MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN THE SOVBLOC CYBERNETICS PROGRAMS IN 1965

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• Document Creation Date: December 28, 2022
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• Case Number: F-2016-02177
• Publication Date: October 3, 1966

Scientific
and
Technical
Intelligence
Report
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N9 6
Major Developments in the SovBloc
Cybernetics Programs in 1965
IPS FIU copy
DO N01 REMOVE
25 OCT 1966
OSI�STIR/66-29
3 October 1966
Directorate of Science and Technology
Office of Scientific Intelligence
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WARNING
Thi terial contains information affecting the
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meaning of the esp e laws, Title 18, USC, Secs.
793 and 794, the transm sn or revelation of
which in any manner to an unau ed person is
prohibited by law.
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EXCLUDED FROM AUTOMATIC DOWNGRADING
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ThfreRE,T._
Scientific and Technical Intelligence Report
MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN THE
SOVBLOC CYBERNETICS PROGRAMS IN 1965
Project Officer
OSI�STIR/66-29
3 October 1966
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
DIRECTORATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE
(b)(3)
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PREFACE
At the 22nd Party Congress in 1961 the CPSU decided to
make cybernetics an instrument of national policies pertaining
to management in the Soviet Union. Since that time the
field of cybernetics has been undergoing a gradual, multifaceted,
and programmed evolution under the immediate supervision
of the Cybernetics Council, Academy of Sciences, USSR. This
pattern of development has been paralleled by cybernetics pro-
grams in some of the Satellites and to a lesser extent in Com-
munist China. In this report, the recent organizational, sci-
entific, technological and philosophical developments in this
program are reviewed, discussed, and placed in perspective in
the context of related research and political and philosophical
activities. Earlier developments were reviewed in The Features
of the Soviet Cybernetics Program Through 1963, OSI�RA/65-2,
5 January 1965.
This analysis used information available through 1 June
1966.
This report has been produced solely by CIA. It was pre-
pared by the Office of Scientific Intelligence and coordinated
with the Office of Current Intelligence and the Office of Re-
search and Reports.
iii
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MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN THE
SOVBLOC CYBERNETICS PROGRAMS IN 1965
PROBLEM
To review and evaluate major events in the development
of Sovbloc cybernetics programs during 1965.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The institutional base of the Soviet cyber-
netics program increased sharply during
1965�the creation of cybernetics institutes
at Tashkent, Yerevan, Minsk, Baku, Gorkiy,
and Leningrad approximately doubled the
number of such institutes. At least four new
serial publications appeared during the same
period: Cybernetics; Automatic Measure-
ments; Economics and Mathematical Meth-
ods; and Questions of Theoretical Cybernetics.
A computer-based information-management
system was established to systematize the re-
sults of the cybernetics program and to fa-
cilitate the exploitation of Western research.
It is based on a well-structured subject index
containing 80 main headings which range
in subject coverage from "analog computers"
and "automatic control" to "stochastic ap-
proximation techniques" and "utility theory."
The Council for Cybernetics convened bi-
weekly during 1965 to foster coordination of
research and the dissemination of ideas per-
tinent to the most important problems facing
the cybernetics program. It also cooperated
in the organization of at least six major con-
ferences: the First All-Union Symposium on
Automatic Pattern Recognition; First All-
Union Conference on Experiment Planning;
Second Symposium on Cybernetics (Tbilisi) ;
All-Union Conference on Cybernetics and the
National Economy; Third All-Union Confer-
ence on Automatic Control�Technical Cyber-
netics; and the Second Scientific Conference
on Neuro-Cybernetics of the Schools of Higher
Education.
The scientific and technological accomplish-
ments revealed during 1965 indicate that the
rate of progress of the Soviet Union is ac-
celerating in the fields of theoretical, techni-
cal, and applied cybernetics. Exemplifying
Soviet progress in theoretical cybernetics is
their pattern recognition research, which
reached a relatively high plane of accom-
plishment during 1965. In their multifaceted
mass attack on the recognition problem, the
Soviets used psycho-biological, bionic, mathe-
matical, and combined approaches which
found expression in reports of research on:
heuristic programming; the relationships of
information theory and learning to the recog-
nition problem; human speech recognition;
the algorithmic simulation of human pattern
recognition and problem-solving systems; and
the hardware simulation of the human pat-
tern recognition apparatus. The last-men-
tioned research activity has resulted in models
of individual neurons, neuron nets, and recep-
1
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tor and analyzer systems which perform in-
formation transformation functions analo-
gous to those of the living prototypes after
which the hardware is modeled. The most
significant Soviet contributions to the solu-
tion of the pattern recognition problem dur-
ing 1965 come from the mathematicians. Es-
pecially notable was Ya. L. Tsypkin's discovery
that there is a close proximity between prob-
lems solvable by the method of potential func-
tions and problems analyzed in the theory
of stochastic approximations.
The outstanding technical cybernetics ac-
complishment revealed by the Soviets during
1965 was the BESM-6 computer. This all-
solid-state digital computer represents a con-
siderable advance over previous Soviet ma-
chines. It is well-suited to economic, mili-
tary, and other applications requiring a large
volume of calculations. Translation of this
advance into widely available machines and
associated software will require some years.
For the present and near future the URAL
series of compatible computers and software
will provide major support to the cybernetics
and economic data processing programs. As
to the more basic aspects of technical cyber-
netics, the Soviets continued to focus atten-
tion on optimal control problems with an un-
usual emphasis on those encountered in sto-
chastic systems. The large number of papers
devoted to problems of optimal control of
stochastic systems revealed that the consider-
able activity on this very difficult subject in
optimal control theory has advanced to a
somewhat practical statistical design stage.
Soviet progress in applied cybernetics was
evidenced by Soviet revelation during 1965 of
a number of hierarchical systems for the con-
trol of industrial complexes. Among those
described are experimental systems with the
designations IMPUL'S and PROKAT and an
unnamed system in which VNIIEM-3 comput-
ers are combined in hierarchical fashion for
technological planning and administrative
control of a steel mill. These systems rely
heavily on self-adaption of the control ele-
ments because of the difficulty encountered
in accurately knowing the process dynamics
of such systems in advance.
2
The development of new software was re-
vealed during 1965. One is ALGOS (Algo-
rithmic Descriptions of Industrial Cybernetics
Systems) , a special programming language
for the automatic formulation of computer
programs for controlling industrial processes.
Another is EPSS (Heuristic Program for Self-
organization and Self-teaching) which is ap-
plicable to self-organized hierarchical man-
machine systems. ALGEK and KOBOL-
GAYAPEI, programming languages for use in
economic decision-making and accounting
operations, respectively, were considered for
adoption during 1965 by the CEMA Group for
Algorithmic Languages for the Processing of
Economic Information.
The Unified Information Network was the
most significant planned application of cyber-
netics discussed during 1965. More than 100
new computer centers were observed for the
first time in the USSR during the year. Some
of these may become, along with several
thousand others, part of a nationwide network
for collecting, processing, storing, and trans-
mitting information. Plans for this network
are assigned perhaps the highest priority in
the theoretical and technical aspects on the
long-range cybernetics program. The litera-
ture reviewed during 1965 reveals that the
Soviets are still at an early stage in the am-
bitious research and development program to
institute this management system of unprece-
dented complexity.
The newly created Council for Problems on
Management of Economic and Social Proc-
esses of the Academy of Social Sciences under
the Central Committee, CPSU, plays a leader-
ship role, especially in the philosophical as-
pects of this program. A possible guideline
for these philosophical endeavors is a concept
called the "theory of development." Based on
analogies recognized by Sovbloc philosophers
between the evolution of species and the de-
velopment of social systems, the theory of
development holds that observed regularities
in natural phylogenetic processes can be used
as guides in engineering the evolution of so-
cial systems toward higher levels of develop-
ment. This theory incorporates modern
mathematical approaches to the modeling of
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social systems' dynamics with descriptive
models of the evolutionary process as it oc-
curred in biological nature. One of its key
postulates states that automation is a uni-
versal law in the development of species and
is, therefore, a prerequisite to the progressive
development of social systems.
Recognizing an intimate connection be-
tween socio-economic development and secur-
ity, some Soviets believe that the success of
their cybernetics program in providing means
for the optimal management of social tran-
sition will prove to be the decisive factor in the
East-West contest. Aside from what would
be gained in terms of the security of the USSR,
these Soviets believe that successes in devel-
oping techniques for the scientific guidance
of social development could furnish an ex-
ample in this respect for the emerging na-
tions of the world and, hence, influence their
paths of future development along lines in-
INTRODUCTION
imical, perhaps to US policy. The organiza-
tional, research, engineering, and philosophi-
cal developments within the cybernetics pro-
gram of the USSR during 1965 indicate a
marked acceleration of Soviet efforts to re-
alize the potential offered by that program
in terms of their national and international
objectives.
Developments transpired in the East Eu-
ropean satellites and to a lesser degree in
Communist China during 1965 which reflect
the programs and aspirations observed in the
USSR. A collaborative Bloc-wide program is
suggested by reports describing activities in
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and East
Germany which will be in support of national
and international (CEMA) research programs
devoted to scientific management of society.
Parenthetically, even the Chinese Communists
began to espouse cybernetics openly during
1965.
DISCUSSION
The Soviet cybernetics program compre-
hends theoretical, technical, and applied re-
search in a multitude of scientific subjects
and problem areas. The success of the pro-
gram is contingent, therefore, upon Soviet
abilities to systematize and interrelate these
previously independent fields with reference
to the operation of general laws of communi-
cation and control. A step to develop further
such abilities was taken by the Soviets during
1965 with the establishment of an informa-
tion-management system for classifying,
structuring, and interrelating the subfields
included under the heading of cybernetics by
the Soviets.
The basis of the system is a subject index
with more than 80 main headings each of
which is identified by a 4 digit code. Some of
the main headings of the subject index are
given in the following list.'
Differential analyzers
Bionics
Biotechnology (Biotekhnika)
Probability distributions
Probability theory
Computer technology
Computer technology, applications
Computers
Analog computers
Computer units and elements
Functional generators
Mathematical genetics
Decoding
Memory devices
Game theory
Integral functional units
Information processing
Information transmission
Information search
Information theory
Operations research and mathematical economic's
Operations research, applications (prilozheniya)
Cybernetics in medicine and biology
Cybernetics and psychology
Cybernetics, applications
Cybernetic problems of the theory of algorithms
Cybernetic control (upravleniye) systems, theory
Cybernetic devices
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Coding theory
Codes
Finite automata, theory
Regulation (kontrol')
Correlation between random values, theory
Logical schema
Logical elements
Queueing theory
Mathematical problems of semiotics
Operations research models
Modeling
Mathematical modeling
Reliability theory
Theory of decision functions
Network theory
Automatic control (upravleniye)
Mathematical modeling of thought processes
Electrical modeling
Nonparametric problems. Nonparametric criteria
for verifying hypotheses
Perceptrons
Usefulness theory
Sequential analysis
Limit theorems
Converters of analog values into digital
Code converters
Converters of digital values into analog
Verification of hypotheses, evaluation of param-
eters, goodness-of-lit test
Programming
Automatic programming
Dynamic programming
Linear programming
Nonlinear programming
Programs and algorithms for the solution of prob-
lems on computers
Scheduling theory
Pattern recognition
Automatic control (regulirovaiaiye) , theory
Relay circuits, theory
Servo systems
Random processes and random functions
Statistics of dependent observations
Mathematical statistics
Statistical analysis, multivariate
Statistical analysis of random processes
Stochastic approximation, the Monte-Carlo method
Impulse meters
Theoretical-probabilistic and statistical methods
in the natural and humanitarian sciences
Theoretical-probabilistic and statistical methods
in engineering (tekhnika)
Control of resources, theory
Programmed control
Electrical circuits, theory
Economic models
In the body of the index, subheadings under
the main divisions are assigned additional
two digit designations. Thus, each subject
entry is identifiable by a six digit code.
4
The first use was made of this subject index
by the Soviets in systematically cataloging
all the abstracts of cybernetic literature pub-
lished during 1965 in the Reference Journal:
Cybernetics issued by the Institute of Scien-
tific Information, Academy of Sciences, USSR.
The availability of this index with its thous-
ands of entries and of the source journals
makes unnecessary any attempt at an exhaus-
tive recapitulation of Soviet research in cy-
bernetics. However, there is a time-lag be-
tween the publication of research and its in-
clusion in abstract form in the reference sys-
tem. Thus, the index for 1965 is to literature
much of which goes back to 1964 or earlier.
Hence a requirement for reviewing and eval-
uating material published during 1965. The
scope of cybernetics depicted in the index
demonstrates also the futility of any attempt
at substantive completeness in such a review.
Therefore an attempt has been made to pro-
vide only illustrative examples of develop-
ments in theoretical, technical, and applied
cybernetics.
A noteworthy attribute of the new, com-
puter-based information-management system
beyond its contribution to the systematization
of cybernetics is that it amplifies Soviet re-
search and development capabilities. By fa-
cilitating access to native and world litera-
ture, the information system permits a Soviet
scientist to build upon rather than duplicate
precedent research.
Illustrative of the capability of an informa-
tion system for amplifying research and de-
velopment activities are the findings made in
an extremely well-done US review completed
during 1965 of Soviet progress in switching
theory and logical design.2 It was obvious to
the reviewer that Soviet authors are generally
very familiar with nonSoviet work in their
field, often with surprising promptness, due
mainly to the availability of an information
system. As a result of this awareness of non-
Soviet work, there has been relatively little
duplicated effort by Soviet researchers on
problems of switching theory and logical de-
sign that have already been adequately
treated outside of the Soviet Union. It was
noted that there was negligible duplication
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and overlap of results between publications of
different Soviet authors; each contribution
is usually related very carefully to the perti-
nent contributions that precede it.
The status of switching theory and logical
design in the USSR measured in terms of the
accumulated technical content of past publi-
cations and the amount of significant activity
in recent publications was found to be behind
that in the US. On the other hand, the re-
viewer reaffirmed the pre-eminence of the So-
viet Union in particular aspects of the field,
namely, complexity estimates for switching
networks, certain minimization problems, the
analysis of relay-type circuitry, the selection
of logical primitives (building blocks), and
the development and use of certain methods
for the synthesis of multi-terminal contact
networks. It is highly likely that pre-emi-
nence in these particular problems of cyber-
netics was achievable because Soviet scientists
could concentrate on them knowing that in-
ternational progress in the other aspects of
switching theory would be made available
through the information system.
The philosophical overview which is the
basis for the new information-management
system also facilitates more efficient manage-
ment of personnel, facilities, and projects in-
terrelated in the cybernetics program. The
concept of optimal control lends functional
unity to the program; the philosophical over-
view expressed in a "problem-tree" for cyber-
netics prescribes how the various parts of the
program are to interrelate in performing pro-
grammed functions. The Soviets reached a
new high during 1965 in the use of the in-
formation system and other management
techniques for the consolidation of the cyber-
netics program.
ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES
DURING 1965
New Research Facilities
The research base of the Soviet cybernetics
program was expanded with the establishment
of new institutes at Tashkent, Yerevan, Minsk,
Baku, Gorkiy, and Leningrad and with the
creation of one "cybernetics center" in Kiev
and possibly another in Moscow.* The Insti-
tute of Cybernetics at Tashkent, a part of the
Uzbek Academy of Science, is the first one of
its kind in Central Asia. With its computer
center it is to concentrate on the economic
planning and management of chemical and
other enterprises found in the Uzbek Republic
and elsewhere in Central Asia. To a lesser
degree the Tashkent institute will engage also
in theoretical research in biocybernetics.
The Institute of Cybernetics at Yerevan
was created by a reorganization of the Joint
Computer Center of the Armenian Academy
and of the Yerevan State University. Its ef-
forts are concentrated on the application of
cybernetics to the social sciences and especi-
ally to economics, mathematical linguistics
and machine translation, archeology, and so-
ciology. An Institute of Technical Cybernet-
ics, Byelorussian Academy of Sciences, was
created at Minsk during 1965.
The new Institute of Cybernetics at Baku
is the result of a reorganization of the Com-
puter Center, Azerbaydzhan Academy of Sci-
ences. According to D. A. Babayev, its deputy
director, the new institute has been directed
by the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences,
USSR, to concentrate on theoretical and ap-
plied problems in cybernetics. The special
topics of theoretical cybernetics to be pur-
sued include research on the theory of finite
automata, the theory of functions, the theory
of operators, and other aspects of mathemat-
ics applicable to cybernetics. The second
main trend involves the application of cyber-
netics to the solution of major complex prob-
lems connected with the development and
management of Azerbaydzhan's petrochem-
istry-based industry. The institute will have
14 laboratories. One will deal with develop-
ment of methods of research and control of
processes occurring in petroleum-bearing rock
strata. Another laboratory will develop de-
vices for storing and processing scientific and
technical information for petroleum-refining
and petro-chemical enterprises. A third lab-
* Research facilities at established cybernetics in-
stitutes are being expanded also. For example, con-
struction began during 1965 of an eleven-story
laboratory for the Institute of Cybernetics in Tbilisi.
-sregE,1_
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oratory will be concerned with the use of cur-
rently available computers and their mod-
ernization.
The facility at Gorkiy is the Scientific Re-
search Institute of Applied Mathematics and
Cybernetics, Gorkiy State University. Re-
search there has been concerned with the
synthesis of nonlinear control systems.3-5
The research facility opened at Leningrad
during 1965 is the Institute for Complex So-
cial Research. It is the first scientific in-
stitution in the USSR in which mathematical
and classical sociological methods are applied
"on an equal footing" in approaching the
problems of "man and society." * It has nine
laboratories to cover a wide field of research
in problem areas such as economic control,
engineering psychology, work physiology,
programmed instruction, and the "compre-
hensive study of the individual." 6
The plans for the first of several "cyber-
netic centers" were completed by the Ukrain-
ian Academy of Sciences on 17 September
1965. The Institute of Cybernetics in Kiev
will be the nucleus of the center which will
include departments for theoretical and eco-
nomic cybernetics, a computing center, a bio-
cybernetics department, a design bureau, and
an experimental factory. The center will be
used also to train cybernetics specialists in
planning and management of the national
economy, computer manufacturing, industrial
automation, theoretical economics, and in bi-
ology and medicine. Housing plans for the
center call for accommodations for 6,000
people.7 What is possibly the second "cyber-
netics center" is under construction in south-
east Moscow. It will probably have as its
nucleus the new and considerably expanded
facility for the Institute of Automatics and
Telemechanics (Engineering Cybernetics) .8
* Many proposals have been made to US founda-
tions to establish a "Rand-type" institution for the
study of social system dynamics and for the formu-
lation of mathematical models of the transition
processes of societies. As yet there is no such es-
tablishment in the US. Recent US Government
awareness of the vital importance of the social re-
construction dimension of the Vietnam conflict is
motivating systems-oriented companies such as
those in the aerospace industry to move into the
field of social systems research.
6
New Soviet Publications
The most significant of the four cybernet-
ics-related journals which began publication
in the USSR during 1965 is Kibernetika (Cy-
bernetics) , an organ of the Ukrainian Acad-
emy of Sciences. V. M. Glushkov* is chief of
an editorial board which includes such out-
standing Soviet Bloc scientists as A. A. Lya-
punov, A. A. Dorodnitsyn, S. L. Sobolev, and
A. A. Stogniy. Issues received to date have
emphasized automata and algorithm theory,
computer theory, the theory of models, tech-
niques for simulation of human thought proc-
esses, information systems, and mathematical
linguistics.
The new journal, Avtometriya (Automeas-
uring), focuses on the theory and engineer-
ing of elements and systems for automated
measurement procedures and for the trans-
mission of the resulting information. Its
chief editor, K. B. Karandeyev, is Director of
the Institute of Automatics and Electromeas-
uring at Novosibirsk and the deputy editor
is M. P. Tsapenko of the same institute.
Karandeyev and Tsapenko are chairman and
deputy chairman, respectively, of the Section
for Measurement Information Systems of the
Cybernetics Council which recommended es-
tablishment of such a journal in September
1964.
A third new journal, Ekonomika i Mate-
maticheskiye Metody (Economics and Mathe-
matical Methods) , is edited by N. P. Feder-
enko of the Economics Section of the Cyber-
netics Council. The publication of Voprosy
Teoreticheskoy Kibernetiki (Problems of
Theoretical Cybernetics) began during 1965
under the editorship of V. M. Glushkov. It
complements the journal, Technical Cyber-
netics, which appeared during 1963.**
* Glushkov is director of the Kiev Institute of
Cybernetics, vice-president of the Ukrainian Acad-
emy of Sciences, a member of the Cybernetics Coun-
cil, Academy of Sciences, USSR, and an official of
the State Committee for Science and Technology.
** Soviet scientists also serve as editors of new
serial publications for 1965 issued by Satellite or-
ganizations. One of these is ELK: Elektronische
Informations veranbeitung und Kybernetik (Elec-
tronic Information Processing and Cybernetics)
published in East Germany.
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Major Meetings
Conferences are used by the Cybernetics
Council as a management tool for organizing,
integrating, and monitoring research pro-
grams on specialized as well as on more gen-
eral problems of cybernetics.9
The First All-Union Symposium on Auto-
matic Pattern Recognition was held in June
1965.* The more than 60 papers presented
dealt with such problems as the automation
of data input to computers, methods for rec-
ognizing petroliferous strata, how to incor-
porate pattern recognition in universal auto-
mata capable of self-orientation in their en-
vironments, construction of machine analogs
of the sensory organs of living organisms, and
how to automate medical diagnosis pro-
cedures.10
The First All-Union Conference on Experi-
ment Planning** was devoted to the use of
modern techniques for planning and manag-
ing scientific and engineering research proj-
ects. It recommended the following: (i) Crea-
tion of a scientific research and consultation
center for the study of experiment planning
operations; (ii) conversion of the Problem
Laboratory of Automation and Telemechanics
of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute
into a problem laboratory for the VUZ system;
(iii) organization of courses for training re-
search planning specialists in the application
of mathematical statistics; and (iv) provision
in the plans of the State Committee of the
Chemical Industry in association with Gos-
plan USSR for scientific research toward the
broad introduction of mathematical methods
of experiment planning in laboratory, pilot,
and full-scale installations.,, 12
The Second Symposium on Cybernetics was
held at Tbilisi during November 1965 with
Chairman of the Cybernetics Council, A. I.
Berg, presiding. Approximately 130 papers
* As early as 1963 it had been reported that
classified research an automatic pattern recogni-
tion systems was being conducted under the direc-
tion of M. V. Keldysh at "his institute." According
to a Soviet scientist, this research was "not in the
plan." The symposium reports may have included
some of the heretofore classified information.
** This conference sponsored by the Cybernetics
Council was held in December 1964 but was not re-
ported until July 1965.
were presented by scientists representing the
many scientific centers located in Moscow,
Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Minsk, Tallin, Kiev,
Baku, Yerevan and in other cities. The prob-
lems designated by the Cybernetics Council
for consideration by the symposium were: (i)
Analysis and synthesis of cybernetic systems;
(ii) operations research; (iii) problems of
heuristics and artificial intelligence; and (iv)
programming languages and logical struc-
tures."-'5
The Third All-Union Conference on Auto-
matic Control (Technical Cybernetics) opened
in the Odessa Opera House on 20 September
1965 and continued for five days aboard the
steamship Admiral Nakhimail on the Black
Sea. Two important technical addresses were
delivered at the opening session, the first by
V. A. Trapeznikov, chief organizer of the con-
ference, and the second by Ya. Z. Tsypkin.
Trapeznikov's talk on the subject of "Auto-
matic Control and Economics" emphasized
the importance of a logical hierarchy of
control in large industrial systems, starting
with a well-regulated and dependable lower-
level control which functions according to
references set by higher-level controllers, but
which can function well without constant cor-
rections from the higher level. Trapeznikov
emphasized the importance of the proper de-
velopment of computer control of large-scale
processes and in particular the use of a
hierarchical control structure for maximum
efficiency and reliability. Because of the dif-
ficulty in knowing accurately the process
dynamics in advance, he also stressed the im-
portance of developing self-adaptive systems.
Professor Tsypkin presented a rather spec-
ulative paper on a unified theory of cyber-
netics. He referred to three models for con-
trol systems: deterministic, stochastic, and
self-adaptive, and to the diverse methods of
analysis, synthesis, and optimization which
have been applied to these models. He then
spoke about a new method he has developed
which embodies mathematical programming,
stochastic approximation, and optimization
theory. This method is claimed to allow the
study of control systems, learning systems,
and pattern recognition systems from a uni-
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fLreLFzE,
fled point of view. Although he had, at that
time, only succeeded in solving problems
which have already been solved by other
methods, he seemed confident that his new
method could be useful in attacking unsolved
general problems of cybernetics.
Substantive topics discussed included op-
timal systems, where the emphasis still seemed
to be concentrated on the restricted class of
problems amenable to analytical synthesis, al-
though there were two papers which dealt
with computational aspects of optimization.
Optimal control of distributed parameter sys-
tems also was discussed in two presentations.
The two sessions on the theory of nonlinear
systems were devoted to two major topics:
stability conditions for nonlinear systems and
the theory and design of control systems with
variable structure. This latter topic, which
has been extensively studied by Emel'yanov
and his co-workers at the Institute of Auto-
matics and Telemechanics, deals mainly with
switching feedback structures which can
cause the overall system to operate in the so-
called "sliding mode," i.e., a regime where the
feedback structure is switched rapidly and
the system state "slides" toward equilibrium
along the switching boundary. One of the
advantageous aspects of such a design is the
fact that while in the "sliding mode" the over-
all system response is insensitive to variable
or unknown plant parameters, and is deter-
mined entirely by controllable feedback pa-
rameters. Much of the research on such sys-
tems has been concerned with extending the
analysis to higher order systems, designing
the proper switching hyperplanes for such
systems, and obtaining theoretical conditions
for the existence of sliding modes.
In the three sessions devoted to statistical
methods in control theory there were an un-
usually large number of papers on the prob-
lem of optimal control of stochastic systems
indicating considerable research activity on
this very difficult subject in optimal control
theory. To US observers at the meeting, the
formulation and approach seemed to be on
a somewhat more practical statistical design
basis than the work being done in the US.
Stochastic control is an extremely impor-
tant subject. It is involved in handling the
complexities of the control of large systems
characterized by uncertainties. The theory
used in approaching such systems realistically
is the theory of probability, of which the
theory of stochastic processes is a chapter.
The uncertainties arise because of errors in
measurement, in data processing, in control,
and in formulation. In order to take these
into account, a theory of stochastic processes
is required. Although this theory was created
in the US, the most significant work is now
being done in the USSR by I. V. Romanovsky,
L. I. Rozonoev, R. L. Stratonovich, N. N. Kra-
sovsky, and A. A. Fel'dbaum.
The theory of stochastic processes intro-
duces random variables with known proba-
bility distributions to simulate some of the
features of uncertainty in actual processes.
In connection with the interception problem,
for example, it is necessary to determine a
number of unknown parameters, e.g., what
is it?, where did it come from? This can be
done on the basis of sequential estimation,
"learning," at the same time decisions are
made. These are particular cases at the
juncture of stochastic control theory and
adaptive processes, to which Fel'dbaum gave
the name "dual control processes" which have
great relevance to military operations.
In addition to the regular sessions of the
Technical Cybernetics Conference there were
special discussions devoted to the adjunct
fields of automata theory, learning systems,
pattern recognition, and to applications of
cybernetics to large-scale systems. The gen-
eral impression formed by US attendees was
that most of the computer control work in
the Soviet Union is still in the planning stage,
or in the limited application stage where the
computer is used as a data processing and
display unit for the improvement of manual
control, but not in the closed-loop control
stage.17
Following the technical cybernetics confer-
ence by five days was the Second Scientific
Conference on Neuro-Cybernetics of the
Schools of Higher Education at Rostov-on-
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Don. Cosponsors of this conference with the
Cybernetics Council were the Ministry of
Higher and Secondary Specialized Education
of the USSR; the Ministry of Higher and Sec-
ondary Specialized Education of the RSFSR;
the Scientific Council on the Problems of
Physiology, USSR Academy of Sciences; and
the Rostov State University.
The bureaucratic stature and multiplicity
of the conference sponsors, the academic
stature of many members of its organizing
committee, and the comprehensiveness of its
agenda all testify to the rapidly increasing
significance attached by the Soviets to neuro-
cybernetics. Sections were devoted to the or-
ganization of functional brain systems; elec-
trophysiological correlates of behavior; models
of psychophysiological structures and behav-
ioral processes; and heuristic programming.
That there was a section on heuristic pro-
gramming is of significance; the Soviets are
late-comers to this field. Most of the papers
dealing with heuristic programming were pre-
sented by personnel of the Laboratory of In-
formation Processes of the Brain, Moscow
State University (MGU). Since 1959 the
MGU group has been analyzing those param-
eters that are present in the structure of in-
formational situations and which provide pos-
sibilities for use in the formulation of search
strategies (algorithms or heuristics) for prob-
lem solving or pattern recognition. The re-
ports reveal that, in general, the Soviet ap-
proaches to heuristic programming are sim-
ilar to and based upon US work. Somewhat
distinctive is the obvious Soviet attempt to
identify the neurological and psycho-physio-
logical bases of heuristic modes of behavior.
Napalkov described the development of
EPSS (Heuristic Program for Self-Organiza-
tion and Self-Teaching). It consists of a sys-
tem of intercoordinated subroutines of vari-
ous levels, each of which organizes and mon-
itors the program of a lower level. He claims
that EPSS is well suited to self-organization
in cases of complex, multilevel bounded en-
vironments where the applicability of other
programs of different types is shown to be
impossible.
In analyzing the heuristics used by man in
chess playing, 0. K. Tikhomirov and his as-
sociates made movies of players' eye move-
ments and cyclographic recordings of touch-
and-feel movements of blind players. The re-
search indicated that one of these motor func-
tions (eye and hand movements) consists of
"recall" of particular configuration possibili-
ties at different stages, and that there is a
direct reflection in motor functions of those
alternatives which the person has specifically
studied. Subjects were found to fix attention
to some "zone of operations" which changes
constantly in accordance with the game situ-
ation and forecasts of progress based upon
a heuristic of the player. A comparison with
a verbal account shows that there is reflected
in the subjects' motor activity a much larger
number of playback moves than the subjects'
verbal account indicates. This suggests two
interacting levels of play selection based upon
reducing search possibilities which are un-
duplicated in any existing machine programs
for chess playing.
Emotional states were also considered by
Tikhomirov as a component of heuristics. He
continuously monitored galvanic skin resist-
ance (GSR) of subjects in problem solving
situations and found that an abrupt and
sharply expressed drop in skin resistance oc-
curred when the subject "had a new idea"
or "found the solution." These emotional re-
sponses precede the conscious evaluation of
the "idea" which are made afterwards. These
results suggest that evaluation of the emo-
tional component define and limit the zone of
the subsequent search and thereby serve as
heuristics.
Speakers discussed the problem of defining
the characteristics of and the relationships
between conscious and unconscious activity
in problem solving activity as these relate to
heuristic programming. The solution to this
problem according to V. N. Pushkin is con-
nected with neurocybernetics applications of
the concept of internal or brain models of
objects and the realities of the external world.
Man's ideas or images can be examined as
informational cognitive models of reality, each
of which represents a complex cognitive sys-
tem that embraces verbal, motor, and graphic
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components. Dynamic information models
of the problem situation are created in man's
brain during the definition stages of problem-
solving. However, even in this case there re-
mains an unresolved question: why are some
manifestations of the operation of a dynamic
model perceived, while others remain unper-
ceivable? This question leads to a wider prob-
lem: just how is man's conscious activity a
unique psycho-physiological process of the
brain? Studies of problem-solving and of
creative activity in science and technology by
Pushkin lead to his formulation of a cyber-
netic scheme in which intra-gray-matter self-
regulation is considered an internal mech-
anism for such activity. From the viewpoint
of this scheme, the totality of the information
models in the brain of man, with their oral,
visual, and motor components, represents
control systems, the functioning of which is
regulated by a control block in the brain
(a gray-matter regulator). The problem con-
fronting the person is represented in this reg-
ulator from the viewpoint of some existing
model in the person's brain. There is a basis
for thinking that the gray-matter regulator
in turn represents a complex system, and,
thus, that the control of the problem-solving
process is carried out at several different
levels.
The forward part of the frontal lobe is hy-
pothecated to be a higher-order regulator of
gray-matter modeling activity. The follow-
ing anatomical and clinical phenomena lend
support to this proposition: (i) the afferent
and efferent fibers which connect this portion
of the brain with the other regions of the
cortex; (ii) the specific mental aberrations of
frontal lobe diseases, the essential feature of
which is an inability to come to grips with a
problem and the absence of intellectual aware-
ness; (iii) the impairment of control over
one's thinking processes in schizophrenia and
the characteristic alterations in the behavior
of patients after a lobotomy.
Thus, the cortex, as a regulator for the
organism and its behavior in the surrounding
world, can itself be thought of as a unique
self-controlling system, consisting of a regu-
lator for controlling an object and of feed-
back channels between them. The conscious
10
activity of a man in the process of solving a
creative problem is a function of the inter-
action of the gray-matter regulator with the
brain's information models. When the proc-
ess of modeling items from the external world
finds a match in the gray-matter regulator,
the problem solution is perceived. In those
cases where the components of the problem
solution are not perceived, the dynamic mod-
els in the brain function autonomously.
The vital element of any control process is
the image of the object in the regulator.
Therefore, the explication of the structure of
the language of intra-gray-matter regulation,
by means of which an image of the informa-
tion control models is maintained in the reg-
ulator, is one of the important tasks facing
contemporary neurocybernetic research into
the mechanisms of heuristic activity. It can
be presumed that this same language is uti-
lized for encoding a problem situation pre-
sented to a person, the resultant solution to
which is a function of creative (heuristic)
activity. Another important problem here is
that of investigating the different levels of
the regulation process in the major cortical
hemispheres during problem-solving.
The experiments of Pushkin's group leads
them to the conclusion that research on the
role of the brain's design of informational
models in effective self-regulation is the path
to solution of a whole series of practical ques-
tions of heuristic programming which US in-
vestigators have left unanswered.* Abstracts
of the proceedings of the Neurocybernetics
Conference reveal that the Soviets left un-
answered the basic problem to which the
meeting was addressed: how to create "an
artificial intellect." The proceedings do tes-
tify, however, to the fact that mathema-
ticians, psychologists, engineers, and physi-
cians from major cities of the USSR and from
Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslo-
vakia, and Yugoslavia are at least talking
about the problem."
* M. Gaaze-Rapaport, a member of the Cyber-
netics Council, reported at the Second All-Union
Symposium on Cybernetics (Tbilisi, 24-27 November
1965) that the Soviets are trying to construct com-
plex machine modeling units based on Pushkin's
hypothesis about the formation in the human brain
of some approximate model of the outside world.
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Regular meetings of the Cybernetics Coun-
cil were convened during 1965 on a bi-weekly
basis. The proceedings of these sessions are
not published. But accounts of Soviet activi-
ties in specialized fields occasionally refer in
retrospect to the role of council meetings in
the development of programs in those research
areas. An ad hoc council meeting on teach-
ing machines and programmed instruction is
a case in point. During 1961 when Soviet
research on these teaching aids was nil, a
group of Soviet educators and psychologists
attended a UNESCO meeting on programmed
instruction and other modern approaches to
the tutorial process. They came away con-
vinced that adoption of these new method-
ologies was urgently needed by the USSR.
This conviction was communicated to the
Psychology Section of the Cybernetics Council
which then convened a meeting on the matter
which subsequently passed on its favorable
recommendations to the Council for Coordi-
nation of Science and Technology. There,
after additional and broader discussions, a de-
cision was made to adopt the new techniques,
and the recommendation was passed on to the
Minister of Higher and Secondary Specialized
Education of the RSFSR. He in turn issued
a directive to establish research programs to
provide a scientific basis for improving the
educational methodology of the USSR. Simi-
lar chronologies could be described for the
adoption of heuristic programming, PERT,
and for various other tools of scientific man-
agement about which recommendations were
transmitted via this channel.
THEORETICAL CYBERNETICS DEVELOPMENTS
(PATTERN RECOGNITION)*
General
The most significant tendency of the Soviet
cybernetics program observed during 1965
was toward collaborative research involving
some of the best mathematicians, biologists,
engineers, and psychologists of the USSR.
Representative of these efforts is research on
* Because this report is a general survey of events
in the cybernetics program and not a comprehen-
sive account of Soviet cybernetics research activ-
ities, only one sample of the significant trends ob-
served during the year is discussed.
pattern recognition, a field in which the in-
terdisciplinary approach has helped the So-
viets to reach a high plane of accomplish-
ment. Soviet work in pattern recognition was
selected as an exemplar of the interdiscipli-
nary research reviewed during 1965 because
of its centrality to a number of the cyber-
netics program's facets. The development of
heuristic programming, adaptive systems, and
other building blocks for cybernetic systems
share a common dependence on pattern rec-
ognition. As is true in heuristics, the meth-
ods used to distinguish patterns involve es-
sentially the use of rules of thumb selected
by a computer over a series of trials on the
sole basis that they seemed to work; that is,
they made discriminations of the sort desired
by the computer programmer. The tie of pat-
tern recognition devices to the design of self-
adaptive control systems is slightly more in-
volved. When unpredictable or excessively
rapid changes occur in the environment of a
control system such that ordinary system
identification (measurement and interpreta-
tion) and subsequent optimal control based
on it, become difficult, one must resort to sta-
tistical assumptions as to most likely values,
i.e., a probability distribution. On this basis
a decision has then to be made on the proper
control for ,optimization; this indicates that
a control policy or law has to be set up. "De-
cision-adaptive" is the name given to con-
trollers of this sort by some US scientists.
Where the probability distribution is not
known at the outset, the use of a learning
decision-adaptive controller is invoked. Meas-
urements are classified into a series of control
situations and suitable control policy is de-
cided on both the immediate control situation
and also on past control situations. In this
respect the decision-adaptive control system
is a pattern recognition device and a control
situation is a particular pattern of the plant
environment. It is the aim of the control
to recognize the pattern and from it to decide
the control law which will give an optimum.
Pattern recognition is related also to in-
formation theory. A collection of scientific
works devoted to this aspect of pattern recog-
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nition associated with noiseproof coding of
information and allied problems was published
during the year by the Institute of Informa-
tion Transmission Problems, Academy of
Sciences, USSR.19
The study of man, the archetypical pattern
recognition system, is at the root of this
research problem. Even untrained human
beings are credited with the ability to recog-
nize a person's identity from the pattern of
his handwriting, of his voice, or of his writing
or singing style. Early work in pattern rec-
ognition stemmed from an admiration of the
facility of humans to learn with ease these
common patterns, and from an admiration of
their high degree of accuracy in recognizing
the patterns in different handwriting and
thereby to identify the authors.
The scientific field of automatic pattern rec-
ognition grew from the vague notions of look-
ing for the common patterns and from at-
tempts to construct machines that can recog-
nize patterns to approximate, in performance,
the ability of humans to do the same. Its
two major problems, namely, "machine learn-
ing" and "recognition" or classification were
distinguished several years earlier in the US
than in the Soviet Union. Some scientists
in pattern recognition argue that if humans
(or even simple biological systems) can do
pattern recognition with ease, then one ought
to model biological systems by a partial simu-
lation of their internal structures and perhaps
similar performance might result. The term
"bionics" is applied to work based on this
premise.
Another group of pattern recognition work-
ers considers that "learning" and "recogni-
tion" problems of pattern recognition can be
formulated in mathematical terms as prob-
lems of recognition of membership in classes,
and that some solutions can be obtained
through the application of one of the mathe-
matical disciplines such as group theory, set
theory, Boolean algebra, integral geometry,
communication theory, statistical decision
theory, and others. The common starting
point of each of these methods is to represent
an input by a set of measurements, variously
12
called features, receptors, parameters, coordi-
nate dimensions, clues, properties or attri-
butes. Each input that belongs to a given
class can be regarded as a vector in a vector
space and is located at a point defined by the
set of measurements. A class is a collection
of points scattered in some manner in the
vector space (often referred to as observation
or measurement space). Members of two dif-
ferent classes, A and B, are distributed, in
general, in different manners in the space.
Machine learning (or learning what the pat-
tern is) is regarded by all of the above disci-
plines as the problem of determining the best
shape and location of regions in the vector
space so that A's and B's should become sep-
arated into regions called A and B. Pattern
recognition or classification is the act of nam-
ing the region (A or B) in which the meas-
urements made on a new input are contained.
The three parts of pattern recognition sys-
tems are illustrated by the block diagram in
figure 1. This shows the observation system
that represents the input by a set of meas-
urements. The methods used to process in-
puts of known classification to discover their
common pattern and thus to develop a good
partition of the vector space is referred to
as "learning." The act of evaluating a new
input to decide in which partition of the space
it is contained is performed by the classifica-
tion or recognition system. In the final anal-
ysis all recognition systems can be regarded
as table look-ups for they all associate a pre-
viously stored decision with each possible in-
put and for the same input they always render
the same decision. Of course, there are major
differences in the manner in which different
recognition systems store the decisions that
should be made at any one of an infinite num-
ber of points in the vector space while they
possess only a finite capacity of information
storage. The important difference between
different pattern recognition techniques, how-
ever, is not in the recognition system but in
the learning system where the way in which
partitions are obtained from the learning
samples and where the restrictions on the
type of obtainable partitions are determined.
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ENVIRONMENT
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OBSERVATION
LVN
4�=1,1 vi
54325 6-66
SYSTEM
RECOGNITION
SYSTEM
"LEARNING MACHINE"
Figure 1. General pattern recognition system
A comprehensive discussion of these and
other fundamental aspects of the theory of
pattern recognition and its application to the
design of reading automata was published
during the year by the Laboratory of Reading
Automata, Institute of Cybernetics, Academy
of Sciences, Ukrainian SSR.2� A wide circle
of problems related to the theory of pattern
recognition, modeling of various algorithms
and discriminating systems on electronic com-
puters, and to the design of reading automata
are examined in this handbook. In addition,
reading automata and their components
which were developed and manufactured in
the Institute of Cybernetics, Academy of Sci-
ences, Ukrainian SSR are discussed. Al-
though this handbook was published during
1965, it describes work done in the 1963-64
period by V. A. Kovalevskiy, M. I. Shlezinger,
L. A. Svyatogor, V. K. Yeliseyev and others.
Its value lies in its usefulness as a source of
background data to complement the 1965 re-
search in pattern recognition.
Psychobiological Approaches
An algorithm for pattern recognition de-
scribed by A. G. Frantsuz is said to simulate
certain features of the human pattern recog-
nition system.21 It is made up of minimiza-
tion of the description (reduction to separa-
tion without selection of a subspace which is
optimal in some sense) , and construction in
this subspace of a local decision rule. Fran-
tsuz notes that there are some analogies be-
tween this algorithm and the functional al-
gorithm for recognition of shapes by biologi-
cal analyzers. Although the limitations of
the possible analogies are not established,
Frantsuz is apparently working along those
lines; a paper on the subject by him and his
colleagues at the Military Medical Academy
imeni S. M. Kirov was presented at a sym-
posium there on cybernetics and clinical med-
icine during 1964.
Pattern recognition as it relates to problem
solving by humans has been a concern of
I. M. Gel'f and, a mathematician, and of M. L.
Tsetlin, an engineer, since at least 1962. In
developing mathematical programming meth-
ods for finding a minimum of a function of
many variables and for searching for min-
ima, they chose to study the way men and
animals solve such problems. This approach
was taken for the reason discussed below.
In general, a perfect model of a complex tech-
nical system which one might wish to control
is unsatisfactory because it is too complex.
It is necessary to have some measures of what
control variables are important and of the
effectiveness of the system. Animal opera-
tions in natural environments involve a mas-
sive number of variables but only certain ones
are chosen as being of importance. Gel'fand
and Tsetlin are trying to model this selection
procedure in what is tantamount to a general
model of how the brain finds a local region of
control in phase space. Although this prob-
lem may be amenable to analysis, solution
algorithms are too complex. Therefore,
oblique algorithms are sought such as one for
finding the minimum of a function of many
variables. Now the problem of finding the
extremum of a function of more than five
variables is probably an impossible task even
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---SreRET,
on computers unless help is forthcoming from
insights into the patterns or organization pro-
cedures used by man. Gel'fand, head of the
research group: Regulatory Mechanisms of
the Central Nervous System at the Institute
of Neurosurgery imeni N. N. Burdenko, is try-
ing to gain such insights into physiological
control mechanisms for subsequent improve-
ment of mathematical programming for use
in artificial control systems. He also con-
tinues his association with the Mathematics
Institute of Moscow State University and the
Institute of Biological Physics of the Academy
of Sciences, USSR.
From his analyses of organisms as if they
were optimizing automata exposed to a
changeable environment, and from detailed
investigations of what types of functions of
available inputs are used for optimization of
overall criteria, Gel'fand's group is develop-
ing new mathematical programming methods.
Decision makers in the Soviet economy may
use these methods in situations such as the
following: the computation of a global ex-
14
tremum in nonconvex programming problems
faced by economists requires a determination
of all local extrema and a comparison at the
corresponding values of objective functions.
Gel'f and's group is contributing approximate
methods for the computer solution of special
classes of nonconvex extremal problems as
a result of their neurocybernetic research.
That they have not yet developed general
methods for the computer solution of noncon-
vex nonlinear problems is probably attribut-
able in part to the incompleteness of their
hypothesis about the computational and pat-
tern recognition systems employed by the
brain.22-25
The influence of emotional factors on pat-
tern recognition and other psychic factors was
incorporated in a model developed at the Kiev
Institute of Cybernetics.26 It is a simple, sim-
ulated model (see figure 2) for information
processing based on the interaction of two
types of programs, "intellectual" and "emo-
tional." The intellectual program is devel-
oped to reflect certain logical principles, and
Output word
Input
Interaction
Response
Analysis
Input word unit
unit
unit
unit
�
Emotional
54326 6-66
background
Emotion unit 14-
Short-term
memory
unit
Jr
Permanent
memory
unit
r4
NOTE: Arrows show path of information transmission.
Heavy solid lines indicate "intellectual" program.
Thin lines indicate -emotional" program.
Dotted lines show feedbacks.
Figure 2. Block Diagram of Amosov's model of the Psyche
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-"EeRE.T_
the emotional program is developed to reflect
the relation of reality to the needs and mo-
tives underlying emotional behavior. The
emotional program is based on the behavior
of a given person. The intellectual program
of the model under consideration is designed
to recognize words and phrases, and the emo-
tional program takes into account certain
features of behavior and memory organiza-
tion. The emotional program on the basis
of input word analysis, that is, "harmful-use-
ful" or "pleasant-unpleasant," affects or even
changes the intellectual program, and the
latter in turn affects emotion development.
The intellectual program is capable of improv-
ing its solutions on the basis of changes in
the permanent memory unit.
Bionics Approaches
The Cybernetics Council's Bionics Section
published the first comprehensive Soviet col-
lection of articles on bionics during 1965.27
The bionics effort as revealed therein is con-
cerned mostly with the construction of ma-
chines which can perform those information
processing functions which are the bases of
pattern recognition and related activities in
a manner analogous to the way living systems
perform such activities. Interrelated in such
research are scientists who study natural
phenomena and mathematicians and engi-
neers who use the results of these studies as
the bases for the construction of machine
analogies of the natural information trans-
formation functions. Thus, for example,
studies of the pattern recognition apparatus
in living systems become the bases for the
construction of self-teaching, adaptive ma-
chines. An experimental model of one such
machine is shown in figure 3. This automa-
ton which learns to recognize visual patterns
was designed by Ye. K. Aleksandrov and his
associates.
In a similar vein, research on natural neu-
rons, neuron nets, receptors, and analyzors
has been translated into hardware models
which carry out the information transforma-
tion functions of the living prototypes after
which the hardware is modeled. To cite a
few examples of these research and engineer-
ing activities, E. K. Kazimirov has created a
mathematical model of a neuron and using
transistors constructed a working hardware
model on the basis of the mathematical
scheme. V. G. Totsenko and B. M. Yegorov
constructed networks from artificial neurons
and are now concerned with increasing the
54327 6-66
Figure 3. Experiniental model of a self-teaching automaton for visual pattern recognition
15
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reliability of such assemblies. The studies by
I. B. Gutchin and A. S. Kuzichev on the re-
liability of natural neuron nets are contribut-
ing to efforts to improve the reliability of
artificial nets. A more ambitious project to
model the human psyche has arrived at the
stage at which a rather gross block diagram
of the information transformation functions
of the human brain has been formu1ated.28-32
Mathematical Approaches
Ya. I. Khurgin and V. I. Loginov have re-
ported on a number of algorithms for divid-
ing objects into classes in a manner analo-
gous to the way the brain learns to process
a series of representative of these classes.
They view the problem of division of objects
into classes as equivalent to the problem of
selection of a class of functionals like M = (f),
separating the forms into the corresponding
space, and subsequent selection in class M of
the functional f�, which minimizes the defined
conditions, such as the probability of error.
The selection of functional f�, is performed on
the basis of the available data by use of a
teaching sequence. The problem of form rec-
ognition, from the probability theory point of
view, therefore amounts to development of a
deciding rule for differentiation of hypotheses
under conditions when only the empirical dis-
tribution is known. An algorithm of recog-
nition is presented by Khurgin and Loginov
which realizes the minimum probability of
error.33
The problem of pattern recognition is ex-
pressed by V. A. Kovalevskiy as a statistical
statement. It is formed in terms of the min-
imization of risk with production of experi-
mental data characterizing unknown param-
eters of some laws of probability distribution.
This statement of the problem allows produc-
tion of evaluations of the minimal length of
a teaching sequence. The evaluations pro-
duced for the length of teaching lead to the
conclusion of the importance of the role of
a priori limitations applied to the results of
teaching -before the beginning of the experi-
ment. The use of a hierarchy of rules for
solution, ordered as to complexity, allows pro-
duction of an algorithm which will provide
for a certain result with a period of teaching
16
as short as needed. Although Kovalevskiy
agrees that this approach cannot solve the
problems involved in creating what he calls
a "universal learning automaton," he believes
that by integrating his ideas with the per-
ception approach of certain US scientists, a
practical, applied method for construction of
teaching and self-teaching machines is feas-
ible."
Heuristic rules are judged by F. D. Pe-
trovsky to be a good approach to the form
identification problem. He finds that the
identification rules based on successive deter-
minations of the membership in some class
of forms of one of the forms in the set pro-
duced do not allow production of potentially
effective identification algorithms. He sug-
gests a potentially effective identification rule
for the set of forms produced with sets of
forms defined on the basis of learning and
analyzes heuristic modifications of the op-
timal rule which are convenient for realiza-
tion of identification algorithms on com-
puters.3'
The use of a pattern recognition system
as a self-organizing system�a corrector with
feedback�in systems for the control of multi-
dimensional processes is recommended by
A. G. Ivakhnenko. In an analysis of the prob-
lem of extremal control of a multidimensional
object under the influence of perturbation
matrix it and control action matrix p., the
quality index sa is measured continuously, but
can take on only two values�"satisfactory"
and "control." Technological considerations
of set-correlation (regressive) analysis can
produce the optimal astatic characteristic of
the object, determining the maximum of the
quality index p. =ck (A) where = cp max'.
The closed (determined) portion of the sys-
tem is calculated according to this character-
istic. However, due to inexact determination
of the characteristics of the object and change
of its parameters in the process of operation,
it is necessary to join a self-organizing portion
to the closed portion of the system. For this
purpose Ivakhnenko suggests a recognition
system similar to those used for differentia-
tion of letters or speech sounds. The system
does not require design and is based on very
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little initial information on the object. It
is sufficient to know that there is a single ex-
treme and that the line of the "poles" of the
recognition system intersects the astatic char-
acteristic. This information is contained
with an excess in the data produced for de-
sign of the closed portion.
With the expansion of the matrices into
lines, the spatial problem is reduced to a prob-
lem on the plane 14.'�x' (generalized regulat-
ing action�generalized perturbation). The
order of the expansion of the matrices into
lines is selected so that the astatic character-
istic of the object is produced with a steady
increase. In the process of operation of the
object, this type of curve may be disrupted,
but only to such an extent that the extreme
peak can still be divided into a series of "situ-
ations" with straight or broken lines.
Algorithms are used for self-teaching of the
recognition system after which it functions as
a self-tuning model of the object for correc-
tion of the characteristics of the closed por-
tion. Ivakhnenko presented results of such
modeling of processes of self-teaching or rec-
ognition systems at the Third All-Union Con-
ference on Automatic Control: Technical Cy-
bernetics.36
Like Ivakhnenko,. Yu. N. Chekhovoy and
I. P. Kerekesner conisder the place of pattern
recognition systems in control systems. They
suggest a combined self-teaching automatic
control system for transient objects consist-
ing of a multidimensional connection with
perturbing actions Mo = f (I) [*] and teach-
ing feedback, which connects the functional
dependence [*] in the memory of the system.
Here M, is the optimal value of the control
actions vector, T is the perturbing actions
vector. The formation of the connections
r] is accomplished by a recognition system
which learns to divide space L into areas
within whose limits there is no need to change
the control actions vector. These areas are
called situations.
The algorithm for recognition of situations
and the algorithms for teaching the system
suggested by the authors are analyzed. It is
shown that teaching the recognition of situa-
tions is a simple Markovian process. The
Markovian process theory apparatus is used
for analysis of the convergence of the process
of teaching. The investigations of conver-
gence are illustrated with examples. Experi-
mental dependencies of the probability of
error in recognition on the number of steps
in the teaching process and on the param-
eters of the algorithms analyzed are produced
as a result of the modeling of the suggested
algorithms. It is shown that the fixed ter-
minal value of probability of error in recogni-
tion does not depend on the initial state of
the system.37
A significant result in pattern classification
was derived in a recent article by Ayzerman,
Braverman, and Rozonoer.39 The result is es-
sentially as follows. Consider the variables
xi forming a pattern vector X. The vector X
can belong to either one of the two classes
A or B. Let the probability that X belongs
to A be denoted by D (x) and assume that
D(x) = C* (x) where the ( x ) are
1=1
members of a known orthonormal set of func-
tions. The Ayzerman-Braverman-Rozonoer al-
gorithm says that D (x) can be computed
recursively by successive approximations
through the use of the Novikoff training pro-
cedure with a randomized correction feature.
The application of the method of potential
functions to the pattern recognition problem
as first outlined by M. A. Ayzerman is prob-
ably the major mathematical contribution of
the Soviets to the problem of teaching auto-
mata to separate input situations into classes.
During 1965, Ya. L. Tsypkin 40 discovered the
proximity between problems which are solv-
able by the method of potential functions
and the problems analyzed in the theory of
stochastic approximations. Ayzerman and
his coworkers responding to Tsypkin's discov-
ery carried out a detailed analysis of the in-
terconnection between the method of poten-
tial functions and the Robbins-Monro proc-
ess but not the other methods of the theory
of stochastic approximations. In addition to
their other results, they found that the
method of potential functions can be realized
by means of a computer or a perceptron, while
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the Robbins-Monro procedure can be realized
only by a perceptron. From these analyses
Ayzerman also concluded that Tsypkin's dis-
covery forms a basis for believing that a more
general theory covering a wide range of such
problems will be developed.41
The Soviets have designed pattern recog-
nition devices which embody such form-recog-
nition algorithms. One such special purpose
computer was noted as an achievement at the
year-end review of activities of the Depart-
ment of Mechanics and Control Processes,
Academy of Sciences, USSR. This depart-
ment, administered by B. V. Petrov, also
head of the Technical Cybernetics Section, Cy-
bernetics Council, is reported to have designed
a computer capable of recognizing and distin-
guishing squares, circles, and triangles. The
department announced in a recent broadcast
that they hope for a machine able to scan
complex blueprints and then control ma-
chines manufacturing the components set
out in these blueprints.42
A second example taken from the many dis-
cussed in a 1965 Soviet book on reading de-
vices 43 is a character reader built by the Vil-
nius Computing Machinery Plant for scan-
ning alphanumeric text. At the beginning of
1963, the Computer Center of the Lithuanian
Academy of Sciences commissioned a "BESM-
2M" computer which made possible the elim-
ination of punched cards and the direct
coupling of the reader with the computer.
Similar work was performed at the Institute of
Cybernetics, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences,
where the reader was connected to a "Kiev"-
type computer (a BESM-2M). These ex-
periences suggest that the best method for in-
puting masses of data into a computer is by
such direct couplings of reader and computer.
Soviet approaches to the pattern recogni-
tion problem are, therefore, via the mathe-
matical programming of psychological opera-
tions on the one hand and, on the other, the
simulation of brain structures involved in pat-
tern recognition systems, thereby simulating
the integrated physical and psychical appa-
ratuses involved in human pattern recogni-
tion activity. Pattern recognition research is
illustrative of the Soviet trend observed dur-
18
ing 1965 toward interdisciplinary research.
But it is only part of a larger program for
the realization of "universal automata" des-
tined for use in the optimal control of com-
plex, purposeful, and dynamic systems. Fig-
ure 4 illustrates (with broken lines) the prob-
lem which must be resolved if the over-all cy-
bernetics program is to accomplish its goal.
TECHNICAL CYBERNETICS DEVELOPMENTS
Computer Technology
In May 1965 the Soviets revealed their
largest known computer, the BESM-6. This
machine has been evaluated as a marked
advance in the Soviet computer-engineering
art, incorporating all-solid-state construction,
speeds more commensurate with special appli-
cation demands than in any previously known
Soviet machine (up to 1,000,000 opns/sec) ,
input-output units on a par with equivalent
US equipment which has been available for 6
years, time sharing design capabilities and
other interesting features.
The machine's instruction repertoire in-
cludes a very efficient approach to address se-
lection, some special instructions for handling
real-time data, facility for doing "significant
arithmetic" and so on. In addition to being
a valuable asset for geileral purpose use in
solving scientific and engineering problems, it
should be well-suited to specialized applica-
tions requiring a large volume of calculations
(e.g., in economics, telemetry, tracking, etc.)
and for work in pattern recognition and pic-
torial-data smoothing.45-48
The URAL class of computers was expanded
with the introduction of models with the des-
ignations 11, 12, 14, and 16. These machines
are members of a series of compatible com-
puters out of Penza. The compatibility fea-
ture and their availability makes these new
machines suitable for incorporation into the
networks, parallel systems and in the other
types of multi-machine configurations under
consideration by Soviet systems designers.
Coupled to native Soviet capabilities in com-
puter technology is an intensive program for
exploitation and publication of Western re-
search and development. This is indicated in
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54328 6-66
Major problem area
toward "Universal Automatons"
Mathematical Models
of
Information-Transformation
Behavior
(Heuristic programs, etc.)
Meta.
mathematical
Theory
I Uniting Structure
�
and
Behavior /
�
Physical Models of
Information-Transformation
Structures
(perceptrons, etc.)
Figure 4. Schematic illustration of a major problem area in cybernetics
a recent volume which contains articles on
the architecture and serviceability of the
IBM/360 and a discussion of automation of
solid-state logic design in the US computer
industry.49 Even more representative of the
scope of Soviet exploitation of US computer
know-how is the section in the Ref erativnyy
Zhurnal: Kibernetika devoted to computers.
This source is replete every month with ref-
erences to the world's stock of computer
theory and technology. Assuming that (1)
Soviet scientific and technical talents are ex-
emplified in the BESM-6 computer described
above, (2) the intensive program for exploita-
tion of theory and machines produced else-
where is digested by Soviet theorists and engi-
neers; and that (3) an importation program
of increasing size is underway, leads to the
conclusion that the present Soviet data proc-
essing and computer weaknesses are due to
inadequacies in production technology at the
industry level rather than to a lack of scien-
tific know-how.
Systems Research and Engineering
Technological progress involving the utiliz-
ation of computers depends in great measure
upon the solution of very fundamental prob-
lems in the area of systems science and engi-
neering. The speed, compactness, memory-
size and speed of access to memories and other
characteristics of computers are increasing
rapidly in the USSR. The Soviet industrial
sector will gradually but certainly improve its
capabilities for producing newer types of ma-
chines which will incorporate advanced char-
acteristics. But a more difficult problem re-
mains: how to employ these machines in in-
formation and control modes in complexly or-
ganized systems? Soviet system scientists,
during 1965, presented solutions to a number
of such problems as they are encountered at
various levels of the production process. In
a more theoretical manner they have also
studied larger-scale problems at the level of
large regions and at the level of the national
economy as a whole. Addressing themselves
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�"S'EeREZ_
to systems problems of the foregoing types
have been experts in mathematical modeling
and programming, systems optimization, sta-
tistics and probability theory and in computer
theory and engineering.
The most valuable source of information
about these activities was published during
1965 in a compilation of papers presented
originally in November 1963 at a conference
on Automatic Operational Management of
of Production Processes.* This conference
which typifies the cybernetic approach was
held to coordinate research on scientific and
technological problems connected with the de-
velopment of systems irrespective of the
branch of industry involved and of the indus-
trial manufacturing peculiarities of individual
production facilities. Such problems involve:
(a) the construction of mathematical models
of complexes of production processes on the
basis of analyses of existing flows of informa-
tion in actual complexes; (b) the study of the
characteristics both of the individual elements
and of the connections between those elements
in systems; (c) methods and algorithms for
the processing of primary data which assure
a monitoring of events in a real complex of
production processes and a refinement of
their mathematical model; (d) algorithms for
finding optimal solutions in the form of pro-
duction graphs of the distribution of power
and material flows according to their quanti-
tative and qualitative indicators among pro-
duction sectors, solutions which satisfy some
predesignated criteria of optimality; (e)
methods and programs for finding optimal
solutions on general purpose and special pur-
pose computers; (f) technical means for the
collection, transmission and preliminary proc-
essing of information, means of presenting
generalized information to a human operator
and means of communication with automatic
actuating devices; and (g) methods of com-
pilation of technical tasks on special purpose
control computers and ancillary equipments.
* This conference was sponsored by the Section
of Technical Cybernetics of the Council on Cyber-
netics, Academy of Sciences, USSR, and the Section
of Control Systems of Industrial Enterprises of the
Interdepartmental Scientific Council on the Intro-
duction of Computer Techniques into the National
Economy under the State Committee for Coordina-
tion of Scientific Research Work.
20
The foregoing approaches are the building
blocks which go to make up what the Soviets
call the theory of large systems control. In
its content and methods this research trend
is connected with mathematics, the theory of
automatic control, computer technology, eco-
nomics, biology, psychology and a number of
other scientific disciplines. On account of the
variety of problems and methods for solving
them, the theory of large systems control is
regarded by the Soviets as a division of cy-
bernetics. The structure of the theory of
large systems control and its basic concepts
and terminology have not yet been established
in the USSR, just as systems theory in the
West remains at an embryonic level."
Among the systems which the Soviets re-
vealed during the year were the "IMPUL'S"
System, the PROKAT System, and a rolling
mill control system. All of these are either
operational or scheduled to become opera-
tional in the near future in concrete situa-
tions.
The "IMPUL'S" System was designed by
the Central Scientific Research Institute for
Overall Automation for the operative control
of a section of a metallurgical combine. A
control computer developed for this purpose
is made up of components used in the
RAZDAN-2 computer. Control problems put
to the system are classified, and methods for
their solution are developed, according to a
method based on the principle of optimality
developed by Richard Bellman of the Rand
Corporation. An algorithm for control of the
system is worked out, consisting of a set of
algorithmic sequences determining the reac-
tion of the system as it moves from one state
to another. The suggested principles for con-
struction of the system have been investigated
on a statistical model by the Monte Carlo
method. Synthesis was performed for the
control system; its structural plan, informa-
tion flows, functions, and technical data for
the main parts of the system have been
worked out; and a control computer has been
developed to serve as the main link in the
control system.
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At the present time, according to the So-
viets, the "IMPUL'S" System is being intro-
duced at an undesignated metallurgical com-
bine somewhere in the USSR. Due to the
introduction of this system, the combine it-
self has undergone considerable reconstruc-
tion, including its rail yard, and the instal-
lation of means for electrical centralization
of signals, locomotive communications, and
of a control dispatcher point supplied with
modern communications equipment where the
control computer will be installed.51
The PROKAT (rolling mill) computer con-
trol complex was slated to be installed in late
1965 in another of the large metallurgical
combines. Structurally, the PROKAT com-
puter control complex consists of three inter-
related automatic subsystems of control which
are united via a centralized data system and
by a centralized over-all controlling computer.
The local automatic systems containing
STAL-1 and STAL-2 computers control the
work of individual production sections. The
centralized data system with its computer,
possibly a TsUM-1, provides for the collection,
accumulation and processing of information
with the issuance of operational and techni-
cal documentation. The centralized controll-
ing computer regulates the interaction of the
local automatic control systems and monitors
and records inputs and outputs by the section
mill. The over-all control computer is a gen-
eral purpose machine with a speed on the
order of 5,000 operations per second.52
A comparable system for computer control
of a "1300" automatic blooming mill provides
automatic operational planning; automatic
optimization and realization of the operating
programs of individual groups of mechanisms;
optimal automatic tuning of the individual
controlling devices according to feedback of
the results of rolling; provision of high-
echelon control and coordination of the mech-
anisms of the mill; introduction of the sets
of orders; calculation and production of a "no-
waste cutting program;" automation of pro-
duction accounting of the mill; and determi-
nation of the production-economic indicators
of its operation. These tasks are solved by a
multi-machine, two-stage hierarchical system
of VNIIEM-3 control computers which are
combined into an over-all cybernetic control
system for direct automatic control of techno-
logical processes and of the subsystem for eco-
nomic planning and operative-dispatcher in-
f ormation.53
Soviet interest in applying computer con-
trol systems for industrial management was
highlighted in March 1965 when V. D.
Lebedev, then Deputy Chairman of the USSR
Sovnarkhoz, announced plans to modernize
management techniques by installing com-
puters at 119 plants and combines during
1965 and 1966. These plans are a natural
consequence of the recently intensified in-
terest of the Soviet leaders in improving the
efficiency of operational control of industries.
At industrial levels above individual shop
operations there are efforts underway to de-
velop broader-scale systems of control involv-
ing the use of computers. Thus for example,
one of the most rapidly growing uses of com-
puters in the USSR is in the construction in-
dustry, where they have been tried and found
effective in the planning and management of
large-scale industrial and housing construc-
tion projects. The computers are used in
conjunction with SPU (System of Planning
and Management) methods, the Soviet coun-
terpart of US-developed PERT (Program Eval-
uation and Review Technique). In Moscow,
a special communications system is being built
for the State Committee for Construction
(Gosstroy, USSR) which will permit direct in-
puts of information on the progress of con-
struction into Gosstroy's computer center,
where it will be used to process and update
PERT networks."
Software Developments
A computer input language for engineer-
ing calculations is under development by V. M.
Glushkov and his assistants at the Institute
of Cybernetics in Kiev." Information is read
into the machine, element by element, with
the help of a printed unit (keyboard) provided
with all the symbols of the input language.
Depressing a key of this unit inserts one
symbol into the location of the store, the same
symbol simultaneously being printed on a
sheet of paper. Results are read out of the
21
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machine by means of the same printing unit
and recorded on the same sheet of paper, just
after the recording of the program previously
read into the machine.
Limitations imposed by the size of the stor-
age unit may make it impossible to read in
the whole program at once. In this case the
problem has to be divided into sections and
solved in stages. The results of the initial
data of preceding stages may be used in the
next stage. To avoid repeated input of the
same information it is possible to partially
renew the programming while preserving the
results of the preceding stages. The Input
Language has much in common with ALGOL-
60 but at the same time differs from it in
having a simple program structure and a
modified syntax of declarations. Details of
the semantics and method of writing pro-
grams will be provided soon in a special
manual for machine users.
ALGOS, another software development, has
been described by V. T. Kulik and his associ-
ates from the Institute of Automation and
the Kiev Polytechnical Institute." ALGOS
(Algorithmic Description of Industrial Cyber-
netic Systems) is a special programming lan-
guage for automatic formation of computer
programs for controlling industrial processes.
ALGOS permits description of information
on complex industrial processes in a form
comprehensible to the engineer. The goal of
analysis of control of the production process
is written in the same language. If the initial
data are insufficient for solution of the prob-
lem, the machine will output a list of the in-
formation needed. When a priori data are
insufficient, a program may be formulated to
produce the necessary information by experi-
mentation. If the initial information is suffi-
cient, the machine will produce the solution
and output the data from digital modeling
of the operation of the production process
in the desired regime and with the desired
control machine characteristics. If the ma-
chine is supplied with information on avail-
able series-produced control machines, it will
automatically select from the possibilities sup-
plied the most suitable machines for per-
22
forming the control function. Algorithms of
the system constructed by the heuristic pro-
gramming method have been tested for com-
plex systems in the chemical, metallurgical
and power industries. Kulik recommends
ALGOS for use as a unified language oriented
toward production processes in the CEMA
countries.
The quest for Bloc-wide approaches to pro-
gramming languages extends beyond the
types oriented toward production processes to
include languages for economic problems. In
Berlin, during March 1965, two Bloc-wide
groups on algorithmic languages held meet-
ings: GAMS (Group for the Automation of
Programming of Intermediate Machines) and
GAYAPEI (Group for Algorithmic Languages
for the Processing of Economic Information) .
GAMS is trying to establish a modified
ALGOL-60 language (ALGAMS). GAYAPEI
is considering two languages, KOBOL-
GAYAPEI and ALGEK, for accounting and
economic decision-making purposes, respec-
tively.57
CONTRIBUTORY EUROPEAN SATELLITE
ACTIVITIES
Czechoslovakia
Cybernetic groups in the European Satel-
lites were actively engaged during 1965 with
programs to develop improved systems for
the guidance of social processes. In Czecho-
slovakia the Cybernetics Commission of the
Academy of Sciences completed the first phase
of a long-range research and development
program by holding the First Scientific Sym-
posium on Cybernetics at Smolenice.* The
program's second stage which began in 1965
calls for establishment of a Czech Cybernetics
Society; standardization of terminology; in-
clusion of cybernetics projects in the long-
range research and development programs of
ministries, schools, and institutes; an increase
in the volume of cybernetic publications; and
for the inclusion of curricula for cybernetics
in educational establishments. A new Insti-
tute of Labor of the Slovak Academy of Sci-
* This meeting was held in October 1964 but
reports were not received until 1965.
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�SECRET,
ences was created in Bratislava to study
human factors in relation to problems of sci-
entific management and organization of the
national economy.58
Hungary
The Hungarians established a Cybernetics
Committee under the Presidium of the Acad-
emy of Sciences and an Inter-institute Com-
plex Committee for Research on Automation
and for the Advancement of Cybernetics.
Hungarian emphasis seems to be on the bi-
omedical aspects of cybernetics. A joint cy-
bernetics center was established by Medicor
Muvek, a medical instrument factory, with
the Budapest Medical University. The Sci-
entific Society of Measurement Technology
and Automation devoted a conference to diag-
nostic computers and neurocybernetics. Buda-
pest was chosen by UNESCO for the neuro-
cybernetics conference sponsored in the spring
of 1965 by the International Brain Research
Organization. The Hungarian Academy of
Sciences established a well-equipped neuro-
cybernetics laboratory headed by Kalman Lis-
sak, an active campaigner for interdiscipli-
nary cooperation between the academy's in-
stitutes.* New cybernetics laboratories for
industrial research also were established dur-
ing 1965 at the Bolyai Institute of Szeged
University and at the Jozef-Attila University,
Szeged.58-82
Some Hungarians began to show interest
also in the social management aspects of cy-
bernetics during 1965. Concern with "guid-
ance systems for society" became evident with
the March 1965 issue of Valosag, Hungary's
sociology journal, which announced the be-
ginning of a debate in that journal concern-
ing such problems. Andras Hegedus, chair-
man of the editorial committee of Valosag,
came out for a radical recasting of social
guidance systems along scientific orga-
nizational-management lines. "Almost over-
night," he says, "the social scientists were
* One example of Lissak's success is the adapta-
tion for use in the neurocybemetics laboratory of
a transistorized 128-channel analyzer designed
originally for nuclear physics research by the Cen-
tral Physics Research Institute.
given freedom to examine critically the opera-
tional effectiveness of the state administrative
system and orders to carry out such investiga-
tions." The aim of empirical social research
in the view of Hegedus is to develop a guid-
ance system which seeks to optimize social
and economic decisions at every level of the
system through the use of information sys-
tems and mathematical techniques in select-
ing those variants most favorable for society.
Research on techniques for selecting leaders
trained in modern systems management was
also listed as a must.
Poland
Poland's Cybernetics Commission, directed
until his death in 1965 by Oskar Lange, has
been concerned mostly with the introduction
of computers into the economic and manage-
ment fields. Reports received during 1965 on
the content of Poland's 1966-70 Plan reveal
that the larger cities of Poland are to get 27
computing centers with a total of 57 com-
puters. Educational institutions are to be
allocated 48 computers to meet scientific, in-
dustrial, and educational requirements. Fifty
industrial centers for design and production
control machines are planned, and mining
and power engineering industries are to be
assigned 18 computers. Seventy-eight addi-
tional computers are to be assigned to a va-
riety of other, but as yet unspecified, activi-
ties. To lend manpower support to these
planned establishments, a special center is to
be created which will train 1,200 people a
year for electronic data processing, and five
new technical schools for training service and
maintenance personnel are to be set up. The
first of these new technical schools opened
during 1965.83 64
The National Management Development
Center in Warsaw is the key organization for
developing techniques for using the computer
centers as part of a cybernetic system of na-
tional economic management. This interna-
tionally-subsidized center is involved in the
cybernetics of planning according to Greniew-
ski in a primer on the subject for Western
readers.85
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East Germany
While continuing to emphasize cybernetics
as the basis of modern technology, the East
German Cybernetics Commission also began
during 1965 to concern itself with problems
of social management. The author of one
article in Einheit emphasized the hope that
cybernetics will be able to overcome bureauc-
racy in East Germany if the social scientists
improve their qualifications in cybernetics,
mathematics, and mathematical logic enough
to help the new economic system of planning
and management of the social system to suc-
ceed. The leadership of the SED (Sozio-
listische Einheitspartei Deutschlands) hopes,
according to one source, to develop cybernetics
as "the theoretical basis for scientific man-
agement and organization of production and
of the whole comprehensive socialist recon-
structions." 66 67
Some cyberneticians seem to be fostering
this movement in East Germany and in the
other Satellites. Soviet articles in the East
German publications, for example, extol the
social science which is resulting from the
merging of hitherto separate disciplines and
involving the application of cybernetics to the
management of social development systems.
The most recent article of this type entitled
"The Control of Social Processes and Cyber-
netics" was written by the Soviets L. B. Khal-
perin and P. N. Lebedev and published in the
East German journal, Statt und Recht (State
and Law) .68
Parenthetically, it is worth noting that one
Chinese Communist showed signs during 1965
that he was openly espousing cybernetics.
The author of what is probably the first re-
port received in the West from China on
the development of cybernetics, claims that
the course of this new science has followed
the pattern described by Mao Tse-Tung for
the progress of human knowledge. Only the
philosophy of Marx, Lenin, and, especially, of
Mao Tse-Tung is able, the author claims, to
properly guide the future course of progress
in cybernetics. Contrasted to the somewhat
ludicrous and largely historical and tutorial
content of this article is an account of the
24
contribution of H. S. Ch'ien* to the establish-
ment of engineering cybernetics as a discipline
likely to result in practical applications of the
science of information and control."
PHILOSOPHICAL ACTIVITIES
"Large Systems" and Social Guidance
The marked increase during 1965 in Soviet
interest in optimal control procedures for use
in the management of multidimensional,
multilevel, man-machine systems as such sys-
tems interact with complicated environments
has found expression as a separate discipline
devoted to "large systems." ** Members of
such classes of systems are made up of the
totality of interconnected controlled subsys-
tems united by a common control system.
One example, which is the most comprehen-
sive system of this class known to be under
construction in the USSR, is the so-called
Unified Information Network which is des-
tined to become the "nervous system" of the
Soviet Government. The number of identified
computer centers which might become nodes
in this network when it eventually is tied
together, increased during 1965 from 240 to
350. ***
During the same period, Soviet concern
with the problem of "social guidance systems"
became as evident in Soviet literature as it
was in that of the Satellites. Furthermore,
measures were taken to reify some of these
ideas in practical terms. An example of an
organizational measure was the creation at
mid-year by the Academy of Sciences of a
social science information group to furnish
*In 1954 while he was working at the Jet Pro-
pulsion Center of the California Institute of Tech-
nology, H. S. Ch'ien was the author of the first book
published on engineering cybernetics. This book
was translated into Chinese in 1958. Ch'ien re-
turned to Communist China in the late 1950's and
became a key figure in a number of important sci-
entific projects.
** The subject of "large systems" is being devel-
oped especially by the Division for Large Systems of
the Institute of Automatics and Telemechanics
(Technical Cybernetics) and it is not elaborated
on in this report. A separate report on this subject
is in preparation.
***See OSI-SR/65-16, 29 April 1965, OUO. The
lower figure is the count of computer centers as of
December 1964; the higher figure is the count for
December 1965. Thus the number of computer
centers built or identified during 1965 is 110.
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the inputs necessary for the design of control
processes for social systems. Its tasks include
determination of social science information
requirements and formats; coordination of
social science information activities through-
out the USSR; methodological and technical
assistance to social science organizations deal-
ing with information; and development of in-
ternational contacts with social science in-
stitutions involved in the collection, storage,
processing, and transmission of information.
Of the many research projects underway,
the experimental mathematical model of a
city-scale development plan for Tallin is an
interesting illustration completed by the Kiev
Institute of Cybernetics.* This comprehen-
sive model of the reconstruction process for
the capital city of Estonia offers solutions, ac-
cording to the Soviets, of the economic, social,
architectural and other interrelated problems
involved in engineering the transformation of
a societal system of city dimensions which has
been growing in random fashion since the
year 1219.7� 71
The Communist Party is supporting�if not
fostering�such developments involving the
application of exact mathematical methods to
social phenomena. Part of the Party's con-
cern is with the long-range need for develop-
ment of a new generation of cybernetics-
oriented social science students. To meet this
need, social science teachers are being exposed
to cybernetics. A discussion of the role of
cybernetics in modern social science is the
lead article in a collection of materials for use
in teaching dialectical materialism. It was
originally presented by A. I. Berg, Chairman
of the Cybernetics Council to the Pan-Russian
Seminar of Social Science Teachers on the
Philosophical Problems of Contemporary Nat-
ural History.72
There is some evidence that the Party is
also concerned about the apparent reluctance
of social scientists to adopt cybernetic meth-
* Descriptive models interrelating the same type
of factors are providing the operational bases for
the construction of several new towns in the US.
Reston, Virginia, is a case in point. But we are
unaware of examples in the US in which math-
ematical models are providing the basis for recon-
struction of cities, like Syracuse, N.Y., which has ap-
proximately the same population as Tallin.
ods either for reasons of inability or of fear
based on the earlier negative official view of
cybernetics. A recent article in the Party's
journal, Kommunist, was aimed at reduction
of the latter factor." Entitled "Cybernetic
Methods in Sociology," the article rejects as
incorrect the earlier Soviet position which held
that there existed some sort of division be-
tween the natural sciences and the social sci-
ences because the latter "could only roughly
evaluate social phenomena which were not
subject to control." But now, the article
continues, social scientists are applying exact
mathematical methods mainly in the field of
mathematical modeling of social phenomena.
In order to apply the science of information
transmission and processing and control (cy-
bernetics) the author believes that it is neces-
sary to define the many channels through
which information is passed in a society, and
to define the quantity of information (not the
number of words) contained in such "mes-
sages." The development of methods of ana-
lyzing the quantity of information in mes-
sages and the impact (in the cybernetic sense)
of these messages on the social phenomena
under study is a primary problem in contem-
porary application of cybernetic methods to
sociological study. Looking upon society as a
whole, a unified structure, and the process of
control of the social "organism" as that of
transfer of information directed at subordina-
tion of the individual sectors, when necessary,
for the good of the whole (society) , it is pos-
sible to apply cybernetic methods to study and
control of sociological phenomena. For ex-
ample, the "foresight" of certain information
processes, the degree to which they serve the
long range needs of the society, can be deter-
mined. The author states, however, that the
Soviet goal is to use the regularities learned
from such a study not to "control" the lives of
citizens with a centralized "super-brain" but
to use the information to produce effects on
the motivation and sociological phenomena
concerning its citizens so that scientific plan-
ning of their activity (on the basis of what the
theory says they will do, not on the basis of
interference with the functioning of the in-
formation channels to make them act as de-
sired) can be more efficient.
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This Kommunist article is excerpted to
further illustrate a point, i.e., that the changes
in the Soviet Bloc observed during 1965 were
not confined to the scientific and technological
aspects of cybernetics. These together con-
stitute but one dimension of a transition proc-
ess in which new social institutions are also
going to be produced in response to the new
technology. The social institutions to be
created in the future will in turn produce
further changes in technology. Soviet plan-
ners, aware of the enormous complexity in-
volved in these social interrelations and of the
difficulties entailed in interrelating changes
in both of these aspects of human life, are
looking to social cybernetics for techniques for
the conscious control of social development:74
The most significant development during
1965 involving the Party's role in the applica-
tion of cybernetics to social guidance was the
creation of a Council for Problems of Manage-
ment of Economic and Social Processes in the
Academy of Social Sciences of the Central
Committee, CPSU. Because of the intimate
relationship of social development processes
and the maintenance of security in the con-
temporary world, the facilitation by the Coun-
cil of the application of cybernetics to the
management of society could enhance the in-
ternal security stature and the capabilities of
the USSR for influencing the developmental
paths of the emerging nations.
The new Council resulted from a meeting
of representatives of the Cybernetics Coun-
cil, the philosophy departments of universities
and of other organizations which took place
at the Academy of Social Sciences probably
sometime late in 1965. The initiators of the
meeting�the chairs of "scientific commu-
nism" and economic sciences�tabled for dis-
cussion an illustrative set of topics on the
theoretical problems of the scientific manage-
ment of society. Speakers at the meeting
included 0. Deyneko (Section for Theoretical
Problems of Organization of the Scientific
Council for the Complex Problem "Cyber-
netics," AS USSR) ; G. Bryanskiy (Moscow
Engineering-Economics Institute) ; G. Sle-
zinger (Scientific Research Institute of La-
bor) ; and others.
26
They described the scientific work in the
field of organization of management of society
being done in their respective establishments,
made a number of suggestions for improving
this work, and emphasized the necessity for
uniting the efforts of scientists and practi-
cal workers concerned with the guidance of
society.
The new Council is the answer of the Acad-
emy of Social Sciences and of its parent or-
ganization, the Central Committee, CPSU, to
this recognized need. The following scientific
research topics have been approved for investi-
gation by the Council: general problems of
scientific management; structure and func-
tion of management systems; management
technology; information systems in manage-
ment; and other aspects of cybernetics along
with the development of means by which
workers may participate in social control
practices.75
The Theory of Development
The observed trends in technical and ap-
plied cybernetics involving the management
of large systems and social guidance, respec-
tively, came together this year in a number
of publications that discussed various ele-
ments of a philosophical construct which is
called the "theory of development." This
literary bridge between technology and the
social sciences has been in the process of
formulation since, at least, 1958, but still only
its silhouette was observable during 1965.
Formulation of this theory began with an
article during 1958 entitled "Applications of
Cybernetics in the Social Sciences." The au-
thor presented a somewhat naive argument
in support of the thesis that cybernetics can
be a boon to applied sociology in socialistically
organized societies but a bane to sociologists
in the capitalistic world. The manner of pres-
entation suggested that this position was ad-
vanced merely as a necessary accompaniment
to the real message the author wished to con-
vey, i.e., that Soviet planners had a crying
need for the development of a quantitative
sociology and that computers and their as-
sociated methodologies were indispensable for
meeting that requirement."
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A brochure giving clearer outlines of the
evolving theory of development was published
in Poland by Oskar Lange in 1960 under the
title "Totality, Development, and Dialectics
in the Light of Cybernetics." Three years
later, the State Publishing House for Politi-
cal Literature, Moscow, released the first So-
viet brochure on the subject: "Cybernetics:
Philosophical and Sociological Problems" by
I. Nova. Also during 1963 a number of arti-
cles by Soviet authors outlined their views on
the relationship of cybernetics to social prog-
ress. This collection, authored by Academi-
cians, S. G. Strumilin, V. A. Trapeznikov, and
V. S. Nemchinov, reiterated much of what
had been said by them in many places: (1)
An essentially new type of social organization
will result from the application of science to
society and cybernetics. This will be the best
illustration of the relationship between science
and the activity of people, a relationship to
which the future belongs; (2) the industry of
the future will undoubtedly be a complex of
production processes united by a single auto-
matic control and guidance system with cy-
bernated devices doing most of the work for
man; and (3) when society passes over from
the basically primitive forms of control to
automated systems based on scientific meth-
ods of research and electronic techniques,
definite changes will result in the socio-eco-
nomic structure of society. These phrases
have a familiar ring but are significant, never-
theless, because of their publication for the
first time in an international Communist
journal. In retrospect, it seems that the pur-
pose of the authors of this collection was to
furnish approbation for creative, mathemati-
cally oriented social scientists."
Also, during 1963, two relatively unknown
Leningrad authors published a brochure,
"Miracle of Our Time�Cybernetics and Prob-
lems of Development," which closely parallels
the work of Lange which had been published
three years earlier. The authors, B. V. Akhli-
bininskiy and N. I. Khralenko, analyze the
reasons for the appearance of cybernetics as
an independent branch of science; the role of
cybernetics in the creation of the material-
technical base of communism; and the con-
tributions of cybernetics to understanding the
essence of life and especially of social dynam-
ics. These threads are woven together in a
popular style into what they and other Soviet
writers designate as the "theory of develop-
ment or progress."
In the spring of 1964 at the Novosti Press
Agency in Moscow the first large-scale, public
discussion of cybernetics which had implica-
tions for the problem of development was held.
It was a conference on Cybernetics, Planning
and Social Progress sponsored by the editors
of USSR, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, and Vo-
prosy Ekonomiki. The participants included
leading Soviet mathematicians; philosphers;
economists, chairmen of State committees,
departments, and planning and statistical
bodies; directors of research institutes; and
heads of educational instiutions. The theme
of the meeting was that a socialist society can
make use of cybernetics in ways "inconceiv-
able" under other types of systems, and the
result of the conference was to remove ide-
ological bars to the application of some ele-
ments of cybernetics to the guidance of social
processes. Foremost among the participants
were V. M. Glushkov, Trapeznikov, Nemchinov
and other scientists intimately associated with
the Cybernetics Council."
Concurrent with the publication and meet-
ing activity seminars were initiated to develop
cybernetic methodologies for the social sci-
ences based on computer-based models of
socio-economic processes. One such seminar
was created in conjunction with the Cyber-
netic Council at the Department of Dialectical
and Historical Materialism of Moscow Uni-
versity. The latest contribution in this chro-
nology of the genesis of the cybernetics-related
theory of development is the book Kybernetika
ye Spolesenskych Vedach (Cybernetics in So-
ciology Research) published by the Czech
Academy of Sciences. Among its authors are
Arab-Ogly who wrote the first Soviet article
dealing with cybernetics and society and
others from the Soviet Bloc and Western Eu-
rope who pioneered the movement to relate
cybernetics and social dynamics. At least in
Arab-Ogly's case this effort has been going
on quietly for at least eight years.
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The following summary of the basic as-
sumptions of the theory of development is
derived from the previously cited sources:
1. Social change can be described in terms
of biological evolution, a process which en-
tailed the reorganization of successful species
in adaptively responding to environmental
changes. The mechanisms by which biological
species so maintain levels of "dynamic stabil-
ity" can be explained by cybernetics. Because
biological evolution and the transition processes
of social systems are analogous, cybernetics is
also the key to understanding social change.
2. Biological evolution is the predominant tend-
ency toward increased levels of systems' com-
plexity made possible by the adaptive occurrence
of automatic physiological feedback systems. As
in biological evolution, each succeeding state in
the progressive development of social systems
is characterized by a more complex form of or-
ganization and commensurate automatic con-
trol resulting in the increased orderliness and
decreased chaos of societies which adapt "to
the times."
3. The development of man and social systems
Is not through the simple processes of adapta-
tion to external conditions but through the crea-
tion by science and technology of new forms of
external conditions which are more propitious
for survival. Man and society must adapt there-
fore, not to nature directly but to nature as it
Is being transformed by science and technology,
i.e., by making his ideas and social institutions
harmonious with the man-made environment.
4. The process of development, the complication
of organizational forms, which permits the
maintenance of system-environment stability is
explicable in terms of game theory, a tool of
cybernetics. Stability is achieved if a system
can counter each strategy of the environment
(opponent) with a new and more appropriate
corresponding strategy. The responses of men
and advanced societies to the environment are
qualitative. Quantitative responses character-
ize lower animal forms and primitive societies.
The struggle for stability will be successful,
therefore, in direct proportion to the number of
different strategies that the transition system
has at its disposal. Those systems which possess
the greater variety of methods of behaving in
response to varied natural and man-made en-
vironmental influences are thusly preserved.
5. The variety of methods of behaving is equal
to the system's store of information or negen-
tropy. In this manner the process of devel-
opment is linked in Soviet theory to the con-
cept of organization, information, and negen-
tropy. The theory says that for a system to
possess a variety of strategies (a greater choice
of possible responses to opponents) and thus
to develop it must have a complex inner struc-
ture; that is, a high level of organization. The
more complex the system, the greater the choice
of possible responses to external influences it
has at its disposal. There are no upper limits
to the level of complexity a system of organiza-
tion may attain�as shown in the history of the
development of living systems and of societies�
if the process of complication is accompanied
by the development of mechanisms that sim-
plify or "automate" its operations. Automation,
which creates that simplification without which
further development would be impossible, is,
therefore, a universal law of development. Be-
cause the problem of automatic control in its
most general sense is one of the central prob-
lems of cybernetics, it is the key to the progres-
sive development of society.
The foregoing paragraphs approximate as
much as is possible at the present time the
evolving theory of development. From this
outline it is clear why mathematicians, engi-
neers, mathematical economists, biologists,
and other specialists and a new breed of social
philosophers are interacting in the Soviet cy-
bernetics program. Such interactions are
viewed as a necessary condition for the auto-
mation of control systems and such automa-
tion is requisite in the theory of development
for the progress of the USSR toward a higher
stage of social organization. Cybernetics, as
suggested by I. V. Novik, is, therefore, a van-
tage point around which scientists can gen-
eralize their activities and social philosophers
can make their ideas more concrete."
That cybernetics is playing such a role is
evident in publications in which, on one hand,
for example, a study of ergodic development
processes is used by a mathematician to illu-
strate the universality of control laws as evi-
denced by a characteristic property common
to biological, physical, social, and economic
processes and computing machines. Philoso-
phers, on the other hand, are not just talking
about "dialectic development"; under the im-
petus of cybernetics they are discussing the
necessity for clarification of the "purpose" of
social systems; the creation of probabilistic
models of social dynamics; and the need for
computer-based information models as an aid
to management. The evidence about the cy-
bernetics program collected during 1965 in-
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dicates that at least some elements of the
theory of development are the bases for the
policies of current leaders. However, there is
no evidence that all elements of the theory of
development have been accepted by the lead-
ership as the basis for all socio-economic
policies.8"
International Ramifications
Although applications of Soviet ideas about
societal cybernetics and the theory of develop-
ment were described by one author as decisive
factors in the world revolution, they found ex-
pression during 1965 in only one major collec-
tion of papers authored by representatives of
the scientific communities of the USSR, the
Satellites, Israel, and of Western Europe. It
was a compilation of articles on cybernetics
and the social sciences and was dedicated
to the memory of Norbert Wiener. Other
more ambitious plans for promulgating Soviet
notions about cybernetics and social progress
during 1965 did not materialize. Some of
those plans were included in the USSR Na-
tional Commission recommendations for the
1965-66 Program for UNESCO to provide
means for a "great study" on teaching meth-
ods based on cybernetics; a brain research pro-
gram with special emphasis on neurocyber-
netics; and, of special significance, an inter-
national meeting on "Cybernetics and Com-
puters in the Service of Social Progress.,, 85-87
�BreBET__ 29
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Thmefirtz__
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