SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT THE SOVIET SPACE RESEARCH PROGRAM MONOGRAPH IV SPACE VEHICLES CENTRAL. INTELLIGENCE _:'A.GENCY OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE Scientir'ic Intelligence Report THE SOVIET SPACE RESEARCH PROGRAM MONOGRAPH W SPACE VEHICLES 26 February 1960 CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY PREFACE Page SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . I DISCUSSION . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Satellites and Space Probes . . . . . . . . 3 Launching Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Materials of Construction and Fabrication Technology 7 Plastics and Rubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Metals and Cermets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Fabrication Technology . . . . . 9 Radiation Shielding Problem . . . . . . . . . . 10 Vertically Fired High-Altitude Space Research Vehicles . 11 Re-Entry Capsules and Winged Space Vehicles . . . . 14 1. Soviet Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2. Soviet Space Probes . . . . ... . . . . . . . . 5 3. Approximate Vehicle Velocities for Typical Missions . . 5 4. Physical Characteristics of Soviet Satellites and Carrier Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5. Approximate Payload Capability of Lunik Launching Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6. Maximum Equilibrium Temperatures Reached During Various Types of Atmospheric Penetration . . . . . . . 8 7. Soviet High-Altitude Research Vehicle Launchings . . 12 8. Nose Cone Weights for Vertically Fired Rockets . . . . 12 9. Estimated Characteristics of Ballistic Missiles Used in Soviet High-Altitude Research Shots . . . . . . . . 13 0L-4.1V Imw following Page 1. Photo Replica of Sputnik I . . . , , , 4 2. Photo Reproduction of Sputnik II . . , , , , 4 3. Photo Replica of Sputnik III . . . . . 4 4. Photo Model of Lunik I Instrument Container. . 4 5. Diagram Possible configurations for the Soviet ICBM 4 6. Diagram Cross Section of Lunik I Final Stage Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7. Diagram Lunik I Last Stage Vehicle, Side I . . . . 6 8. Diagram Lunik I Last Stage Vehicle, Side II . . . 6 9. Diagram Lunik I Last Stage Vehicle, Exploded View. 6 10A. Diagram Cross-Section of Radiation Bands Sur- rounding Earth . . . . . . . . . . 10 10B. Diagram Hypothetical Diagram of Solar Flare Ac- tivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 11. Photo A--F Nose Cone . . . . . . . . . . 12 12. Photo A-2 Nose Cone . . . . . . . . . . 12 13. Photo A-3 Nose Cone . . . . . . . . . . 12 14. Photo Surface-to-Surface :Missile (Shyster) 12 15. Photo Surface-to-Surface Missile (Scud) . 14 16. Diagram Characteristics of Soviet A-1, A-2, A-3, and A-4 Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Tt 1. The Soviets ing and developi space vehicles ar. materials problem earth satellites du mid-1961. The Sr in the penetration clude a powerful permitted the pa} hicles and space F conventional airc. readily available r F'urthermore, the develop miniaturiz clear program will shielding support. 2. The Soviets h: unmanned earth using existing ball, vehicles. The excc ing vehicle, as dem load weights of S missions, indicates consisted of a basi ballistic missile (: pulsion, control, a oped for military U.S. telemetry in and launching ve powered-stage in probably are ideni similarity in annc Lunik final stage THE SOVIET SPACE RESEARCH PROGRAM MONOGRAPH IV SPACE VEHICLES 1. The Soviets are fully capable of design- ing and developing significantly advanced space vehicles and will probably solve the materials problem for the re-entry of manned earth satellites during the period mid-1960 to mid-1961. The Soviet Union's achievements in the penetration of interplanetary space in- clude a powerful launching vehicle that has permitted the payload of earth satellite ve- hicles and space probes to be constructed by conventional aircraft. techniques and with readily available materials and instruments. Furthermore, the Soviets can, when necessary, develop miniaturized structures and their nu- clear program will probably provide radiation shielding support. 2. The Soviets have developed instrumented unmanned earth satellites and space probes using existing ballistic missiles as launching vehicles. The exceptionally powerful launch- ing vehicle, as demonstrated by the large pay- load weights of Sputnik III and the Lunik missions, indicates that the vehicle probably consisted of a basic military intercontinental ballistic missile (and most certainly of pro- pulsion, control, and guidance systems devel- 2ped for military purples). Similarity of on Soviet ICBM's powered-stage indicates that the vehicles probably are identical or very nearly so. The similarity in announced weights of the three Lunik final stage vehicles, and the similarity of on the launching boosters u ized for these shots also indicate that the three Lunik final-powered-stage vehicles are probably identical or very nearly so, except for the difference in payload weights. Based on the gross weight of the Lunik I final pow- ered stage, the launch weight of the complete vehicle is estimated to be about 500,000 pounds. The launching thrust-to-weight ratio is about 1.5 to 1; thus, the launching thrust of these vehicles is about 750,000 pounds. It is estimated that current Soviet launching vehicles of the Lunik type could fire a 5,000- to 10,000-pound earth satellite into a 100-150 nautical mile orbit. 3. The large payload capability of the launching vehicles has enabled the Soviets to use readily available materials and instru- ments in space vehicles, but they can develop lightweight, miniaturized structures for com- plex space missions when necessary. They are capable of solving current problems concerned with materials of construction and fabrica- tion technology for space vehicle launchers, instrumented satellites, and space probes. They can design and develop high-strength, low-weight structural materials, including ablating, refractory, and other types, for solv- ing the aerodynamic heating problem involv- ing re-entry vehicles (recoverable satellites, satellite capsules, and space probes). The exhibited model of the Lunik I final-powered- stage vehicle shows conventional aircraft st . ral pique and use of aluminum as the material of construction; this fabrication technology is considered to be typical of cur- rent ballistic missiles utilized as launching vehicles for Soviet space vehicles (satellites and Vmar probes). 4. Soviet high-altitude research vehicles have yielded a wealth of important-scientific data for the design of space vehicles, espe- cial y the structure of re-entry capsules. So- Diet ballistic missiles fired down range will Probably be used as test beds for studying Problems of re-entry and recoverable capsules. It is es'" 'mated that the Soviets will solve the teriai5 problems for the re-entry of a manned earth satellite in the period mid-1960 to mid-1961. 5. There is no evidence of Soviet research specifically directed towards the radiation shielding problem as it applies to manned space flight. The radiation shielding research that is conducted as part of the Soviet nuclear energy program should contribute to the solu- tion of this problem, but there is no direct intelligence infarmation to confirm such support. 6. Payloads larger than those estimated for current capability will require the develop- ment of launching vehicles specifically de- signed for the Soviet space program, which when available will end the apparent depend- ence on ballistic missiles except for adaptable propulsion and guidance components. The size of these vehicles will be determined by the mission, payload and propulsion systems avail- able. Nuclear propulsion, which would mate- rially reduce the launching-vehicle size for large payload weights, may be available by the late 1960's. INTRODUCTION The structure and configuratiow of space are coincident with that of the air- _:-_. of v ed - the overall structure that -ortair_ the propulsion system, guidance sys- and payload. The airframe must be ,.n?, lightweight, and capable of resisting heating. The payload, whether v._ it be a space probe or a satellite, has its own airf ame that must have similar airframe Pro: eroes; moreover, the aerodynamic heat- .n,g problem is of greater magnitude in mis- siors requiring the re-entry of a recoverable payload into the earth's atmosphere. There- fore, basic research and development are di- rected toward the production of strong, light- weight, heat resistant materials and refrac- tory,' ablating," heat sink,*" and transpira- tion cooling "" materials for special pur- Refractory materials are those capable of withstanding high temperatures without loss of their desirable properties. ?' Ablating materials absorb heat by vaporizing or by melting and sloughing off the melt. ? ? ? Heat sinks absorb heat in a large mass of material having a high thermal capacity. ? ? ?' Transpiration is the dissipation of heat by evaporation of Uqulds forced to the surface through a porous medium. pose applications on re-entry vehicles. Addi- tional requirem-nts are imposed by the bands of harmful radiation surrounding the earth, solar eruptions, and cosmic rays in space; these conditions present a major shielding problem for most manned satellites or space probe missions. Test vehicles for investigating these prob- lems and for developing re-entry vehicles may take the form of vertically fired high-altitude rockets, long-range ballistic missiles fired down range, and rocket-powered aerodynamic research vehicles. In the Soviet space research program, exist- ing military and scientific missiles and equip- ment have been utilized insofar as possible for launching vehicles, satellites, and space probes. Relatively heavy, unsophisticated space vehicles with large payload capabilities, which have performed well and collected con- siderable data of various types have resulted. To fulfill increasingly difficult missions, So- viet scientists and engineers are expected to develop more refined and specialized space launching vehicles. The modified military ballistic missiles now used as launching ve- hicles will have to be replaced with larger pro- fr; is D; tic -as PE Cc tic SE la lil tr. finned earch iclear solu- i.irect such ;d for celop- y de- .which pend- ,table The )y the avail- mate-- :e fox 'le by yddi- oands earth, .pace; ,lding space prob- may itude tired arnic !,ast- 4uip- le for space cated ii ties, I con- ulted. ;, So- ed to space litany g ve- pro- puision units designed to. meet the needs of interplanetary and manned space missions. Nevertheless, many components of military equipment will continue to be used in the space program. The development of military missile air- frames and their modification for space flight is probably supervised by the Chief Artillery Directorate, the principal ordnance organiza- tion of the Ministry of Defense. Scientific aspects of the space vehicle program are su- pervised and coordinated by the Interagency Committee on Interplanetary Communica- tions under the direction of Professor Dr. L. I. Sedov. Basic research and development re- lated to vehicle structural materials are most likely performed by appropriate institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The military ballistic missile program and its scientific space portion are large scale efforts which involve thousands of scientists, engineers, and technicians. It is evident that the best Soviet talent is being utilized in con- nection with these programs. One cannot at this time estimate the number of persons in- volved but there is no evidence of any quan ti- tative shortage of personnel. In view of ac- comoiishments to date it would appear that these personnel are being effectively utilized. Ballistic missile research and development is centered in the Kaliningrad area some twenty miles northeast of Moscow with flight testing in the Kazakhstan area. In the Kalin- ingrad area of some eight square miles are located the Central Artillery Design Bureau, Scientific Research Institute/Plant 88, Scien- tific Research Institute 4, and static test facil- ities at Plant 88. The resources of this area have been expanded in the post-war period and further expansion is feasible. It is believed that numerous facilities of the State Com- mittees for Aviation, Shipbuilding, Defense Industry, and, perhaps, others are directed and coordinated from the Kaliningrad area in the creation of both the ballistic launching vehicle for space flights and the space vehicles themselves. Facilities suspected of contribut- ing specifically to the space vehicle airframe development program are Scientific Research Institute 88, Kaliningrad; Plant 8, Sverdlovsk; Automobile Plant 186, Dnepropetrovsk; All Union Institute of Aviation Materials, Mos- cow; and Plant 82, Tushino. SATELLITES AND SPACE PROBES The immediate problems concerned with the structural design of an instrumented satellite or space probe have been to build a minimum-weight structure that will with- stand the aerodynamic heating and accelera- tion stresses. Soviet satellite and space probe achievements to date attest to the fact that currently available materials were satisfac- tory. Future materials research and fabrica- tion technology will be directed towards mini- mizing the structural and component weights of proposed space vehicles. A recoverable sat- ellite or space probe has the additional prob- lem of providing for re-entry of the vehicle, the instrument container, or at least a por- tion of it such as a photographic film package. The re-entry structure could be a winged space vehicle or a capsule fitted with retro- rockets to slow it down with final descent made with the aid of a special slotted para- chute designed for opening during rapid de- scent in a rarefied atmosphere. These same problems would apply to an instrumented space probe designed for exploring the atmos- pheres of other planets or for a soft landing on them. For a soft landing on those planets without an atmosphere or for a lunar soft landing, the vehicle must include retrorockets to slow the structure down so that the vehicle is not destroyed on impact. The lack of an atmosphere for braking the vehicle's descent makes a soft landing on these non-atmos- pheric bodies a major design problem. Additional problems become apparent when one considers the design of a manned satellite or manned space vehicle. The primary con- sideration here is to provide for the internal environment of the vehicle: composition and pressure of the atmosphere, gravitational forces, deceleration and acceleration effects, temperature, protection from meteorite im- pacts, radiation shielding, waste disposal and nutritional requirements are the main prob- lems. of published Soviet photographs (see fig.~res 1 to 5) and data (summarized in tables I and 2) on satellites and space probes has not i_Lsciosed any significant discrepan- cies from the announced dimensions.' l The last -o_ pu'sion stages (carrier rockets) of Sputnik I and III separated from the satellite after thrust termination and orbited inde- pendently of their respective payloads. The final nroaulsion stage of Sputnik II did not separate from its payload capsule. The pay- load and final-stage empty weight for the Lul^.ik ? were announced as totaling 3,245 pounds and the final propulsion stage report- ed-Tv ated from the "artificial planet No. ne payload structures are constructed of a 7n .;Jnum alloy and are rugged in com- parison with U.S. satellites; the Soviets have not nodded to utilize the many weight-saving innovations characteristic of U. S. satellites and probes. The Soviet payload structures may re =ct some technical shortcomings, but it is rare likely that in their desire to be first and beoiuse of the large payload capability of ,rnhing vehicle, the Soviets used the materials, technology;, and in- LAUNCHING VEHICLES Launching vehicle requirements are gov- erned by the theoretical velocities necessary for various missions (see table 3) and by the payload. Calculations show that most of the current Soviet satellites and space probes are impractical if not impossible for a one-stage vehicle using conventional propellants. All of the space missions are attainable with multi- stage vehicles; i.e., staging using two or more rockets. In the configuration called tandem staging (stages stacked on top of one another and fired successively) the payload for any one stage represents the gross weight of the subse- quent stage(s). The last stage is the smallest and carries the useful payload (satellite or space probe). As the propellant is consumed in each stage, this stage is dropped from the vehicle and the operation of the propulsion system in the next stage commences. Each stage imparts a velocity increment to the space vehicle; the final velocity of the space vehicle is the sum of the velocity increments for each of the stages. The size of the vehicle and the number of stages and their arrange- w_ .. '-ate ...... 3e tr date Life un e ........... pa-,:,Dad (pounds) ......... Irstr mentation weight rpounds) ........... Cordtguration .. Dir.ens4on3 (ft.) Bu.-n-out velocity (fps.) Exper:-nent.S conducted 4 Oct 57 4 Jan 58 3 months 184 unknown spherical 1.9 26,200 Internal and ex- ternal tempera- tures, meteor Im- pacts, pressure 3 Nov 57 14 April 58 5L2 months unknown 1,120 " conical 6.5 x 3.3 26,950 Lnternal and external tem- peratures. Internal pres- sure, cosmic radiation, ul- traviolet and X-ray radia- tion, meteor Impacts, bio- logical experiment (dog) 15 May 58 (still In orbit) est. l V2 years 2,926 2,134 conical 11.7 x 5.7 26,950 Earth's magnetic field, pri- mary gamma radiation, solar radiation, earth's elec- trostatic field, heavy prima- ry tration of radiation, positive ions, In- ternal and external temper- atures, meteor impacts ? Dimensions given are exclusive of any final rocket stage. Total weight of instruments, animal, and electric power source. ? :~e:3:^.t of sc!entinc research equipment, radio equipment, and power supplies- 4 Qov- vssary )y the of the es are -stage All of multi- 'more indem aother ny one subse- aallest iite or sumed )m the )ulsion Each to the space !ments vehicle range- eid, pri- liation, .h's eiec- y prima- concea- lons,. !- --temper-)acts Figure 2. Reproduction of Sputnik II. Airtight cabin near base, sphere containing transmitters and instruments Just above, and solar radiation apparatus near top. Figure 4. Model of the instrument container taken up by the Soviet rocket, Lunik 1, on 2 January 1959, and claimed to have become artificial planet No. 1. Launch date ........... .. .. Empty weight of final stage (lbs.) Estimated gross weight of final stage (Ibs.) ........ Length and diameter of last stage (ft.) .. ..................... Total payload weight (ibs) .... Structure weight minus payload (lbs.) ........................ Gross weight of separating in- strumentation probe (lbs.) . . Estimated instrumentation weight remaining with powered final ................... stage (lbs.) Increase in payload weight over Lunik I (lbs.) ................ Diameter of Instrument capsule (ft.l Shape of instrument capsule ... Known experiments conducted Lurrix I (Artificial Planet No. 1) 2 Jan 59 3,245 17.3 x 8.5 797 2,448 397 2.7 spherical Internal temperatures and pressures, micrometeorites, external temperatures, earth's magnetic field, so- lar corpuscular radiation, primary cosmic radiation, interplanetary gas compo- nents, moon's magnetic field, sodium vapor cloud TALE 3 APPROXIMATE VEHICLE VELOCITIES FOR TYPICAL .MISSIONS 3 5500 r.. mile ICBM THEORETICAL VELOCITY, Fr/SEC Satellite orbit around earth (no return) . .. Escape from earth (no re- turn) 36,700 Lunar missions, approx... 35,000 Mars/Venus ........ ...... 37,000 Neglects air resistance, navigational corrections, and gravitational losses (variations in gravitational forces with increasing distance from the earth's surface). ment is dependent on the mission, payload weight, specific impulse of the propellants, fabrication techniques, materials of construc- tion, and weights of component systems (pro- pulsion, guidance, auxiliary power, and so forth). Different types of staging are illus- trated in Figure 5. L UNIX III (Circumlunar Orbit) 3 Oct 59 3,424 unknown 959 345 162 unknown cylindrical Photograph of backside of moon A few days after the launch on 4 October 1957 of the earth's first man-made satellite, Sputnik I, Nikita Khrushchev, the First Sec- retary of the Central Committee of the Com- munist Party of USSR, stated that the USSR can launch satellites because it has a carrier -for them, namely the ballistic missile.` Later statements by Khrushchev further implicates the Soviet ICBM as contributing in some way to the launching vehicle for the Sputniks. Academician Leonid I. Sedov, Chairman of the Soviet Interagency Commission for Inter- planetary Communications, in October 1957 said that the Soviet satellite program was based upon available military hardware from the start.5 V. P. Petrov in his book stated that it is only necessary to replace the hydrogen warhead in the nose of a Soviet ICBM with suitable instrumentation to produce an arti- ficial earth satellite.' Soviet Defense Minister Rodion Malinovsky stated in a special speech given 3 February 1959 to the 21st Congress of the Soviet Party that the intercontinental Loxrx II (Lunar Impact) 12 Sep 59 3,332 unknown 860 unknown 53 unknown spherical Cosmic rays, micromete- orites, earth's magnetic field, interplanetary gas components, moon's magnetic field, sodium vapor cloud, radiation belts, primary cosmic ra- diation ballistic rocket launched the Mechta space probe (Lunik I).' These statements by au- thoritative Soviets strengthen an already firm conviction that the current Soviet space pro- gram is built on the experience gained in their military ballistic rocket program and that the vehicles utilize at least major com- ponents of their ICBM hardware. Photographs of the orbiting carrier rockets for the three Sputniks show that a different launching vehicle was used in each case. (See table 4.) It is believed that the vehicle used to orbit Sputnik III was a Soviet ICBM. The sinillarity of ICBM and space probe launch- ing vehicle telemetry formats indicates that the ICBM was utilized to launch the final powered stage for Soviet space probes. Te- lemetry evidence also supports a parallel or partial stage ICBM. Thus, on the premise that Sputnik III was launched by an ICBM, the Soviet ICBM is a parallel or partial staged vehicle approximately 91 feet high and 10 feet in diameter. Calculations based on the Luni_1 I final stage estimated gross weight of 18,000 pounds show that the Sos;iet ICBM has a oss launching eight of about 500,- 000 Dounds.l evidence shows that the thrust to we)gnt ratio for the Soviet PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOVIET SATELLITES AND CARRIER ROCKETS * 8 LENGTH DIAMETER WEIGHT (Ft) (Ft) (Lb) 545 3 8 Sputnik I (carrier) = Sputnik I ....... spherical 2.3 185 Sputnik II (carrier) 70=5 8-3 (total weight in orbit) Sputnik 11 ... 6 3.2 1,120 Sputnik III (carrier) 91-5 10.3 = 2.0 (Instru- mented payload) Sputnik ILL ....... . 11.2 5.7 2.925 (total weight in orbit) The physical data available come from Soviet announcements (weights) and from photo Intelli- gence. ICBM Is 1.5; therefore, the launching thrust is about 750,000 pounds. Evidence on the ma- terials of construction, airframe and staging technique is totally lacking. Soviet press releases have revealed a lim- ited amount of information on the Lunik final stage vehicles (reviewed in table 2). In July 1955, the Soviets exhibited a model of the . final-stage vehicle (minus rocket engine) and listed the spherical instrument package which separated to become "artificial planet No. 1" as weighing 397 pounds. The final stage was approximately 8.5 feet in diameter and had a height of 17.3 feet. Propellant tankage indi- cated a liquid propellant system.9 A completely reliable source has produced additional information on the Lunik I final stage vehicle, including the diagrams shown in figures 6 to 9 and information on construc- tion details. The internal arrangement of the tankage is such that the rocket engine (not exhibited) is positioned in the hole created by the toroidal tanks. The top tank is made of aluminum, assembled from sections by weld- ing. Its volume is 150 cubic feet. The top tank is fueled through a filler pipe attached to the bottom of the tank. The bottom tank's inside and outside diameters are the same as those of the top tank but it is a true torus with a volume of 93 cubic feet. The bottom tank is fueled through a spring loaded nozzle located on the opposite side of the one for the upper tank. Figure 9 shows an exploded view of the en- tire final stage vehicle illustrating the prob- able manner of assembly. The nose cone tip fits over the forward section of the two coni- cal half sections. At the proper time, the nose cone tip is ejected, the clamps holding the two half sections together are released, and the nose cone breaks away from the vehicle. The spherical instrumentation package is ejected by some undisclosed method at the end of powered flight. The forward reinforced section which supports the nose cone is at- tached to the curved section of the upper tank. The forward tank and aft body section are joined together to form a continuous cylinder. An aluminum circular heat shield goes around the external surface of the top tank. Thus, lst La- ng nl- tal ,ly he nd ch ill .as Ia di- ed ial .n IC- he iot by of Id- .op ,ed k's as "Us 3m zle he ln- )b- t:D ti- )se he .nd :le. is the :ed a t- nk. are ler. and IUS, Figure 6. Diagram of Lunik 1 last stage vehicle 8.5 ft. Figure 8. Lunik 1 last stage vehicle, side 2 30908 2-60 of t e upper tank most likely would contain a cryogenic liquid believed to be liquid oxygen (lox). The bottom tank is attached to the cylindrical body section which is made of heavy gauge aluminum alloy. The volumetric ratio of the two tanks indicates that the pro- pellant system is lox-kerosene and on this basis, the total weight of propellants is ap- proximately 15,000 pounds. The design and fabrication of the Lunik I final stage vehicle follows conventional air- craft construction practice. The integral-lox tank is pressurized to carry body shears, bend- ing moments, and axial loads. The axial force generated by the preceding powered stage is distributed to the skin-stringer struc- ture of the final stage vehicle by eight heavy externally mounted lugs. The design of the Lunik final stage vehicle shows that no concerted effort was made to save weight. Reliable intelligence indicates the total structure weight less propulsion sys- tem to be 1,760 pounds. Aluminum was the material of construction. The Soviets utilized modern manufacturing techniques, unusually careful workmanship, and extensive auto- matic machine welding in its construction. Use of heavy forgings and stampings are also in evidence. The Soviets have ample capability for im- mediate space missions with their Lunik launching vehicle, which has the capability for a manned satellite mission when the So- viets have solved the re-entry problem. The launching vehicle has estimated payload capa- bilities for specific missions as shown in table 5. For a 7,500 nautical mile earth satellite, the payload capability is the same as that for any lunar mission except a soft landing. LUNIK LAUNCHING VEHICLES Earth satellite .......... Earth satellite ......... 24-hour equatorial earth satellte .............. Often (Circular) 100-150 n.m. 7,500 n.m. The USSR is not expected to be dependent for long on military developed missiles for the Soviet space program. Soviet development of larger vehicles specifically designed for space missions is most likely well along. The Soviet space program we envision for the period 1959-74 requires the development of these much larger vehicles and of associated pro- pulsion and guidance systems. Estimates show `that the Soviets, for every payload pound put into a satellite orbit, required approxi- mately 150 pounds of launch weight and that each payload pound of the Lunik vehicle re- quired about 500 pounds of launch weight. These ratios will naturally become less as the _ Soviet state-of-the-art improves, but even if the ratios were to halve, the launch weight of future Soviet space vehicles must be esti- mated at a few million pounds. The appearance of these future gigantic vehicles is at best only a guess. They will be a few hundred feet high and consist of sev- eral powered stages. High-energy propellants will be utilized. In the latter part of the period 1959-74, when nuclear or exotic pro- pulsion systems may be a reality, the number of stages may decrease to two or three and vehicles may be short and thick. During the period of this estimate, Soviet vehicles will probably be developed capable of orbiting large manned space stations, making manned lunar soft landings, and placing instrumented probes into outer space. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND FABRICATION TECHNOLOGY The construction materials and fabrication technology for space vehicles must produce strong, lightweight, and heat-resistant struc- tures. The need for strength and lightness is merely an extension of aircraft requirements, but recoverable space-vehicle heating prob- lems are of a different magnitude. Steady state heating, as in a propulsion system, must be handled differently from the transient heating of a re-entry vehicle. The extremely high temperatures (caused by aerodynamic heating) estimated to be encountered by a re-entry vehicle for specific planets is sum- marized in table 6 for various re-entry tra- jectchos.- Few of these temperatures are within the performance matehais. In tr.e r efforts to develop structural and other materials for future space vehicles So- viet sci-ntists are undoubtedly investigating man; substances, including metals, plastics, ceramics, cermets, and other chemical com- pounds. There is no evidence to show that the Soviets have materials research and de- velopment programs which are directly con- nectod with space flight projects but such projects probably exist and probably are highly classified. Plastics and Rubbers The Soviets will probably use plastics in space flight structures primarily as compo- .rents -f major equipment units (rocket en- gre throats and nozzles), for housings and Lg htiv loaded structures, as insulating mate- rials, and as ablating material for the nose re-entry vehicles. :- Soviets have the capability to use exist- i iabie and readily available plastics such as p:enoiics, acrylates, and polystyrene for applications. The Soviets report hoc using plastics fairly extensively atellite and space vehicle programs. S ..... _ i=? lighter weight components pro- m plastics will see greater utilization Soviet space vehicles. Metals and Cermets :--e is no evidence of metallurgical re- facilities for such research in the USSR which are directed specifically toward meeting space vehicle materials requirements. However, the USSR is engaged in an extensive metallurgical research and development pro- gram which includes studies of high tempera- ture alloys, cermets, and refractory metals of potential importance to space vehicle con- struction. While much Soviet work Is un- doubtedly classified, the quality of present known Soviet metallurgical science and tech- nology is uneven and in some areas generally equivalent to that of the West. Published Soviet work on theories of strength and ele- vated temperature properties of metals and alloys reveals that, whereas a great amount of data and correlations have been produced, the Soviets are now no nearer a satisfactory understanding of these factors than before. The USSR produces a variety of ferrous and nonferrous metals, including several high- temperature alloys similar to those available in Western countries. Soviet specifications for a nickel alloy similar to Inconel X for use in gas turbines have been found. Inconel X is being used in the construction of a space flight vehicle (X-15) in the United States. The Soviets have made no mention, however, of the heat emissivity characteristics of nickel- based alloys which would provide a more posi- tive indication of interest in employing these alloys in space-vehicle construction. The ad- vantage of Inconel X is its high temperature strength (to about 1600' F); a feature of ob-- vious significance to space vehicle design. Similarly, cobalt-base high-temperature alloys of a composition equivalent to the Western alloy Vitallium are produced in the USSR for aircraft engine applications. MAXIMUM EQUILIBRIUM TEMPERATURES REACHED DURING VARIOUS TYPES OF ATMOSPHERIC PENETRATION D:PECT ENTRY AT DIRECT ENTRY AT ENTRY BY PLA\ET ESCAPE VELOCITY O RBITAL VELOCITY DECAY FROM 5' 20' 90' - 5' 20' 90' SATELLITE ORBIT Earth 5000 5900 6800 3900 4600 5200 3600 :enus 4700 00 5500 6300 3600 4200 4900 3400 Mars 2400 2800 3200 1900 2200 2500 1900 re-entry angle. pcr atures are given Li degrees Rankin (R' = F? ? 460). l wit to tiv per po: pe: fic. mi col nil. an a po: vie th; be. nu in ot an roc fer So Ti; les sk ta: StI tr? te: co ga U: M; si5 ve fu U: ce bi th ca re in in Internal structural members and fittings "Within a space vehicle, although not subject to direct heating, will be subjected to rela- ti vely high temperatures and to rapid tem- perature changes. With suitable design, and possible cooling, the anticipated service tem- peratures of internal components may be suf- ficiently below the skin temperature to per- mit the use of more conventional alloys of construction such as stainless steel or tita- nium alloys and even certain of the aluminum and magnesium alloys. The USSR produces a variety of stainless steels similar in com- position to those produced in the West. So- viet titanium technology is also similar to that of the West and a number of alloys are being produced on a limited scale. Alumi- num and magnesium alloys are also produced in the USSR in a variety of compositions. Observations of models of Soviet satellites and the Mechta space probe and its carrier rocket indicates that aluminum is the pre- ferred material of construction. Reports on a Soviet missile production facility, Plant 82, Tushino, claim that duraluminum and stain- less steel sheets have been used for missile skins and stainless steel for the nose cones.io ii The refractory metals (primarily tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum and columbium) offer strong possibilities for the solution of ex- tremely high temperature problems encoun- tered in some propulsion systems and in some components upon re-entry. Research investi- gations on these metals are in progress in the USSR. The biggest barrier to the use of these materials, however, is their low oxidation re- sistance. Some form of coating must be de- veloped before these metals can be success- fully employed in space vehicle components. USSR studies are also being conducted on cermets, silicides, nitrides, borides and car- bides; however, there are no indications that these investigations have resulted in signifi- cant advances. Related Soviet developmental research in powder metallurgy is comparable in quality to that currently being conducted in the West. The quality of Soviet metals research is good, but there is no evidence that this native research will provide new or significantly im- proved materials for use in space vehicles in the near future. It is estimated that, for the next several years at least, the Soviets will continue to follow Western metallurgical re- search for indications of improved materials or promising research which could be adopted or further developed for use in space vehicles. Fa-rication Technology Estimates on Soviet fabrication technology for space vehicles are based on USSR exhibits of models of the Sputniks and the Lunik I space probe and its carrier rocket, on the two structure technology. Soviet space vehicles thus far constructed have utilized conven- tional aircraft fabrication techniques and are rugged structures; that is, the Soviets have not emphasized weight-saving designs. For the past 50 years, Soviet workers have been making important contributions to structures technology, especially in the fields of structural mechanics and vibration analy- ses. World War II developments and subse- quent work have been consolidated by the So- viets in a number of good texts and mono- graphs.12 An examination of Soviet capabili- ties in structural design indicates that they have the ability to solve the structural prob- lems associated with space vehicles, including re-entry vehicles. In some aspects of structural theory and analysis that would be directly applicable to the design of a space vehicle, such as design of thin-walled structures, theory of elasticity and possibly creep analysis, Soviet work may be slightly better than that of the West. Al- though the Soviets are doing good theoretical and applied work in vibrations, the West ap- pears to have taken a slight lead in the asso- ciated field of flutter. Soviet metallurgists have adequate experi- ence in complex metal forming, welding and forging techniques to permit the construction of space flight vehicles using presently known materials of construction. It is believed that as new materials are developed only the mini- mum time lag will be involved in applying these materials to space vehicle needs. RADIATION SHIELDING PROBLEM In 1953, L. I. Sedov acknowledged that radi- ation shielding poses a major problem for manned space flights. Of immediate concern for any manned space vehicles are (i) solar flare radiation (which may maintain the radiation levels in the Van Allen bands), (ii) the radiation (Van Allen) bands above the earth's atmosphere (see fig- ure 10), and (iii) cosmic radiation (extremely energetic charged particles such as protons, alpha particles and nuclei of some elements). Any of these types of radiation may increase markedly in amount during solar eruptions, but will not change markedly in character. (See figure 10B); the Van Allen bands will extend somewhat further out during such solar eruptions, and will be more intense by uo to several orders of magnitude. When nuclear rockets are developed, possibly in the period 1967-74, it will also be necessary to shield personnel from the nuclear reactor. Soviet and U.S. satellites and space probes have yielded information on the earth's radia- tion bards and cosmic radiation. However, from the knowledge gained thus far on this r diation, solutions requiring little or no shie ding are possible for periods when there are no solar eruptions. Unfortunately such solar :cares are not predictable at present. The earth's radiation bands are toroidal shaped layers above the earth's atmosphere with traces of radiation extending out as far as 30,000 miles, or over 50,000 miles during solar eruptions. The bands are shaped by geomag- netic forces (are latitude dependent) and are not present at polar latitudes. Therefore, one solution would be a trajectory providing for a polar exit and re-entry. An unshielded manned satellite must orbit below 400 miles or above 30,000 miles from the earth in order to avoid the high-intensity harmful radiation bands.' For periods of solar quiescence, a possible solution would be to use unshielded manned lunar or space probes and to pass quickly through the radiation bands; there is a possibility that in this manner the dosage received might be less than the maximum permissible dosage. The Soviets have indi- cated a willingness to do this as a calculated risk." 15 Cosmic radiation appears to be a lesser problem than the Van Allen type of radiation." To shield out he earth radiation bands would require on the order of 10 cm of lead. Part of this shielding is needed for protection from radiation produced by the high-energy electrons striking the vehicle structure. How- ever, if one used this amount of lead in the vehicle, there would be a higher dose contri- bution from the radiation produced by cosmic rays hitting this shielding. Thus, conven- tional shielding is not entirely satisfactory for a space vehicle unless cosmic rays can be completely blocked or the radiation produced by them can be completely absorbed. The basic problem of keeping radiation in- side a reactor is much the same as keeping it out of a manned space ship. However, the shielding currently used for nuclear reactors would impose a tremendous weight penalty when used in a space ship. Soviet research is estimated to be underway in a search for lightweight shielding materials which pro- duce a minimum amount of secondary radia- tion on interaction with primary cosmic radi- ation. This research is probably conducted at Soviet nuclear energy research installations although there is no evidence of a specific re- search program. From the small amount of Soviet published material on this subject, it seems apparent that the USSR is now using Western research results and proceeding along parallel lines. Some data indicate that the Soviets are investigating the rare earth gado- linium (Gd) for its neutron-absorbing proper- ties. They also have shown interest in alter- nate layers of boron-impregnated lead (Pb- B10) and water-boron salt solutions.', Both of these studies would be applicable primarily to nuclear reactors and other neutron sources. Other Soviet research includes work on radia- tion attenuation by the usual types of shield- ing materials.'s 19 This Soviet work is not currently applicable to the space flight prob- lem, but it will be important for the develop- ment of nuclear powered aircraft and space vehicles. 10 ed a of ids id. on 0 he me !n- )ry be ed figure 10a. Cross section of radiation bands surrounding the earth Cross Section of radiation bands surrounding earth is shown by contours of radiation intensity. Contour numbers give counts per second of charged particles; horizontal scale shows distance in earth radii (about 4,000 miles) from the center of the earth. A relatively radiation-free zone exists over the earth's polar regions. Shaded portion shows the two high-intensity radiation bands which circle the earth. J This simplified diagram represents solar (tares of charged particles which carry along their own magnetic fields in which the solar charged particles oscillate. When the solar particles and magnetic fields reach the vicinity of the earth they deform and reinforce the Van Allen belts but they also flood the solar system with intense radiation in much the same manner that the Van Allen belts a[lect the relatively small area around the earth. Such solar activity is quite possibly a mechanism responsible for the maintenance of the Van Allen layers. Figure 106. Hypothetical diagram of solar flare activity The Soviets will attempt to determine the quaiitative composition (protons or electrons) of the rac';-.tion bands, either independently or by using U.S. data as it becomes available. A scientific breakthrough could occur which would yield a method of controlling the radia- tion bands and cosmic particles such that shielding from these would not be necessary, for instance, a new type of electromagnetic field has been proposed as an explanation of gravity and a potential idea for controlling other electromagnetic Fields." In lieu of this and during the interim period, the Soviets will probably take this radiation as a calculated risk and make no attempt to shield their first few "astronauts." There seems to be little likelihood that the Soviets (or anyone else) will have made any major advance in shielding within the next ten years. VERTICALLY FIRED HIGH-ALTITUDE SPACE RESEARCH VEHICLES Analyses of Soviet near-vertical firings, in addition to their announced and confirmed successes in space launchings, have provided a significant insight into their space research program. Particularly, these analyses have disclosed important information concerning the vehicles being utiljzed for this research. This information has a direct application to their military capabilities. The Soviets have made no secret that their space research pro- ;ram is based on military facilities and ve- hicles; however, they have never specified which missiles were actually being used, ex- cept for their ICBM.20 The USSR began high-altitude research at least as early as 1949 and has achieved a unique advantage over the West. The Soviets have concentrated on a continuing program of research which to date has permitted them to attain ever-increasing altitudes with their vehicles, carrying heavier and more varied payloads than the West. As a result, they have accrued considerable data of major im- portance to the Soviet space program. ' High-altitude space vehicles considered In this report are instrumented ballistic missiles fired verti- cally for exploring the earth's radiation bands, cos- mic radiation, biological conditions in outer space, re-entry phenomena, and especially for the testing of re-entry vehicles. Since May 1957, the Soviets are known to have fired at least 18 near-vertical high-alti- tude research vehicles from the Kapustin Yar Missile Test Range (KYMTR) ; see table 7. There Is no doubt that other undetected and unannounced vertical firings have occurred on the KYMTR and elsewhere in the USSR. Thg 12" with RADINT-confirmed altitudes (16'"May 1957 to 10 July 1959) range from about 90 to 255 nautical miles maximum height and probably represent the major fir- ings from the standpoint of altitudes attained and experiments related to vehicle re-entry; for example, vehicle design, construction ma- _ terials, methods of re-entry, and related scien- tific and biological factors. Specific Soviet announcements concerning these flights have been limited to the firings on 24 May 1957, 21 February 1958, 27 August 1958, 2 July 1959 and 10 July 1959.11 22 These 12 RADINT-confirmed upper-atmos- phere and space research firings appear to fall within two distinct groups according to altitude. The lower group of firings attained altitudes of 90-125 nautical miles, whereas the higher group of firings reached altitudes of 240-255 nautical miles. Additionally, the So- viets announced at a TsAGI (Central Aerohy- drodynamics Institute) meeting in 1958 that during the period 1949-52, twelve dog-carry- ing vehicles were launched to altitudes of about 50-60 nautical miles. Similarly, begin- ning in 1953, about 18 additional test firings with dogs occurred to about the same alti- tudes. The payload weights have never been published nor has it been possible to confirm the altitudes. On 23 and 25 December 1958, possibly two additional near-vertical firings ings, bu These pre-1957 firings (over thirty) possibly could represent a third grouping by altitude and probably were accomplished using the Soviet nominal 200 nautical mile ballistic missile. TABLE 7 SOVIET HIGH-ALTITUDE RESEARCH VEHICLE LAUNCHINGS C OtiOLOCY A.LrrrvDE (Nautical miles) PAYLOAD (Pounds) PURPOSE* SOBRCE 1949-52 ............... 50-80 - B,S A (12 launchings) 1953-56 . ............ 50-60 - B,S A (18 launchings) 16 May 1957 .......... 125 - - E, R 24 May 1957 ........... 115 4840 B, S A, E, R 25 Aug 1957 ....... 120 - B E, R 31 Aug 1957. ....... 110 - - E, R 9 Sept 1957 ........... 120 - B E, R 21 Feb 1958. ......... 255 3344 G,S A, R 2 Aug 1958 - - G, M E 13 Aug 1958 ......... 120 - G, M E, R 27 Aug 1958 . 243 3726 B, S A, R 19 Sept 1958 ...... 246 - M A, ? ? ER 31 Oct 1958. ........ 246 - - E,R 23 Dec 1958 ........ - - - E 25 Dec 1958 ........ - - - E 2 July 1959 ....... 90-120 4410 B. S E, R 10 July 1959 ...... 90-120 4840 B, S E, R 21 July 1959 - - - E 21 July 1959 ....... - - - E 28 July 1959 .. .. .. - - - E ? ley to letters appearing in Columns 4 and 5. A - Ann,=ced M -Meteorological Biological R - R9D1NT B_ E - RUNT S - Stabilization, and/or Re-entry, Recovery G - Geophysical ? S-cific date not announced, but this shot inferred from the nature of the experiment conducted. r sr: ?_ decai!s included in text. At the USSR National Economy Achieve- ment Exhibit, Moscow, February 1959, the So- view displayed some of the nose cones launched and recovered from vertical firings to altitudes of 60, 115, and 225 nautical miles. The displays also indicated the existence of five basic rocket-launching vehicles identified as A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4, and MR-1. (See table 8.) The latter two were used principally for meteorological investigations. The A-1, A-2, and A-3 (see figures 11 to 13) were used for sending animals to high altitudes.24 Frag- mentary data on the A-1 identifies it as pro ably the V-2. the A-3 rocke is identified as the I$TE R, the ballistic missile exhibited in SHY the (See figure 14.) Calculations show that the nominal 700- nautical mile -ballistic (SHYSTER) missile could achieve the group of firings to 240-255 nautical mile altitude. In addition to the in- strumentation, the rocket used in these firings was equipped with a parachute recovery sys- tem for returning to earth a capsule contain- ing the two dogs carried by it.22 ? Total weight which equals sum of nose cone weight of 3250 pounds and the weights of the two instrument pods (795 pounds each) attached to the center section of the missile. lexbibited nose cone Libited ose cone ihibited nose cone Ballistic Missile used Scud V-2 Elongated V-2 Shyster Nose Cone Type A-4 A-1 A-2 A-3 Altitude attained 56n-m. 60n.r. 121 n- m. 243 n.m. Nose Core 825+!b. 16181b. 4850 lb. 33401b. Weight figure 16. Characteristics of Soviet A-1, A-2, A-3 and A-4 rockets 30912 2-80 one two the The altitude performance (55-0 nautical miles) and a cross-sectional diagram of the A-4 nose cone suggests that the A-4 rocket is the short-range missile called the SCUD (see figure 15), which was also displayed m the J ") Esti- '-mates of the altitude and payload i,s ability of the various Soviet ballistic missiles that are believed to have been used in vertical shots are shown in table 9. Vehicle configurations and heights are shown in figure 16. From the foregoing it is evident that the USSR has the necessary launching vehicles for conducting a systematic research program at altitudes well beyond the earth's atmos- phere. The vertical shot vehicles used to date have carried geophysical, meteorological, and biological experiments as well as furthered studies of the technical and material prob- lems involved in stabilization, re-entry, and recovery of the payload package from verti- cally fired rockets. Payload weights up to about 5,000 pounds have been used in these studies.=" 25 These experiments and feasibility studies are contributing substantially to the Soviet development of equipment for recov- erable animal and manned space flight. The Soviets have utilized their KYMTR facilities for conducting these high-altitude explorations. This has permitted continuous Soviet monitoring of the performance of the booster vehicle and the instrument package during flight. Moreover, the re-entry and re- covery tests of payloads from near-vertical firings occurs at pre-determined points mak- ing reliable location and subsequent exploita- tion possible. The USSR is expected to continue high- altitude firings, using existing operational ballistic missiles, particularly those of nom- inal 200, 350 and 700 nautical mile ranges. Additionally, as inventories of the nominal 1100 nautical mile range ballistic missile per- mit, the Soviets are expected to divert some of these vehicles to the high-altitude and space research program. The propulsion stages at Soviet ballistic missiles supplemented with additional burning stages provide the USSR with the capability of exploring the earth's radiation bands and spatial radiation. In down range firings, Soviet ballistic mis- siles have most likely carried instrumentation for investigating the missiles' environmental conditions and re-entry performance charac- teristics. If the Soviets have not already used some of these down range shots for testing re- entry space vehicles, they are expected to do so soon. All of these missiles give the USSR an early and distinct advantage over other nations in the testing of large re-entry re- search vehicles. TABLE 9 ESTLtiAATED CHARACTERISTICS OF BALLISTIC MISSILES USED IN SOVIET HIGH-ALTITUDE RESEARCH SHOTS v crs sccn v_2 KOROLL? miss= SHYSTER -Nominal horizontal range (n.m.) ............ ...... 75 (Storable) 200 Lox-Alcohol 350 Lox-Alcohol 700 Lox-Alcohol Propellants ......................................... 210 210 220 220 Specific impulse (seconds) . ........................ 000 20 55,000 75,000 75.000-88.000 Thrust (pounds ..................................... , 2 7 5.4 5.4 5.3 Diameter (feet) ........... ... .................... . 33 48 - 87 Length (feet) ...................................... 1500 2000 2000 3000 Warhead wt. (lb.) " 35 50-75 110 125 240 280 - k altitude (nm.) `omlna. pea ' Warhead weight is as given and defind in NIE 11-5-59 and includes the explosive device and Its as- sociated fuzing and firing mechanism. The weight of the nose cone structure, the heat protective mate- rial for the nose cone and any adaptation kit are not included. ? The nominal peak altitude of a ballistic missile f]red on a near-vertical trajectory is on the order of 40 percent of its horizontal range for the same warhead weight. SE-ENTRY CAPSULES AND WINGED SPACE VEHICLES Although there is no direct evidence to sup- port a Soviet manned winged space-vehicle research program, the Soviets have the capa- bility to build a winged space vehicle and put it into orbit. Such a winged space vehicle is one method of recovery of man from-a space mission. A manned glide-type winged vehicle using aerodynamic control surfaces can be guided into a shallow glide path descent which is accompanied by a low deceleration rate. It also has the potential capability of selecting its own point of landing. But re-entry (winged or otherwise) raises two major prob- lems: (1) aerodynamic heating and (2) high- speed stability and control of the vehicle. In addition, there are many other problems con- cerning fabrication techniques, pilot escape prov+sions and the choice of a launching ve- hicle if a space vehicle is air launched. The Soviet investigations on materials of construction could resolve the aerodynamic heating problem for a re-entry capsule and/or winged space vehicle. Solutions to the sta- bility and control problems have already been arrived at theoretically by the Soviets; some have Jeep published in the open literature. 3o er, stability and control will probably be a nia'or problem for the Soviets. Evidence on Soviet fighter aircraft indicates that the Soviets have had difficulty in translating the- oretical solutions of stability and control prob- lems in transonic and supersonic flight into operational hardware and apparently are still having difflculties~, A winged space vehicle program is not man- datory for a man-in-space program. The alternative is the use of a re-entry capsule which can be slowed down by drag brakes or retro-rockets, with the final descent made by varachute. The Soviets have utilized drag brakes and parachutes for the recovery of nose cones fired in vertical shots to high altitudes. A Soviet scientist claims that they have found this method to be inadequate for recovering a manned satellite and that a glide type ve- hicle is necessary.26 The various high-altitude vertical nose cones exhibited by the Soviets in Moscow, Feb- ruary 1959, are shown in figures 11 to 13. The nose cone structures appear to be con- structed of aluminum. Drag brakes will be noted on the A-i, A-2, and A-3 nose cones. It is estimated that the Soviets will have solved the manned earth satellite re-entry problem during the period mid-1960 to mid- 1961. 14 :he he- or zto tw an the ule or by _ rag ose les. ind ing ve- ;ose 'eb- 13. .on- be ave itry ndd-

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SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT -- THE SOVIET SPACE RESEARCH PROGRAM: MONOGRAPH IV SPACE VEHICLES