large
number of articles on various aspects of at-
mospheric electricity and recently published
a book.4
RADAR METEOROLOGY
Radar is capable of detecting the presence
of hydrometeors, especially large water and
ice particles, and has been used extensively
and beneficially in cloud physics research pro-
grams throughout the Western world. Radar
has furnished valuable data on fundamental
problems regarding the formation of precipi-
tation in convective clouds. It has been use-
ful for studying the growth of convective
clouds and the precipitation-generating levels
in clouds. The ability of radar to detect large
water and ice particles has made it a valuable
tool for assessing the results of cloud-seeding
experiments. To date, it has been used pri-
marily for the detection of formation of pre-
cipitation in cumuliform clouds, but it is rea-
sonable t6 expect in the near future it will be
used to supplement rain-gage networks, in
order to obtain a better estimate of the total
rainfall over the seeded area.
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Radar Equipment
The standard radar set used by Soviet me-
teorologists is the so-called Kobal't radar.
This equipment operates at a wave length of
3.2 centimeters, peak output power of 50 kilo-
watts, utilizes an antenna diameter of 0.736
meter and records on a plan-position indica-
tor (PPI) scope.* All articles involving radar
observations of clouds and precipitation have
stated that the Kobal't radar or a modifica-
tion thereof was employed. The Kobal't has
been used both on the ground and in� air-
planes.5 6
The characteristics of the Kobal't radar
are similar in many respects to those of the
AN/APQ-13, a U.S. airborne radar set devel-
oped in the early 1940's for bombing and
navigation and widely used by the U.S. Air
Weather Service from 1945 to 1954. An im-
proved U.S. radar set, the AN/CPS-9, which
was specifically designed for weather observa-
tions, has been used operationally since about
1954.
Several Soviet papers have been written
about techniques to increase the sensitivity
of the Kobal't. In 1958, V. D. Stepanenko
carried out tests in which the 0.736-meter
antenna reflector was replaced with a 2-meter
reflector.7 Another article in 1958 reports on
a modified Kobal't radar with a fixed, 20-
meter, vertically pointing antenna.8 It is
clear from these articles published in 1958,
that the Soviet scientists were trying to im-
prove an existing piece of equipment, whereas
in the United States a specially designed
radar had already been in operational use for
about 4 years. The AN/CPS-9 is a much
better weather radar than the modified
Kobal't because the antenna scanning is flex-
ible, the output power is higher, and in all
probability the minimum detectable signal is
lower. In addition, the U.S. Weather Bureau
in 1959 began to install new weather-radar
sets that are superior to the AN/CPS-9 in
many respects.
It appears that the Soviets have a network
of Kobal't radar sets for use at weather sta-
* A type of radarscope on which the range and
azimuth of a target are displayed in polar coordi-
nates.
tions. A Soviet meteorologist, V. M. Much-
nik, cites radar data obtained at Kiev during
the period 1952 and 1956.5 He also indicates
that there was a Kobal't radar set in Moscow
but does not give any dates. A. A. Federova
analyzed data obtained at Rostov-on-Don.
V. V. Kostarev set out to use radar with a
vertically pointing antenna for the detection
of cloud layers. Recognizing that it would be
necessary to increase the sensitivity of the
Kobal't radar, he chose to increase the an-
tenna diameter to 20 meters. This was done
by the construction of a steel reinforced con-
crete paraboloid that was sprayed with a me-
tallic paint (figure 1) . He discovered that
the antenna gain (the increase or amplifica-
tion of the signal) varied with range, out to
a distance of about 25 kilometers. Over 12
kilometers, the altitude range of interest,
there was a breakdown of the usual relation-
ship between echo strength and distance.
After considerable effort, Kostarev finally
stated that exact quantitative measurements
were difficult.8
In the West the aims of Kostarev's research,
the detection of cloud layers, have been met
in various ways. The first was to increase
output power, and in this way, increase the
signal-to-noise ratio. The most successful
way to observe clouds with radar was to use
radar sets at shorter wave lengths. As early
as 1951, Western scientists were utilizing K-
band radar sets (wave lengths 0.86, 1.25, and
1.87 centimeters) for cloud detection. Since
that time they have been widely used both for
research as well as for cloud-base and cloud-
top indicators.
Theoretical Work in Radar Meteorology
In 1952, D. M. Vysokovskiy gave a detailed
discussion of the use of radar for weather
observations and the theory involved." Re-
cently A. B. Shupyatskiy has proposed that
by measuring returned power and attenuation
one should be able to obtain measurements
of the mean drop sizes and the water content
of heavy rainstorms."- The article gives a
fairly detailed discussion of the relevant scat-
tering theory and develops equations for cal-
culating the variables of interest. Although
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the ideas expressed by these Soviet authors
were not new, their articles showed that they
were acquainted with the electromagnetic
theory involved. Most of the relevant refer-
ences were derived from journals published
outside the Soviet Union.
A paper published in 1958 has dealt with
the problem of estimating turbulence in
clouds by measuring the fluctuations of radar
signal strength.12 This article does not refer-
ence U.S. and Canadian work on this subject,
which has been quite extensive since 1950,
but it demonstrates a more advanced ap-
proach to the use of radar for meteorological
problems than most of the other Soviet arti-
cles found to date.
Application of Radar to Meteorology
A number of articles have been found that
refer to radar as a tool for detecting the
presence or absence of precipitation.7 13 Some
studies have been made of the characteristics
of radar echoes as they apply to cloud physics.
A. P. Chuvayev (1956) investigated the verti-
cal extent of convective clouds and the exist-
ence of a precipitation echo.14 Similar work
was published in the United States in 1951.
V. M. Muchnik published statistics on the size
of convective echoes and the fraction of the
observed area covered by echoes.� Similar
work was done by the U.S. "Thunderstorm
Project" about 9 years earlier. Muchnik also
made a study of the differences of the radar
echoes from showers and thunderstorms.5
The author used a rain intensity of 24 milli-
meters per hour to discriminate between the
two phenomena. He listed various rules in-
volving vertical echo extent and range of de-
tections that would permit a separation of
showers from thunderstorms. This empirical
approach is not particularly useful.
A paper written in 1953 but published 4
years later, stated that thunderstorms can
be circumnavigated by airplanes if the air-
planes are equipped with suitable electric
field measuring equipment. It points out
that the arguments against radar for air-
borne use are (1) weight, (2) high cost and
(3) inability to distinguish between showers
and thunderstorms. In a later section, the
authors state that it would be worthwhile to
combine a field meter with radar.15 Muchnik
concluded that aircraft should be equipped
with radar and thunderstorm detectors to
improve safety and comfort. � In the United
States the recommendation to install radar in
commercial aircraft was made by various
agencies in about 1949, and was put into prac-
tice in about 1954.
Sokolov, who in 1958 claimed that he was
entrusted by the "Military Scientific Society"
with the study of weather observations by
means of radar, has discussed various aspects
of weather-radar observations and suggested
ways to improve the observations. Many of
his statements are overgeneralizations and
either incorrect or misleading and do not
demonstrate an expert knowledge of the prac-
tical limitations of radar equipment.�
Status of Soviet Radar Meteorology
If the articles in the open literature cited
above represented the latest thinking of So-
viet experts in radar meteorology at the time
they were published, it would have to be con-
cluded that the Soviets trail far behind U.S.
scientists. To date, all the articles found deal
with the use of the low-powered X-band
Kobal't. Azimuthal scanning and vertically
pointing antennas have been employed but
nothing has been reported about vertically
scanning equipment. The use of K-band
equipment has not been mentioned. V. Soko-
lov pointed out the value of large peak power
but there is no evidence that anything but
the Kobal't radar has been used for weather
work.�
Only one article has been found dealing
with the use of radar for quantitative meas-
urements of rainfall intensity although a few
articles have mentioned this possibility. Many
other aspects of radar meteorology have been
barely touched upon or not mentioned in the
Soviet literature. Some examples are the fol-
lowing: (1) the "bright-band";* (2) non-
spherical particles; (3) melting particles; (4)
depolarization; (5) isoecho contour mapping.
Most of the published Soviet studies have
* The enhanced radar echo of snow as it melts
to rain.
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been of a qualitative exploratory nature of
the type published in the United States 5 to
10 years ago. It would appear on the basis
of this literature that Soviet radar meteorol-
ogy lags that of the United States by at least
5 years.
On the other hand, this assessment does not
take into account radar equipment and in-
vestigations that are classified, and there are
strong suggestions of classification in this
area. For example, one of the articles cited
above was written 4 years before it was pub-
lished. The long delay suggests official sup-
pression of publications. Soviet air defense
radars are known to be of excellent quality
and are equal to the best of the Western
systems. There is little doubt, therefore, that
the Soviets have the capability to develop
high quality weather-radar. It is likely that
some developments have been classified and
it is possible that any lag in radar-meteor-
ology may be more apparent than real; never-
theless, from a conservative point of view,
the Soviets would have to be judged as trail-
ing in the specialized field of radar-meteor-
ology. Also, it doesn't seem reasonable that
if improved radar were available they would
continue to use and publish on the Kobalt.
It is quite likely that if improved weather
radars are available, it is a recent develop-
ment and they are therefore definitely behind
in terms of use of, and result from, such
radars. With the expanding Soviet research
programs in cloud physics and weather modi-
fication, it is believed that more and better
weather-radar will become available within
the next few years.
CLOUD SEEDING AND WEATHER
MODIFICATION RESEARCH
Soviet cloud seeding work reported in the
scientific literature has been scanty indeed,
although the Soviet press and radio have re-
ported on weather modification activities from
time to time since 1947. During 1959-60 a
number of fairly substantial articles have ap-
peared concerning research done in the period
before 1957. It has become clear that con-
siderably more research in the area of weather
modification has been in progress than has
been indicated by earlier literature. In 1958,
a foreign meteorologist who visited the USSR
reported that the staff of a Soviet institute
engaged in weather modification was reluc-
tant to discuss their work because it was
classified; however, he was given the impres-
sion that the work was in the process of being
declassified) 6 Quite evidently there has been
a relaxation of government classification, but
it does not appear that the relaxation has
been complete. The large lag in time be-
tween completion of the work and publica-
tion indicates that details of work completed
during the last 3 or 4 years still are being
withheld from the scientific journals.
There are several interesting sidelights
concerning Soviet classification of weather
control research and activities. Several issues
of Trudy, Main Geophysical Observatory,
which bear unusual numbers, namely, 09,
013, 020, have been cited in the literature un-
doubtedly by oversight. No other Trudy
series have numbers which begin with a zero.
Every effort to obtain these has failed. Re-
cently, a direct attempt to obtain them in
Moscow was turned away with the statement
that these, were state papers and were un-
available. When members of Kozlov's party
were asked about Soviet weather control dur-
ing their visit in the United States, all claimed
they had never heard of any Soviet capability
in this field and treated it as a joke.17
Cloud and Fog Dispersal
The earliest available Soviet scientific ref-
erence to research applicable to cloud and
fog dispersal by dry ice (solid CO2) is dated
1951.'9 As early as 1952, the Soviets at-
tempted, with questionable success, to dissi-
pate the low clouds by seeding techniques
over Red Square in Moscow during a big
parade.2� The successful use of dry ice seed-
ing for dissipating stratiform clouds has been
reported in a number of popular and scien-
tific papers dated 1955 through 1957.21-23 In
1958, Federov stated, "The problem of the dis-
persal of supercooled clouds can be consid-
ered solved in principle. At present, in the
USSR, a distinct technology designated for
opening airports in winter is being completed
and introduced into practice. Successful dis-
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persal is being accomplished over expenses of
10 to 15 kilometers." 24 A popular article re-
iterates and substantiates this statement
later in 1958 and another brief article pub-
lished in 1960 describes a demonstration of
carbon dioxide seeding of a fog bank to clear
an airport.25 26 The scientific feasibility of
dissipating subcooled clouds by dry ice seed-
ing was established in the United States by
the Signal Corps Engineering Laboratories
during the period 1952-55.27 The USSR, how-
ever, was the first country to establish a
routine operational program for dispersing
such clouds and fog.
Seeding Reagents
Although Soviet scientists showed they
were aware of the possible value of various
types of seeding reagents, virtually all field
experiments described in the scientific litera-
ture available a year or so ago made use of
seeding with dry ice from aircraf t.28 Articles
that have appeared recently have shown that
the Soviets have used and will continue to
use a variety of seeding techniques and re-
agents.
G. Ya. Myakishev (1958) in a nontechnical
article has discussed the use of calcium chlo-
ride particles for seeding so-called "warm
clouds." He also indicated that experiments
were conducted with water spray from air-
craft which "gave positive results in separate
cases only. Work in the given direction is
continuing." 29 This popular article did not
contain much substance, but it does show that
investigation of techniques of modifying
warm clouds is in progress. It is also known
that the Soviets purchased a number of small
rockets (maximum altitude 1,500 meters)
from an Italian manufacturer (figure 2). The
Italians have proposed that these rockets
could be used for seeding with sodium chlo-
ride and have employed them for this purpose
in Africa. The Soviets probably have used
them for this purpose also. A group of Soviet
scientists have concluded that experiments
on burning red phosphorus directly in the
clouds showed that research on hygroscopic
substances must be carried further with the
object of modifying the warm parts of
clouds.3�
An increasing number of articles deal with
the use of silver iodide. The particles have
been dispersed in a number of ways. Shtal'
and Morachevskiy have discussed various as-
pects of cloud seeding techniques." 32 They
mention that silver iodide has been placed
in clouds by firing tracer bullets containing
silver iodide as a component of the combusti-
ble mixture. The firing was done from the
ground. These articles are of a non-technical
nature and do not give enough detail to eval-
uate the feasibility or value of this seeding
scheme. The authors also mention the use
of lead iodide and report on the dispersion of
silver iodide from an airplane. Other authors
have also mentioned airborne silver iodide
seeding. A non-technical article states that
anti-hail rockets have been developed to seed
with silver iodide. These rockets undoubtedly
are similar to the rockets purchased from the
Italians." A group of authors have discussed
the use of silver iodide for hail suppression
and state that continuous crystallization
would require four to 10 kilograms in a cloud,
but they suggest using 8 to 30 kilograms of
the reagent to take into account unknown
factors.34 The use of 8 to 30 kilograms of
silver iodide in a cloud as suggested by the
Soviets is a much larger quantity than has
ever been used in the West. If this amount
of silver iodide crystals can be put into a
cloud, hail probably would be prevented. It
is not clear how this can be done effectively
and there is no evidence of it being done in
the USSR.
An extensive program was carried out in
1956 to test the possibility of modifying indi-
vidual cumulus congestus clouds by introduc-
ing silver iodide or lead iodide into the sub-
cooled part of the cloud. The seeding crystals
were produced at the ground by a new tech-
nique of condensation after vaporization of a
mixture with red phosphorus. The latter
served as a fuel for the vaporization. One
part of silver iodide was mixed with two parts
of red phosphorus. Two kilograms were used
to seed one cubic kilometer of cloud. The
efficacy of the mixture of silver iodide and
red phosphorus is unknown and was not
stated in the article. The experimenters,
however, demonstrated they were aware of
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Figure 1. Koball Radar with 20-meter antenna.
Figure 2. Italian anti-hail rockets being prepared for shipment to USSR.
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/
Figure 3. Soviet cloud physics research
instruments mounted on
aircraft.
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the difficulties of using silver iodide particles
in their discussions of various relevant factors
such as photo-deactivation.30
Balloons have been employed for dispersing
silver iodide and dry ice.3� Dry ice seeding
also has been carried out by hanging a basket
of dry ice from a cable below an airplane.35
The use of silver iodide for dissipating low
cloud and fog was mentioned for the first
time in a scientific article published in 1959.36
Increasing Rainfall by Cloud Seeding
A number of recently available Soviet re-
ports have concluded that a rainfall increase
could be caused by cloud seeding. One group
concluded that silver particles released from
the ground would increase precipitation if me-
teorological conditions were correct.3� G. Ya.
Myakishev reported that water spray some-
times produced rain from warm clouds.29 I. M.
Imyanitov et al., reported precipitation echoes
always appeared on the radar from cumulus
congestus clouds after dry ice seeding." A. P.
Chuvayev also reported precipitation was
caused to form in convective clouds by seed-
ing with dry ice in quantities of less than 1
kilogram per kilometer.37 Previously evalu-
ated Soviet articles dealing with "rainmak-
ing" also concluded that rainfall could be in-
creased by seeding. There still are no Soviet
reports of a systematic, carefully designed
and executed program of cloud seeding that
would permit statistical tests of the efficacy
of cloud seeding. In most cases the behavior
of a seeded cloud has been compared with
that of other clouds. The possibilities of bias
make this technique of questionable value.
Seeding of Convective Clouds
In the past year it has become clear that
the Soviets are engaged in an extensive pro-
gram involving the study of convective clouds
and thunderstorms. A large research pro-
gram is in progress in the southern USSR
and the Caucasus. One lengthy article de-
scribes studies of thunderstorms in these re-
gions." The investigations have involved the
use of specially instrumented aircraft and
radar. The aircraft, IL-12 number L-1784,
was equipped by the Scientific Research Insti-
tute of the Civil Air Fleet with a Kobal't radar,
a "complex of apparatus for recording the
parameters characterizing the flight of an air-
craft through a turbulent medium, an instal-
lation for measuring the atmospheric electric
field strength" and apparatus for atmospheric
soundings (meteorograph for recording alti-
tude, temperature and humidity, micro-
photographic equipment for observing cloud
droplets and water content instrument) .
This aircraft is equipped well for cloud phys-
ics observations * (figure 3) . In another
article, written 4 years before publication, the
same authors describe experiments in which
cumulus congestus clouds were seeded with
2 to 7 kilgrams of dry ice in an effort to modify
the electric state of the clouds." They con-
cluded that dry ice seeding could lead to large
increases in the electric field intensity, "and
probably, in favorable conditions can also pre-
vent the development of hail." The conclu-
sion about modification of the electric state
of the clouds was a reaffirmation of the same
conclusion drawn in a paper by I. M. Imyani-
tov and A. P. Chuvayev written in 1956 and
is similar to one arrived at by MacCready in
the United States. The validity of the con-
clusion in both cases, however, is open to
question because of uncertainties about the
experimental techniques. In any event, the
Soviet paper does not present hail observa-
tions and without them the conclusion must
be regarded as hypothetical.
Silver iodide seeding from the ground has
been used in an attempt to modify convective
clouds in the Caucasus for the purpose of
preventing hail.3� From radar observations,
the experimenters concluded that in seeded
clouds the "echo zones created artificially"
were 1.5 to 2 kilometers lower than natural
echoes. Also, they stated that "modification
of cumulus congestus clouds to prevent hail
is possible only where the cloud has developed
up to the negative temperature regions (-5
to �10�C)." Since they were using silver
iodide particles, which are not effective until
* Soviet scientists started making detailed micro-
physical studies of clouds with well instrumented
aircraft several years before such studies were made
in the United States.
9
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�CraNnTrriffilki,
these temperatures are reached, this state-
ment is certainly valid. Nevertheless, the im-
plication that something can be done about
hail suppression is not proven. They do not
present any data on hail. Although there
have been a number of statements about the
use of seeding to prevent damaging hail,
floods, etc., no articles have been found yet
which relate seeding activities directly to
that phenomena.
The emphasis placed on the study of
thunderstorms and hail and their control
through cloud modification techniques is
clearly shown by the fact that the research
in the southern USSR is a cooperative effort
of several organizations. For example, the
Academy of Sciences of Armenia and Georgia
are working with other institutes of the USSR.
Status and Trends of Soviet Weather
Modification
During the past year, the Soviet literature
has contained more information than previ-
ously about cloud modification studies. So-
viet scientists are believed to have accom-
plished much more research in this area than
has found its way into the open literature.
The map (figure 4) shows the areas in which
cloud seeding operations are known to have
been carried out, the organizations, and the
dates involved. Some of the results of the
work at locations A, B, and C (see map),
have been reported, but the results of the
project D have been very sketchy. It should
be noted that all of these programs have been
concerned with the modification of convective
clouds. In all of these operations, one of the
prime objectives has been to develop tech-
niques to suppress damaging hail.
One of the potentially important applica-
tions of cloud modification techniques is that
of increasing rainfall. No reports have been
found of experiments to obtain quantitative
estimates of rainfall increases following seed-
ing. In many other countries such "rain-
making" activities have been in practice for
many years. The results of most of these
tests have not been conclusive. In order to
make quantitative analyses of the effects of
the seeding, it is necessary to measure rain-
fall at the ground or flow of water out of a
watershed. The analysis involves statistical
techniques. Good experiments also incor-
porate sound statistical principles in the de-
sign of the experiments. No Soviet research
of this type has been found yet. In view of
the great practical value of this kind of work,
it is difficult to believe that this area has been
overlooked or neglected.
It may be significant that the Soviet re-
ports say virtually nothing about seeding
winter storms or stratified orographic clouds
for the purpose of increasing rainfall. It
seems inconsistent that such a well-known
technique of cloud modification has not been
tried. Many Western scientists believe that
these types .of clouds are most suitable for
increasing rainfall. The Soviets very prob-
ably have been conducting experiments in
this promising area for weather modification,
but the results are classified and not available.
An examination of figure 4 indicates that
the reported cloud seeding activity is concen-
trated in the western Soviet Union. A well-
balanced program would call for activity also
in the eastern sections because there are geo-
graphical differences in cloud types and cloud
properties. It is likely that work has been
done in the eastern sections but not reported
and that it will continue in the future. It is
stated that the "All-Union Cloud Year" is in-
tended to obtain detailed cloud observations
over the entire Soviet Union. The observa-
tions are to be used to improve cloud fore-
casts and later to modify the clouds "in the
interest of aviation, agriculture, transport,
and other fields of the People's Economy." 1
The actions taken by Soviet scientists dur-
ing the past year show that they recognize
the lack of knowledge of many important
aspects of cloud physics. They also demon-
strate an aggressive attitude towards the solu-
tion of many of the problems. The magni-
tude of their program is impressive indeed.
It has been expanding rapidly. Without
doubt the development of successful tech-
niques to modify clouds, to suppress damag-
ing hail and lightning, prevent flash floods
10 rnmFIT;tENTIAL
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POLAND
Kiev
FIN LAN
Leningrad 0
A
�
Moscow
�Rostov
..41\
(s0B "-Mt. Elbrus
, r; ,,/
%., 0
i ...*, ,
Tbilisi �^"0
rt Lake
Georgia 1.4 Sevan
A
Armenia
Azerboizhan
KEY
Tashkent
�
Figure 4. Areas of Soviet cloud seeding activity.
Convective clouds,
thunderstorms, hail -
dry ice
Convective clouds,
thunderstorms, hail -
dry ice
Convective clouds,
thunderstorms, hail -
seeding
Convective clouds,
thunderstorms, hail -
Agl from ground
D Convective clouds,
thunderstorms, hail -
dry ice
INSTITUTE PERFORMING
EXPERIMENT
Main Geophys. Obs.
Main Geophys. Obs.
Scientific Res. Inst., Civil
Air Lines
Inst. of Geophys., Acad. Sci.
Georgia SSR
DATE OF
EXPERIMENT
1951-1952
July 1953
1952 to 1956
Inst. of Geophys., Acad. Sci. May to July, 1956
Georgia SSR Probably to
Inst. of Applied Geophys., present
Acad. Sci., SSR
Georgian Admin. of Hydrometeor.
Service
Tbilisi Sci. Res. Hydrometeor. Inst.
Dept. Atmos. Phys., Lenin
State Univ.
Main Geofiz. Obs.
Inst. Power Eng. & Hydraulics,
Acad. Sci., Armenia
1958-1959
R Locations of radar sets.
OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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and increase rainfall would be of tremendous
economic value. At present, neither the So-
viets nor any other group can convincingly
claim that they can do these things success-
fully. Quite obviously, the "propaganda"
value of well-supported claims that techniques
have been developed to control weather would
be enormous. In recent years the most spec-
tacular scientific advances have had military
overtones. A development of such tremen-
dous peacetime value as artificial rainmaking
or hail suppression probably would have great
impact.
It is estimated that the USSR will overtake
the West in the fields of cloud physics and
weather control research in 5 years if the
resolutions of the "Sixth All Union Cloud
Conference" are carried out while the pro-
grams of the West continue at their present,
and likely future, rate. The Soviets are in
a strong position to mount an expanded re-
search program since they have ample trained
personnel to carry it out effectively. There
is little reason to doubt that the Soviet gov-
ernment will continue to support the expand-
ing program in weather modification.
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GLOSSARY
Convective clouds Clouds that owe their
vertical development, and possibly their ori-
gin, to vertical motions in the atmosphere.
Cumuliform clouds Clouds in which the
principal characteristic is vertical develop-
ment in the form of rising mounds, domes, or
towers.
Cumulus congestus clouds Strongly devel-
oping cumuliform clouds with generally sharp
outlines and sometimes with a great vertical
development; they are characterized by a cau-
liflower or tower aspect of large size.
Hydrometeor Any product of condensation
or sublimation of atmospheric water vapor.
Orographic clouds Clouds whose form and
extent are determined by the disturbing ef-
fects of the topographical features of the
earth's surface upon the passing flow of air.
Stratiform clouds Clouds with extensive
horizontal development as opposed to vertical
development.
Supercooled clouds Clouds that contain
liquid water droplets at temperatures below
freezing.
Troposphere synoptics The qualitative
study of the development, movement, and be-
havior of weather phenomena in the lower
10 to 20 kilometers of the atmosphere.
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APPENDIX A
ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL ENGAGED
IN CLOUD PHYSICS RESEARCH
The scientists listed either are presently or were in the last
10 years at the particular establishment. In some instances, the
association of a particular individual with a particular establishment
is based on weak evidence, but it waS felt desirable to do this rather
than to indicate the affiliation as "unknown." After each individual's
name is a list of the dates by year of articles published or reported
at a conference by that individual. When more than one paper was
published in.l year, letters a, b, etc., are used to designate each
article. The symbols SA and CA indicate that the author in question
was either a-senior Di' coauthor respectively of a paper having more .
than one author. The symbol P indicates the research was reported
at -a �conference but a published form of the paper has not been located.
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Coordinating Council on Problems of Physics of Clouds and Precipitation,
Moscow
Instituteof Applied Geophysics, Moscow
All types of cloud physics research including cloud seeding.
Alekandrov, E. L.: 1959
Balabanova, V. N.: 1959 a,b.
Belyayeva, I. I.: 1957 (SA)
Bibilashvili, N. Sh.: 1959 (SA)
Bocharov, Ye. I.: 1958 a,b.
Bolsheverov, B. M.: 1952
Bonchkovskiy, V. F.: 1954
Borishanskiy, L. S.: 1952 (SA)
Chudaykin, A. V.: 1956 (P)
Fedorov, Ye. K. (Corresponding
member of Academy of Sciences;
Director of Institute of Applied
Geophysics): 1958; 1957 (OA);
1956; 1951; 1950.
Krasnogorskaya, N. V.: 1958; 1956;
1955; 1952
Krechmer, S. I.: 1954
Laktionov, A. G.: 1958
Levin, L. M.: 1959; 1958 a,b;
1957 a,b; 1956; 1956 (CA); 1954 alb;
1953; 1953 (SA).
Al
Litvinov, I. V.: 1959; 1958 a,b;
1957; 1956 alb,c�d; 1955
Mamina, E. F.: 1957 (SA)
Merzhanov, K. M.: 1956 (SA)
Ndkirov, A. Ye.: 1959; 1957
alb,c; 1957 (CA)
Novikov, Ye. A.: 1957 a,b.
Ordzhonikidze, A. A.: 1959 (CA)
Peterimov, N. I.: 1956 (CA)
Pshenay-Severin, S. V.: 1959;
195; 1957
Pudovkina, I. B.: 1956 (P)
Sergiyeva, A. P.: 1959; 1958
Shaposhnikova, I. I.: 1954 (CA)
Shchelokov, V. V.: 1956
Skatskiy, V. I.: 1956
Smirnov� N. S.: 1957 (CA); 1956;
1956 a,b (CA); 1954 (SA); 1950
Starostina, R. E.: 1956 (P);
1953 (CA)
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Sulakvelidzel G.
1959 a,b (CA)
Tantsova, N. N.:
Teverovskiy, Ye.
1952 (CA)
Vul'fson, N. I.:
1956 alb; 1956
Zaytseval A. M.:
K.: 1959;
1954 (CA)
N.: 1956 (P);
1958; 1957 a,b;
(SA); 1954, 1953
1959 (CA)
Institute of Physical Chemistry, Moscow
Nuclei, Growth of water drops
Batova, G. A.: 1956 (P)
Churakov, V. N.: 1956(P)
Deryagin, B. V. (Corresponding
member of Academy of Sciences);
1957 (SA); 1957 (CA); 1956 (SA);
1951 (CA); 1949 (SA); 1948 a,b (SA)
Dukhin, S. S.: 1957 (SA); 1957 (CA);
1957 (CA)
Izmaylova, G. I.: 1956 (P)
Kudryavtseval N. M.: 1956 (P)
Leonov, L. F.: 1956 (P); 1952 (CA);
1951 (CA)
Nikol'skiy, A. P.: 1956 (P)
Petryanov, I.
Prokhorov, P.
1952 (SA);
1949 (CA);
Rosenblum, N.
Starozhilova,
Todes, O. M.:
Valesenko, G.
1948 (CA)
Yashin, V. N.
Institute of Physics of the Atmosphere . Moscow
Theoretical studies of convection, convective
Driving, A. Ya.: 1958 a,b (SA)
Feigel'son, Ye, M.: 1959; 1954 a,b; 1951
Gutman, L. N.: 1958 (CA); 1957 a,b
Polozova� M. N.: 1958 (CA)
Smirnova, A. I.: 1958 a,b (CA)
Tsvang, L. R.: 1958 (SA); 1956
Zolotavina, N. Y.: 1958 (CA)
Institute of Oceanology, Moscow
Atmospheric salt
Blinov, L. K.: 1950
A-2
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1911.8 (SA)
S.: 1956 (P);
1951 (SA); 1949;
1947 (SA)
: 1948 (CA)
A. I.: 1956 (P)
1948 (CA)
Ye.: 1956 (P);
: 1947
Clouds
(CA)
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Institute of Physical Problems imeni S. I. Vavilov
Ball lightning
Kapitsa, P. L. (Member of Academy of Sciences): 1955
Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere and
Radio Wave Propagation, Near Moscow
Lightning
Kashprovskiy, V. Ye.: 1956 (P)
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARMENIAN SSR
Institute of Power Engineering and Hydraulics
Artificial precipitation
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, GEORGIAN SSR
Thunderstorms, hail, cloud modification
Institute of Geophysics, Tbilisi
Bukhikashvilli, A. V.: 1958 (Director)
Kurdiani, I. G.
Kartsivadze, A. I.
Okudzhaval A. M.
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, KAZAKH SSR
Chemical composition of water
Baktorov, A. B.: 1958
A-3
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CHIEF DIRECTORATE OF THE HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL SERVICE
Main Geophysical Observatory, Leningrad
All types of cloud physics research with emphasis on convective
clouds; cloud modification studies
Ashkipova, E. P.: 1957
Bashkirova, G. M.: 1957 (SA);
1953 (SA)
Braxilevich, V. V.: 1950 (SA)
Budilova, Ye. P.: 1954 (CA)
Chestnaya, I. I.: 1955 a,b; 1951;
1948
Chikirova, G. A.: 1956 (CA)
Chukanin, K. I.: 1959 (CA)
Churinova, M. P.: 1955; 1951
Chuvayev, A. P.: 1957 a,b,c1d,e;
1957 (SA); 1957 alb�cld (CA);
1956 (C) a,b; 1955 (CA); 1954 (SA
1953 a,b,c; 1953 a,b,c (CA); 1950
Dergach, A. �L.: 1959 a,b,c
Dianov, I. M.: 1959 (CA)
Drozdov, O. A.: 1955
Dubov, A. S.: 1949
);
(CA)
Mikhailovskaya, V. V.: 1958
(CA); 1956 (CA)
Minin, I. K.: 1956 (P)
Mbrachevskiy, V. G.: 1959
(SA); 1959 a,b (CA);
1958 a,b (CA); 1957 (CA)
Morozyanskiy, A. L.:
1956 (P)
Myvkhyurya, V. I.: 1956 (P)
Nikandrov, G. T.: 1957 (CA);
1957 a,b (SA); 1956 a,b
(SA)
Nikandrov, V. Ya.: (Vice
Director): 1959 (SA);
1959 (CA); 1957 a,b;
1957 (CA); 1956 a,b;
1953; 1953 a,b (SA); 1953
(CA); 1951; 1950 (SA);
Dvali, Ye. R.:
1956
1950 (CA)
Frenkel, Ya. I.:
1953; 1950; 1946 (SA)
Ogorodnov, D. Ye.: 1956 (CA)
Gaevskiy, V. L.:
1955
Osipova, G. I.:
1957
Gigineyshvili, V. M.: 1953 (BA)
Pastukh, V. P.:
1957 (SA)
Gordon, I. Z.:
1951
Pershina, T. A.:
1956 (CA)
Imyanitov, I. M.: 1958 (SA); 1957;
Pinegin, G. N.:
1954 (CA)
1957 a,b,c,d (SA); 1956 a,b;
1956 a,b,c,d (SA); 1952 a,b;
1950; 1949 a,b
Khimach, M. A.: 1956, 1954 (CA)
Kolokolov, V. P.: 1957; 1956 (SA);
1956 (CA)
Krasikov, P. N.: 1959 (SA); 1957 (SA);
1957 (CA); 1956 (SA); 1953; 1953 (CA)
Krasilishchikov, L. B.: 1956 (P)
Kryukova, G. T.: 1954 (CA)
Kulik, M. M.: 1957 a,b,c (CA)
Ledokhovich, A. A.: 1959 (SA); 1959 a,b
(CA) 1956 (SA); 1956 (CA)
Loch, B. F.: 1956 a,b
Makhotkin, L. G.: 1959; 1958 (SA)
Namontov, N. V.: 1957 (CA)
Matveyev, L. T.: 1959 a,b; 1956 (SA)
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Piotrovich, V. V.: 1958;
1956; 1949
Polyakova' Ye. A.: 1956;
1953 (SA)
Rabinovich, B. I.: 1957 (CA)
Reynet, Ya. Yu.: 1956
Sal'man, E. M.: 1957
Selezneva, Ye, S.: 1956;
1953; 1950; 1948 a,b;
1946
Sereyev, O. D.: 1953 (CA)
Shifrin, K. S.: 1958;
1957 (SA); 1955 a,b;
1953 (CA); 1951 alb
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Shishkin, N. S.: 1957 alb; 1956 a,b;
1955 alb; 1954 a,b1c,d; 1954 a,b
(SA); 1953 alb; 1952 alb; 1951 alb,
eldlelf; 1949; 1948; 1946; 1946 (CA)
Shtal', V.: 1958 a,b (SA)
Shvets, M. Ye.: 1955; 1951 alb;
1948 (CA)
Selitskaya, V. I.: 1959 (CA)
Solov'yev, A. D.: 1958 (CA);
1956 a,b.
Sokhrina: 1957 (CA)
Strelitsoval M. B.: 1956 (CA)
Tarasov, A. V.: 1957 (CA)
Timofeev, M. P.: 1955; 1948 (CA);
1948 (SA)
Vasil'chenko, I. V.: 1958
Vinograd, P. L.: 1956
Vorontsov, P. A.: 1959 (SA); 1956;
1955; 1954 (SA)
Voskana, A. I.: 1957 (SA)
Voskresenkiy, A. I.: 1959; 1959 a,b,
el (SA); 1957 (SA)
Zabrodskiy, G. M.: 1959 (SA)
Zamorskiy, A. I.: 1956; 1955 a,b;
1953; 1952; 1951 a,b; 1950 a,b;
1948 alb,c�d�e
Zaytsev, V. A.: 1959 (SA); 1959 (CA);
1956 (SA); 1956 (CA); 1950; 1948 a,
b, old.
Ziganov, N. P.: 1956 (CA)
Zykova, V. V.: 1956
Central Aerological Observatory, Dolgoprudnaya, near Moscow
All types of cloud physics research with emphasis on stratiform
clouds, cloud modification.
Bergun, K. I.: 1953
Borovikov, A. M.: 1953; 1952;
1952 (CA); 1948
Britayev, A. A.: 1959 (SA); 1956
Buikovskayal S. N.: 1958 (CA),
Chernikov, A. A.: 1958 (CA)
Federova, A. A.: 1956
Gayvoronsky, I. I.: 1949
Gorelik, A. G.: 1958 (SA)
Khrgian, A. Kh.: 1956 (SA);
1953 (SA); 1953; 1952; 1952 (SA)
A-5
Kimarat'yev, N. N.: 1959 '
Korneyev, A. N.: 1959 (SA);
1959 (CA)
Kostarev, V. V.: 1958 (CA)
KOtov, N. P.: 1958
Krutskaya, L. I.: 1958
Malkina, A. D.: 1958; 1957;'
1952 (SA)
Marfenko, O. V.: 1952 (CA)
Mazin, I. P.: 1958 (CA);
1956 (CA); 1953 (CA); 1952;1952
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Minervin, V. Ye.: 1958 (SA); 1956
Pinus, N. Z.: 1957; 1956; 1953
Reshchikov, A. A.: 1952 (SA)
Reshetov, V. D.: 1959 a,b.
Seregin, Ya. A.: 1958
Shmeter, S. M.: 1957 (SA); 1952
Shupyatskiy, A. B.: 1959 a,b;
1958; 1957
Shur, G. V.: 1957; 1957 (CA)
Stepanenko, V. D.: 1958
Tonkova, Z. V.: 1952 (CA)
Trubnikov, B. N.: 1959 (CA)
Tsitovich, T. A.: 1959
Zak, Ye. G.: 1952 (SA) a,b; 1952
1949
(CA);
Odessa Scientific Research Geophysical Observatory
Structure of fog
Akinov, M. N.: 1957
Scientific Research Institute of Hydrometeorological
Instrument Construction, Moscow
Instrument development
Nepomnyashchiy, S. I.: 1959; 1958
State Hydrological Institute, Leningrad
Chemical composition of precipitation
Voronkov, P. P.: 1954
Sverdlovsk Geophysical Observatory
Atmospheric electricity
Paramonov, N. A.: 1956; 1950 a,b.
Tashkent Scientific Research Geophysics Observatpry, Tashkent
Atmospheric electricity
Chernyayskiy, E. A.: 1957; 1954; 1948
Kazakov, G. I.: 1954
Kulagin, D. I.: 1955 alb; 1954; 1952; 1950
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Tbilisi Scientific Research Hydrometeorological Institute Tbilisi
Thunderstorms, hail, cloud modification
Bartishvili, I. T.: 1957
Gigineishvili, V. M.
Kbmaladze, G. N.: 1959
Lominadze, V. P.
Ukrainian Scientific Research Hydrometeorological Institute,
Kiev (including Kiev Geophysical Observatory)
Showers, thunderstorms, thunderstorm electricity, atmospheric
electricity
Muchnik, V. M.: 1958 a,blc; 1956 alb,c,; 1956 (SA); 1955 a,b;
1955 (CA); 1954 a,b; 1953; 1952 a,b,c1d; 1949 alb.
CHIEF DIRECTORATE OF THE CIVIL AIR FLEET
State Scientific Research Institute, Civil Air Fleet
Shelkovinokov, M. S.: 1957
CHIEF DIRECTORATE OF THE NORTHERN SEA ROUTE
Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute
Stratified clouds, cloud modification
MINISTRY OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
Scientific Institute of Fertilizers and Insecto-Fungicides,Moscow
Aerosols, fog formation
Amelin, A. G.: 1956 (SA); 1955 (SA); 1951
Belyakov, M. I.: 1955 (CA); 1955 (CA)
Fuks, N. A.: 1958 (SA); 1956 (SA)
Yankovskiy, S. S.: 1958 (CA)
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MINISTRY OF DEFENSE
Air Engineering Academy imeni Mozhayskiy, Leningrad
Ledokhovic, H. A.: 1957 (CA)
Matveyev, L. T.: 1957 also identified with GGO
Zaytsev, V. A.: 1957 (SA) also identified with GGO
Department of Meteorological Service VVS (Airforce)
Prokhodiko, M. P.: 1957
Snegerev, V. I.: 1957
MINISTRY OF ELECTRIC POWER STATIONS
All Union Scientific Research Institute of Hydraulic Engineering
Freezing bulk water
Bibikov, D. N.: 1956
MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Byelorussian State University imeni V. F. Lenina, Minsk
(Formerly Minsk State University)
Thunderstorm electricity
Arabadzhi, V. I.: 1959; 1957 a,b; 1956 alb,c,d,e,f; 1955; 1953
alb,c; 1952; 1950
Irkutsk State University imeni A. A. Zhdanov, Irkutsk
Chemical composition of precipitation.
Votintsev, K. K.: 1954
Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute, Leningrad
Ice particles formation, precipitation, chemical composition of
precipitation, Bowen theory on rainfall.
Aleshina, G. I.: 1956 (CA)
Belyashoval M. A.: 1956 (CA)
Chili, A. V.: 1958 (CA)
Dmitriyev, A. A.: 1958 (SA); 1958 (CA
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Kachurin, L. G.: 1959; 1956 a,b; 1956 a,b (SA); 1953; 1951 a,b; 1950
Kudravtseva, V. I.: � 1956 (CA)
Lomanov, S. I.: 1956 (CA)
NeStarova, M. I.: 1956 (CA)
Serebryakova, A. A.: 1956 (CA)
Seryakova, L. P.: 1956 (CA)
Tverskaya, N. P.: 1958; 1956 (SA); 1954; 1953 alb; 1951; 1950; 1949
Yudina, N. P.: 1958 (CA)
Zaytseva, N. A,: 1956 (CA)
Zhavoronkina, T. K.: 1958 (SA)
Leningrad State University imeni A. A. Zhdanov, Leningrad
Atmospheric nuclei; chemical composition of precipitation;
behavior of water and ice particles, convective clouds, hail, cloud
modification.
Bayandina, F. I.: 1956 (P)
Breido, Ts. G.: 1956; 1955
Budyko, M. I.: 1957; 1946 (SA)
Grabovskiy, R. I.: 1956; 1955; 1954; 1952 a,b,c; 1951
Kiryukhin, B. V. (Prof.): 1959 (CA); 1956; 1956 (SA); 1951
Lyapin, E. S.: 1946 (CA)
Milin, V. B.: 1956 a,b (SA); 1954; 1953 (SA)
Pevzner, S. I.: 1956 (CA)
Tverskoy, P. N.: 1956 a,b (CA); 1954; 1949 a,b; 1948 (SA); 1947 a,b.
Moscow Engineering Physics Institute
Laboratory studies of convection cells.
Laipiderskiy, V. I.: 1956
Moscow State University imeni N. V. Lomonosov, Moscow
Freezing small water volumes; moisture transport and heat
balance.
Belyayev, F. I.: 1958 (CA); 1956 a,b (CA); 1950 a,b
Kolesnikov, A. G.: 1958 (SA); 1956 a,b (SA)
Raunner, Yu. L.: 1956
Rusanov, V. I.: 1956
Rostov State University
Electrostatic precipitators
Litvinov, V. F.: 1955 (CA)
Litvinova, N. N.: 1955 (CA)
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APPENDIX B
LEADING CONTRIBUTORS TO SOVIET CLOUD PHYSICS PROGRESS
On the basis of the available scientific literature it is possible
to list Soviet scientists who have made important contributions to the
various areas of research. Asterisks designate particularly productive
scientists.
1. Atmospheric nuclei and precipitation chemistry
S. A. Durov
Ya. I. Frenkel
*R. I. Grabovskiy (author of a book on this subject in 1956)
N. S. Smirnov
2. Cloud droplet spectra and liquid-water contents in clouds.
*A. Kh. Khrgian (author of book on physics of the atmosphere
in 1953)
I. P. Mazin
Ye. S. Selezneva
*Ye. B. Zak
*V. A. Zaytsev
3. Raindrop spectra
*I. V. Litvinov
*N. V. Krasnogorskaya
A. Ye. Mikirov
4. Ice crystals and snowflakes
*Ye. B. Zak
*A. D. Zamorskiy (author of book on subject in 1955)
5. Cloud formation and structure
A. G. Amelin
*A. P. Chuvayev
N. I. Grishin
*L. N. Gutman
*N. V. Kolobkov (author of book on thunderstorms and squalls
in 1951)
V. S. Kozarin
L. T. Matveyev
K. S. Shifrin
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*N. S. Shishkin (author of book on clouds, precipitation and
thunderstorms in 1954)
N. P. Timofeev
*N. I. Vulf�son
6. Precipitation processes
B. V. Deryagin
*L. G. Kachurin
B. V. Kiryukhin
*L. M. Levin
*V. Ya. Nikandrov
P. S. Prokhorov
*N. S. Shishkin (author of book on clouds, precipitation
and thunderstorms in 1954)
N. P. Tverskaya
7. Atmospheric electricity
V. I..Arabadzhi
Ts, G. Breydo
*A. P. Chuvayev
_Ya. I. Frenkel
*I. M. Imyanitov (author of book on instruments and methods
for studies of atmospheric electricity)
P. L. Kapitsa
N. V. Kolobkov
*L. M. Levin
*V. M. Muchnik
*N. S. Shishkin
I. S. Stekol'nikov (author of several books on lightning)
P. N. Tverskoy
a. Instruments
I. M. Imyanitov
N. V. Krasnogorskaya
A. A. Ledokhovich
B. F. Loch
N. Z. Pinus
V. A. Zaytsev
9. Radar meteorology
M. F. Dolukhanov
A. G. Gorelik
V. V. Kostarev
*V. M. Muchnik
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*A. B. Shupyatskiy
ic-D. M. VYsokovskiy
10. Cloud seeding ans weather control
*A. P. Chuvayev
*I. M. Imyanitov
*V. Ya. Nikandrov
P. N. Krasikov
V. G. Morachevskiy
V. V. Petrovich
A. D. Solov'yev
A. I. Voskresensky
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APPENDIX C
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF
ARTICLES'REVIEWELCMARCH 19597TOEIFEBRUARY 1960
ALEKANDROV, E. L., 1959: Sixth All-Union Cloud Conference. Izvest,
Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 10, 1526-1527.
ANON., 1951: Artificial rain. Nauk i Zhizn'. v. 23, no 5, p. 51.
BALABANOVA, V. N., N. Sh, BIBILASHVILI, A. I. KARTSIVADZE,
B. V. KIRYUKHIN and G. K. SULAKVELIDZE, 1959: Experiments on
the modification of cumulus clouds in the Alazani Valley. Izv.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 2, 262-275.
BASHKIROVA, G. M., and T. A. PERSHINA, 1956: Some data from
observations of the shapes of snowflakes. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz.
Obs., no 57 (119), 19-35.
BUKHIKASHVILI, A. V., 1958: Twenty-five years of the Institute of
Geophysics, Academy of Sciences, Georgian SSR. Izv. Akad. Nauk
SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 10, 1153-1161.
CHESTNAYA) I. 1955: Fluctuations of the lower limit of stratus
clouds. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 54, 24-30,
CHUVAYEV, A. P., 1957a: An experiment in controlling the development
of strongly convective clouds in northwestern European USSR.
Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 67 (129), 59-103.
, 1957b: Modern possibilities for preventing storms
and hail. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 74, 71-102.
DENYAGIN, B. V. and S. S. DUKHIN, 1957: The influence of thermophoresis
on the coagulation of droplets in clouds. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR,
Ser. Geofiz., no 6, 779-784.
DMITRIYEV, A. A. and A. V. CHILI, 1958: On meteor showers and precipi-
tation. Trudy Morskogo Gidrofiz, Inst., v. 12, 181-190.
DRIVING, A. Ia. and A. I. SMIRNOVA, 1958: Clouds in the stratosphere.
Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 3, 337-346.
DVALI, Ye. R., 1956: The electric field of the atmosphere during
precipitation. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 58 (120) 69-74.
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FEDOROVI Ye. K., 1950: A word about atmospheric phenomena of electrical
origin by Lomonosov and the present concept of atmospheric
electricity. Izvest. Akad, Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geograf. i
Moscow, V. 14, no 1, 25-36.
1958: Controlling weather and climate. Soviet Bloc
International Geophysical Year Information, U.S. Department of
Commerce. Office of Tech. Services, Aug. 15, 1958, p. 4-16.
FEIGEL'SON, Ye. M., 1951: Radiational properties of stratus clouds.
Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 4, 92-117.
GORELIX, A. G., V. V. KOSTAREV and A. A.'CHERNIKOV, 1958: Radar
measurement of turbulent motions in clouds. Meteor. i Gidrol.,
no 5, 12-19,
GRABOVSKIY, R. I., 1954: The formation of clouds and atmospheric
precipitation. Priroda, no 10, 91-95
IMYANITOV, I. M., 1956: Methods of measuring the gradients of con-
ductivity and ion concentration of the atmosphere. Trudy Glavnoy
Geofiz. Obs., 58 (120), 3-7.
1 M. M. KULIK and A. P. CHUVAYEV, 1957: Preliminary
data on experiments for controlling the development and the
change in the electrical state of strongly convective clouds
in the southern regions of European USSR and in the Transcaucasus.
Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 67 (129), 33-58.
, and V. V. MIKHAYLOVSKAYA, 1958: Aircraft instrument
for measuring charges of precipitation particles. Pribory i Tekh.
Eks., no 2, 86-91.
9 p N. P. ZIGANOV and
M. B. STREL'TSOVA, 1956: Instrument for long-term measurements
of intensity of the atmospheric electric field under complex
meteorological conditions. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser.
Geofiz., no 7, 1121-1127.
KHIMACH, M. A., 1956: The precipitation of ice from supercooled clouds
and fog. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 27 (119), 44-49
KOSTAREV, V. V., 1958: Experience in radar troposphere sounding.
Trudy Tsentral. Aero.'Obs., no 20, 3-16.
KRASIKOV, P. N. and G. A. CHIKIROVA, 1956: The microphysical
characteristics of local fogs. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs.,
no 57 (119), 88-100.
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1 and N. V. MAMONTOV, 1957: Determining the sizes
of particles isomorphous with ice used in experiments'of the
phase transformation of water. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 67
(129), 144-152.
KRASNOGORSKAYA, N. V., 1956: The results of measuring electric charges
on precipitation particles in the free atmosphere. Izvest. Akad,
Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 7, 844-852.
LAKTIONOV, A. G., 1958: Distribution of aerosol particles in the free
atmosphere. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 3, 419-421.
LEBEDEVA, N. V., 1955: Consideration of the role of dynamic turbulence
in the development of convection. Meteor. i. Gidrol., no 2, 21-26.
LEDOKOVICH, A. A. and V. A. ZAYTSEV, 1956: Remote measurement of air
temperature and humidity from airplanes. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz.
Obs., no 63 (125), 177-183.
LEVIN, L. M. 1957: The intake of aerosol samples. Izvest. Akad, Nauk
SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 7, 87-101.
LITVINOV, I. V., 1957: The distribution function of liquid particles
in rainfall. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 6,
838-839
1958: The origin of multilayered hailstones.
Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz.) no 2, 277-279
LOCH, B. F., 1956a: Narrow-sector recording of atmospherics. Trudy
Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., 58 (120)) 42-46
1956b: Experimental observations on the number of
storm discharges. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., 58 (120), 47-52.
MANUA, E. F. and Ye. K. i,EDCROV, 1957: The water balance of a cloud
system. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR) Ser. Geofiz., no 5, 658-663.
MIKIROV, A. E., 1957: Measurement of particle size distribution in
clouds and fog. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 4,
512-515.
MINERVIN, V. Ye.) 1956: Concerning measurements of moisture and ice
in supercooled clouds and some errors in these measurements.
Trudy Tsentral. Aero. Obs., no 17, 15-35.
MUCHNIK, V,HM.� 1952: Electrification in the collision of balls and
drops in an electrical field. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., 35,
no 97) 35-41.
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1955: Relation of storm formation to the intensity
of precipitations. Meteor. i Gidrol., no 9, 31-33.
, 1956a: The nature of the thunderstorm. Nauka i
Zhizni, v. 23, no 6, 41-43
, 1956b: On possible electrification mechanism of
hydrometeors in cumulus rain clouds. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs.,
58 (120), 53-57.
, 1958a: Detection of thunderstorm and rainstorms by
the radar of a storm identification station. Trudy Tsentral,
Aero. Obs., no 20, 73-80
, ) 1958b: Some radar characteristics of rainstorm and
thunderstorm cells. Trudy Tsentral. Aero. Obs., no 20, 82-87.
MYAKISHEV, G. Ya., 1958: Artificial precipitation. Nauka i Zhizn',
no 4, 77-78. '
NEPOMNYASHCHIY, S. I., 1959: New airplane meteorograph for vertical
sounding of the atmosphere. Meteor. i Gidrol., no 1, 51-54.
NIKANDROVA, G. T. and A. P. CHUVAYEV, 1957: Investigation of the
transition in cloud microstructure under modification by solid
carbon dioxide. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 67 (129)2
104-113.
PARAMONOV, N. A., 1950: The unitary variation of atmospheric
electrical potential. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, v. 90, no 1, 37-38.
PROKHOROV, P. S. and L. F. LEONOV, 1952: The effect of a saturation
deficit on the process of collision and coalescence of water
drops. Kolloid Zhur., 14/ no 1, 66-72.
PSHENAY-SEVERIN, S. V., 1957: Effect of hydrodynamic interaction
between small cloud drops upon their falling speed. Izvest.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 8, 1945-1051.
PUZANOV, V. P. and V. I. AKKURATOV, 1952: The mechanism of formation
of certain types of hailstones. Meteor. i Gidrol., no 2, 29-33.
REYNET, Ya, Yu., 1956: A combination meter for atmospheric ions.
Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz, Obs., 58 (120), 23-30.
SALEZNEVA, Ya. S., 1953: Conditions that determine the quality of
cumulus clouds. Meteor. i Gidrol., no 2,
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SERGIYEVA, A. P.-, 1958: The electric charges of cloud particles.
Izvest, Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 3, 347-357.
SHISHKIN, N. S., 1954: Dimensions of rain drops. Priroda, no 10,
90-92.
, 1955a: Effect of size distribution of cloud particles
on the size of rain drops. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 54 (116)
78-80.
� 1955b: Using the layer method for forecasting the
vertical force of convective clouds. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs.,
no 54, 96-103.
� 1956a: Investigations of clouds yielding precipitation
in the form of snow. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 57 (119))
11-112.
1956b: Some results of research on thunderclouds and
cloudbursts. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz, Obs., no 63 1125), 3-21.,
MAL', V. and V. MORACHEVSKIY, 1958a: Is it possible to actively
influence the weather: .Sovetskaya Aviatsiya (a newspaper),
Feb 8, p. 4.
1958b: Active influence on the
weather.
Priroda� V.
SHUPIATSKIY,' A. B., 1958:
and the water content
Obs., no 20, 56-66.
47, no 90 85-88.
Radar measurements of the mean drop size
in heavy rainstorms. Trudy Tsentral. Aero.
SHVETS, M. E., 1955: Condensation of water vapor in the atmosphere.
Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 6, 547-551.
SMIRNOV, N. S.; 1956: The problem of the effect of an atomic explosion
on the state of the atmospheric. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser.
Geofiz., no 10, 1227-1231.
SOKOLOV, V.; 1958: Weather observations by radar. Sovetskaya
Aviatsiya, no 274, Nov 22, p. 3.
SOLOV'YEVI V. A.; 1956: On one method of measuring the charges and
size of cloud (fog) droplets. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., 58
(120), 31-41.
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STEPANENKO, V. D.0 1958: Improving the meteorological target detection
efficiency of the "Kobal't" radar. Trudy Tsentral. Aero. Obs.,
no 20, 67-72.
TSYGANOV, G. P., 1957: Experience of meteorological servicing of tower
control area and utilization of radar station "RUPOR" at the air
weather station of the Civil Air Fleet at Rostov-on-Don. Meteor.
i Gidrol., no 6, 46-47.
TVERSKAYA, N. P., 1951: The temperature of evaporating drops. Izvest.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geograf. i Geofiz., 15 (1), 74-81.
, 1953: Heat transfer and evaporation of a drop in a
current. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz.', no 3, 259-263.
VOSKANOV, A. I., I. M. IMYANITOV, M. M. KULIK and A. P. CHUVAYEV,
1957: The possibility of safe passage of aircraft through thunder-
storm areas. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Ohs., no 67 (129) 114-120.
VOSKRESENSKIY, A. I., V. G. MORACHEVSKIY and V. Ya. NIKANDROV, 1957:
The use of dry ice for dispersing clouds in the Arctic. Problemy
Arktiki, sbornik statey (Problems of the Arctic, A Collection of
Articles), no 2, Leningrad, 133,-139.
VOTINTSEV, K. K., 1954: Chemical composition of the waters from
atmospheric precipitation in the Baykal Area. Dokl. Akad. Nauk
SSSR, v. 95, no 5, 979-981
VUL'FSON, N. I., 1953: Method of study of convective movements in the
free atmosphere. Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR, v. 91, no 2, 233-236.
, 1956a: Conditions of formation of cumulus clouds in
mountainous regions. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 7,
821-830.
� 1956b: Method of studying convective movement in
the free atmosphere. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz.,
no 5, 549-561.
, 1954: Convective movements in cumulous clouds. Dikl.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, 97, no 1, 77-80
ZHAVORONKINA, T. K., 1958: The chemical composition of atmospheric
precipitation. Meteor. i Gidrol., no 9, 22-24.
/ and A. A. DMITRIYEV, 1958: The distribution of
concentration of chlorine in atmospheric precipitation over a
continent. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 3, 330-336.
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APPENDIX D
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ARTICLES IDENTIFIED BUT NOT
AVAILABLE FOR COMPLETE REVIEW
This list supplements previously published bibliographies.
ANON., 1956: Aircraft radar fOr weather observations. Voprosy
Radiolokatsionnoy Tekhniki, no 1.
1 1958a: Weather observations by radar. Sovetskaya Aviatsiya,
Nov 22, 1958, p. 4.
, 1958b: Aircraft breaks up thunderstorm. Sovetskaya
Aviatsiya, Aug. 13, 1958,q6. 4.
, 1959: Artificial atmospheric precipitations: Vest. Akad.
Nauk SSSR, no 7, July 1959, p. 70.
ARABADZHI, V. I., 1959: On the electrical properties of thunderstorm
precipitation. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 127, no 2, 298-301.
BALABANOVA, V. N., 1959: Effects of temperature of supercooled fog
,on crystallization by silver iodide aerosols. Izvest. Akad.
Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 6, 924-929.
BARANOV, A. M., 1958: The vertical expansion of clouds of the upper
layer over the European part of the USSR. Meteor. i Gidrol.,
no 6, 22-25.
BARTISHVILI, I. T., 1957: On methods of measuring precipitation in
mountain conditions. Trudy, Tbilisskogo NauChno-Issled. Gidrol.
Inst.Orypusk no 2, 189-203.
BEKTOROV� A. B., 1958: Magnesium chloride in the Salfe Lakes of
northern Kazakhstan. Vast. Akad. Nauk Kazakhskoy SSSR, no 5,
6&73,
BIBILASHVILI, N. Sh., A. M. ZAYTSEVA, A. A. ORDZHONIKIDZE, and
G. K. SULAKEVELIDZE, 1959: Influence of changes in the vertical
component of wind velocity on the formation of intensive showers
and hail. Dokl. Akad, Nauk SSSR, 128, no 3, 521-524.
BOCHAROV, Ye, I., 1958a: The special transparency of the clouds.
Izvest. Akad, Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 5, 678-685,
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1 1958b: The attenuation of infrared radiation by water
mists. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 5, 791-795.
BRITAYEV, A. A. and A. N. KORNEEV, L959: Growth of ice crystals by
coalescence. Trudy Tsentral. Aero. Obs., no 30, 73-80.
CHIRVINSKIY, P. N., 1954: The first observers of ball lightnings.
Priroda, V. XLIII no 8, p. 116.
CHUVAYEV, A. P., 1957: Experiment in controlling the development of
powerful convective clouds over large areas. Trudy Glavnoy
Geofiz. Obs., no 72, 127-133.
DERGACH, A. L., 1959a: The microphysical characteristics of a low
cloud cover and fog. Trudy Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst.,
v. 228, no 1, 55-67.
1 1959b: The results of the study of ,frontal clouds.
Trudy Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst., v. 2280 ho. 1,
100-112.
1 1959c: Study of a cumulonimbus cloud without an
anvil. Trudy Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst., v. 228, no 10
148-154.,
DRIVING, A. Ya., N. V. ZOLOTAVINA, M. N. POCOZOVA and A. L. SM1RNOVA,
1958: Investigation_of atmospheric stratification and con-
densation products by searchlight sounding. Izvest. Akad. Nauk
SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 5, 613-624.
FEIGEL'SON, Ye. M., 1959: The radiational cooling of stratus clouds.
Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 6, 847-857.
GROMOVA, T. N. and A. D. SOLOV'YEV, 1958: Laboratory equipment for
analyzing artificial fogs. Trudy Tsentral. Aero. Obs., no 19,
101.
INYANITOVI I. M., V. P. KOLOKOLOV, 1956: Investigating the
distribution of induced and free electrical charges on aircraft
surfaces. Trudy GlavnoyGeofiz. Obs., p. 8-16.
IZERGIN, A. M., 1959: Convective electrical currents atmosphere-
earth. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 6, 919-923.
KACHURIN, L. G., 1956: The formation of glazed frost and hoar frost
in supercooled fog. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 57 (119)
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, 1959: Comparison between various evations for
freezing of supercooled water aerosols. Izvest. Akad, Nauk
SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 1, 122-130.
, G. I. ALESHINA, M. A. BELYASHOVA, V. I. ZALIVINA,
V. I. KUDRYAVTSEVA, M. I. NESTEROVA, A. A. SEREBRYAKOVA, and
L. P. SERYAKOVA, 1956: Analysis of the precipitation zones of
stratiform frontal clouds. Trudy Lenin. Gidrometeor. Inst.
no 5-6, 208-241.
KHMALADZE, G. N., 1959: Scientific session at the Tbilisi Scientific
Research Hydrometeorological Institute. Meteor. i Gidrol., no 2,
70-71.
KLINOV, F. Ya., 1958: Polar snow. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser._
Geofiz., no 5, 796-799.
, 1957: Ice crystals and ice mists in the atmosphere.
Priroda, no 2.
KOGAN-BELETSKIY, G., 1958: About encounters with electric storm and
hail during flights at high altitudes. Sovetskaya.AViatsiya,
July 291 1958, p. 2
KONDRAT'YEV, N. N., 1959: Methods and some results of base line
phototheodolite clouds. Trudy Tsentral Aero. Obs., no 30,
84-94.
KORNEYEV, A. N. AND B. N. TRUBNIKOV, 1959: Application of the replica
method in the study of cloud elements. Trudy Tsentral, Aero. Obs.
no 30, 81-83.
KOTOV, N. F., 1958: Use of the results of radar studies of clouds for
improving the work of the network of storm warning stations.
Trudy Tsentral, Aero. Obs., no 20, 17-25.
KRASIKOV, P. N. and I. M. DIANOV, 1959: An artificial rainmaking
method. Byulleten' Izobreteniy, no 5, 49.
KRUTSKAYA, L. I., 1958: Methods for computing the number of ice nuclei
forming under the action of cooling reagents. Trudy Tsentral.
Aero. Obs., no 19, 81-100.
LEDOKHOVICH, A. A. and V. A. ZAYTSEV, 1959: An air-borne electrical
meteorograph (SEM-1). Trudy Arctic and Antarctic Set. Res. Inst.,
V. 228, no 1, 162-167.
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LEVIN, L. LI 1958a: Fluctuations of microstructural characteristics
of clouds. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 12, 1510-1513.
, 1958b: On the size distribution functions of cloud
droplets. Optical density of a cloud. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR,
Ser. Geofiz., no 10, 1211-1221.
0�����������=I
, 1959: Electrostatic deposition of aersol particles
from flow over large bodies. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR. Ser. Geofiz.,
no 7, 1073-1075.
LITVINOV, I. V., 1959: Method for measuring the distribution of size
of snowflakes. Izvest. Akad, Nauk SSSR� Ser. Geofiz., no 7,
1011-1017.
MAKHOTKIN, L. G., 1959: On C. G. Breydo's formula for the limiting
charge on drops. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 2,
330-331.
1 and V. A. SOLOV'YEVI 1958: Role of electric charges
in the coagulation of fog drops. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs.,
no 73, 116-122.
MATVEYEVI L. T., 1959a: On the theory of cloud formation and con-
densation trails under the influence of mixing. Meteor. i Gidrol.,
no 3, 3-9.
1959b: Several questions on the theory of the
formation and evolution of stratiform clouds. Trudy Arctic and
Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst., v. 228, no 1, 14-37.
MIKIROV, A. Ye., 1959: On small angles of the scattering indicatrix.
Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 2, 228-295.
MIN, V. B., 1954: About the anomalous electric fields in the
atmosphere. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, v. XCV� no 5, 983-986.
MINERVIN, V. Ye., I. P. MAZIN and S. N. BUIKOVSKAYA, 1958: New data on
the water content of clouds. Trudy Tsentral. Aero. Obs., no 19,
3-32.
MORACHEVSKM V. G. and V. Ya. NIKANDROV, 1959: The effectiveness of
CO2 particles and AgI smoke in dissipating supercooled low clouds
and fog. Trudy Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst.; v. 228, no 1,
135-145.
NASILOV, D. N., 1956: Radio meteorology. (No other information
available.)
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NEPONVYASHCHIY0 S. I., 1958:
Meteor. i Gidrol., no 6,
NIKANDROV, V. Ya., 1959: Some
Arctic. Trudy Arctic and
146-148.
Comb-type radiosonde with electric motor.
47-49.
data on the water content of fog in the
Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst., v. 228; no 1,
PINUS, N. Z., 1957: Atmospheric turbulence commensurate with dimensions
of airplanes. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 3,
395-400.
PIOTROVICH, V. V., 1958: On the reasons for the increase of the
crystals of "intra-water" ice in overcooled water. Meteor. i.
Gddrol., no 12, 42-43,
PSHENAY-SEVERINI S. V., 1958: Hydrodynamics interaction of cloud drops
at short distances. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz.,
no 10, 1254-1257.
, 1959: On the mutual approach of aerosol
particles in a sound field due to Oseen's hydrodynamic forces.
Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 125, no 4, 775-778.
PUDOVKINA, I. B., 1954: A study of atmospheric electricity on the
Elbrus, Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 3, 288-292.
RESEE10V, V. D., 1959a: Investigation of unipolar aerosol charges.
Trudy Tsentral. Aero. Obs., no 30, 53-61. �
1959b: Problem of atmospheric electricity and
aerosols. Trudy Tsentral, Aero. Obs., no 30, 62-72,
ROVINSKIY, F. Ya.� 1959: New method for registration of water
droplets. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Geofiz., no 7,
1076-1078.
SEREGIN, Yu, A., 1958: Dispersion from the earth of supercooled fogs
by silver iodide aerosol. Trudy Tsentral. Aero. Obs., no 19,
68-80.
SERGIYEVA, A. P., 1959: Electrical charges of cloud droplets.
Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., no 7, 1018-1025,
SHIFRIN, K. S. and Yu. I. RABINOVICH, 1957: The spectral
indicatrices of large water drops and the spectral polarization
of rainbows. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Geofiz., no 12,
1491-1506.
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SHPAK, I. S., and L. P. MURZIN, 1957: A squall in the region of the
Tsimla Reservoir on 25 June 1956. Meteor. i Gidrol., no 4, 28-30.
645360.
SHUPYATSKIY, A. B., 1959a: Determining the shape and speed of falling
drops. Meteor. i Gidrol., no 5, 42-43.
1959b: Radar scattering by nonspherical particles.
Trudy Tsentral. Aero. Obs., no 30, 39-52.
SULAKUELIDZE, G., 1959: Microphysical traps dropped from airplane.
Sovetskaya Avlatsiya, July 1, 1959, p. 4.
TKACHENKO, A. V., 1958: Use of the layer method for forecasting the
convective cloud cover of cloudbursts and thunderstorms. Meteor.
i Gidrol., no 9, 24-27.
TSITOVICH, T. A., 1959: On the formation of the subfrontal portions
of warm frontal cloud systems. Trudy Tsentral Aero. Obs., no 30,
3-38.
TVERSKAYA, N. P., 1958: Study of the collision and coalescence of
charged drops. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs.� no 73, 123-131.
, and N. P. YUDINA, 1956: Experimental investigation
of water-drop conjoining. Trudy Lenin. Gidrometeor. Inst.,
no 5-6, 263-267.
VASIL�CHENKO, I. V., 1958: Calculations of the characteristics of a
convective cloud stream. Trudy Glavnoy Geofiz. Obs., no 82,
22-25.
VOLKOV, P. A., 1958: On the mechanism of breakage of air bubbles.
Meteor. i Gidrol.� no 12, 38-40.
VORONTSOV, P. A., 1959: The aerological characteristics(of sea fog.
Trudy Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst., V. 228, no 10 38-54.
, and.V. I. SELITSKAYA, 1959: The vertical structure
of summer fog in the Kickson Island region. Trudy Arctic and
Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst., v. 228, no 1, 87-99.
VOSKRESENSKIY, A. I., 1959: Organization and methods of studying fog
and clouds. Trudy Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst., v. 228,
no 1, 5-13.
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VOSKRESENKIY, A. 1.4959 and K. I. CHUKANIN, 1959: The meteorological
conditions of icing in St and Sc clouds. Trudy Arctic and
Antarctic Sci, Res. Inst., Vol. 228, no 1, 124-134.
1 and A. A. LEDOKHOVICH, 1959: The Lo-4
thermohygrometer. Trudy Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst.,
Vol. 228, no 1, 168-175.
) and V. G. MORACHEVSKIY, 1959: Equipment for
seeding supercooled clouds and fog from an airplane. Trudy
Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst., Vol. 228, no 1, 155-161.
VULiFSON, N. I., 1959: On the mechanism of instability release in
the free atmosphere. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 126, no 6, 1244-1247.
ZABRODSKIY, G. M. and V. G. MORACHEVSKIY, 1959: A study of the trans-
parency of clouds and fog. Trudy Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res.
Inst., Vol. 228, no 1, 68-86.
ZAK, Ye. G. and A. A. FEDOROVA, 1958: Results of radar observations
of formation and development of precipitation in cumulonimbus
clouds. Trudy Tsentral Aero. Obs., No. 19, 33-67.
ZAMORSKIY, A. D., 1953: Drizzle and glazed frost at low temperatures.
Meteor. i Gidrol., No. 4,
ZAYTSEV, V. A., and A. A. LEDOKHOVICH, 1959: The temperature near the
upper boundary of air mass fogs and stratus clouds. Trudy
Arctic and Antarctic Sci. Res. Inst., Vol. 228, No 1, 113-123.
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